Fluid Flow in Pipes

Pipes are closed conduits through which fluids or gases flows. Conduits may flow full or partially full.
Pipes are referred to as conduits (usually circular) which flow full.

Three types of fluid flow in pipes

❑ Laminar flow
The flow is said to be laminar when the path of individual fluid particles do not cross or intersect. Laminar
flow generally happens when dealing with small pipes and low flow velocities.
❑ Turbulent flow
The flow is said to be turbulent when the path of individual particles are irregular and continuously cross
each other. Turbulent flow happens in general at high flow rates and with larger pipes.
❑ Transitional flow
It is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulence in the center of the pipe, and laminar flow
near the edges. Each of these flows behave in different manners in terms of their frictional energy loss
while flowing and have different equations that predict their behavior.
Reynolds Number
Reynolds number, which is dimensionless, is the ratio of the inertia force to viscous force.

• For pipes flowing full,

v𝐷𝜌 v𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝜈
𝜇
𝜈=
ρ
where:  = kinematic viscosity of the fluid in m2/s; v = mean velocity in m/s; D = pipe diameter in meter
 = absolute or dynamic viscosity in Pa-s;  = density in kg/m3

• For non-circular pipes, use D=4R

4𝜈𝑅𝜌 4𝜈𝑅
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 v
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒, 𝐴
𝑅=
𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑃
HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
Classification of head losses in pipes:
1. Major head loss – caused by pipe friction along a straight
sections of pipe of uniform diameter and uniform roughness.
2. Minor head loss – caused by changes in velocity or direction of
flow and are commonly expressed in terms of kinetic energy.
MAJOR HEAD LOSS, 𝒉𝒇
A. Darcy-Weisbach Formula (pipe-friction equation)

𝑓𝐿 v 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷 2𝑔
For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R

where: f = friction factor

L = length of pipe in m or ft
D = pipe diameter in m or ft
v = mean or average velocity of flow in m/s or ft/s

R = hydraulic radius

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄2
For circular pipes, ℎ𝑓 = 𝐷5
(S.I. unit)
Value of friction factor, f
• For Laminar Flow:

64 64𝜇
𝑓= =
𝑅𝑒 v𝐷𝜌
• For Turbulent Flow:
1. For turbulent flow in smooth and rough pipes, universal resistance laws can be derived from:

8𝜏𝑜 8v𝑠 2
𝑓= 2= 2
𝜌v v
where: vs is the shear velocity or friction velocity

2. For smooth pipes, Re between 3,000 and 100,000: (Blasius)

0.316
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒 0.25
3. For smooth pipes with Re up to about 3,000,000

1
= 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑅𝑒 𝑓 − 0.80
𝑓
Value of friction factor, f
• For Turbulent Flow:
4. For rough pipes, where l < 0.3 : (Karman)

1 𝐷
= 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 1.14
𝑓 𝜀
where:  = absolute roughness, mm; /D = relative roughness (dimensionless); l = nominal thickness of viscous
sublayer
11.6v
𝛿𝑙 =
𝜏𝑜 /𝜌
5. For smooth and rough pipes, turbulent: (Colebrook equation)

1 𝜀/𝐷 2.51
= −2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 +
𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒 𝑓
6. Haaland formula

𝜀 1.11
1 6.9
= −1.8 𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 𝐷
𝑓 𝑅𝑒 3.7
MAJOR HEAD LOSS, 𝒉𝒇
B. Manning Formula
The Manning formula is one of the best-known open-channel formulas and a commonly used in pipes.

1 2Τ3 1Τ2
v= 𝑅 𝑠 (S. I. units)
𝑛
1.486 2Τ3 1Τ2
v= 𝑅 𝑠 (English units)
𝑛

where: n = roughness coefficient; R = hydraulic radius; S = slope of the energy grade line = hf/L

6.35𝑛2 𝐿v 2
ℎ𝑓 = (S. I. units)
𝐷 4Τ3
For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R
For circular pipes,

10.29𝑛2 𝐿Q2
ℎ𝑓 = (S. I. units)
𝐷 16Τ3
MAJOR HEAD LOSS, 𝒉𝒇
C. Hazen Williams Formula
The Hazen Williams formula is widely used in waterworks industry. This formula is applicable only to the flow of water in pipes larger
than 50 mm (2 in.0 and velocities less than 3 m/s. This formula was designed for flow in both pipes and open channels, but it is more
commonly used in pipes.
English Units:

v = 1.318 𝐶1 𝑅0.63 𝑆 0.54

For circular pipes flowing full,

Q = 0.4322 𝐶1 𝐷2.63 𝑆 0.54

S.I. Units:

v = 0.849 𝐶1 𝑅0.63 𝑆 0.54

For circular pipes flowing full,

Q = 0.2785 𝐶1 𝐷2.63 𝑆 0.54

10.67 L𝑄1.85
and, ℎ𝑓 =
𝐶11.85 𝐷4.87
where: C1 = Hazen Williams coefficient; D = pipe diameter; R = hydraulic radius; S = slope of the EGL = hf/L
MINOR HEAD LOSS
Minor losses are caused by the changes in direction or velocity of flow. These changes may be due to sudden
contraction, sudden enlargement, valves, bends, and any other pipe fittings. These losses can usually be neglected if the
length of the pipeline is greater than 1500 times the pipe’s diameter. However, in short pipelines, because these losses
may exceed the friction losses, minor losses must be considered.

A. Sudden Enlargement
2
v1 − v2
ℎ𝐿 = , 𝑖𝑛 𝑚
2𝑔
Where: v1 = velocity before enlargement, m/s; v2 = velocity after enlargement, m/s

Equation for the head loss by Archer,

1.92
v1 − v2
ℎ𝐿 = , 𝑖𝑛 𝑚
2𝑔

• A special application of equation for sudden enlargement is the discharge from a pipe into a reservoir. The water in
the reservoir has no velocity, so a full velocity head is lost.
MINOR HEAD LOSS
B. Gradual Enlargement
The head loss across a gradual conical
enlargement of pipe diameter is
2
𝐾 v1 − v2
ℎ𝐿 = , 𝑖𝑛 𝑚
2𝑔
The approximate values of K are shown
in the Figure.
MINOR HEAD LOSS
C. Sudden Contraction

v2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐾𝑐 , 𝑖𝑛 𝑚
2𝑔
where: Kc = the coefficient of sudden contraction; v = velocity in smaller pipe

Loss coefficients for sudden contraction

D2/D1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Kc .50 .45 .42 .39 .36 .33 .28 .22 .15 .06 0.0

A special case of sudden contraction is the entrance loss for pipes connected to a reservoir. For this case,
the values of Kc are as follows:
1. Flush connection, Kc = 0.50 2. Projecting connection, Kc = 1.00
3. Rounded connection, Kc = 0.05 4. Pipe projecting into reservoir, Kc = 0.80
5. Slightly rounded entrance, Kc = 0.25 6. Sharp-cornered entrance, Kc = 0.50
MINOR HEAD LOSS
D. Bends and Standard Fittings
The head loss that occurs in pipe fittings, such as valves and elbows, and bends is given by:

v2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐾
2𝑔
The approximate values of K are given in the Table below. K values vary not only for different sizes of
fittings but with different manufacturers. For these reasons, manufacturer’s data are the best source for
loss coefficients.
Loss factors for pipe fittings
Fitting K Fitting K
Globe valve, fully open 10 Medium-radius elbow 0.75

Angle valve, fully open 5 Long-radius elbow 0.60

Close-return bend 2.2 45° elbow 0.42

T, through side outlet 1.8 Gate valve, wide open 0.19

Short-radius elbow 0.90 Gate valve, half open 2.06

PIPE DISCHARGING FROM A RESERVOIR
PIPE CONNECTING TWO RESERVOIRS

𝐻𝐿 = 𝐻 = ℎ𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 + ℎ𝑓
PIPES CONNECTED IN SERIES

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 = 𝑄4

𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓3 + ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟

If the pipe length is about 500 diameters, the error resulting from neglecting minor losses will ordinarily not
exceed 5%, and if the pipe length is 1000 diameters or more, the effect of minor losses can usually be considered
negligible. Neglecting minor losses, the head lost becomes:
𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓3
PIPES CONNECTED IN PARALLEL

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 = ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ𝑓3
PIPES CONNECTED IN SERIES-PARALLEL

The necessary equations for the pipe system shown are:

𝑄1 = 𝑄4
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ𝑓3
𝐻𝐿𝐴𝐵 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓4
EQUIVALENT PIPE
If a pipe system (O) is to be replaced with an equivalent single pipe (E), the equivalent pipe must have the
same discharge and head loss as the original pipe system.

𝑄𝐸 = 𝑄𝑜
𝐻𝐿𝐸 = 𝐻𝐿𝑜
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1.) Water having kinematic viscosity =1.3x10-6 m2/s flows
in a 100 mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 4.5 m/s. Is the
flow laminar or turbulent?
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
2.) Oil having specific gravity of 0.869 and dynamic
viscosity of 0.0814 Pa-s flows through a cast iron pipe at a
velocity of 1 m/s. The pipe is 50 m long and 150 mm in
diameter. Find the head lost due to friction.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
3.) Water flows at the rate of 200 lit/sec through 120m
horizontal pipe having a diameter of 300 mm. If the
pressure head difference between the end points is 3.8 m of
water, determine the friction factor.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
4.) A 20-mm diameter commercial steel pipe, 30 m long is used to drain an oil tank. Determine
the discharge when the oil level in the tank is 3 m above the exit of the pipe. Neglect minor
losses and assume f = 0.12.

𝟑𝐦

𝟐
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
5.) A hydroelectric power generating
system is shown in the Figure. Water
flows from an upper reservoir to a lower
one passing through a turbine at the rate
of 150 liters per second. The total length
of pipe connecting the two reservoirs is
100 m. The pipe diameter is 250mm and
the Hazen-Williams coefficient is 120.
The water surface elevations of
reservoirs 1 and 2 are 197 m and 50 m,
respectively. Determine the power
generated by the turbine in kW if it is
85% efficient? Neglect minor losses.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
6.) For a 300 mm diameter concrete pipe 3,600 m long, find
the diameter of a 300 m long equivalent pipe. Assume the
friction factor f be the same for both pipes.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
7.) Two pipes, each 300 m long, are connected in series. The flow of water through the pipes is 150 lit/sec with a total
frictional loss of 15 m. If one pipe has a diameter of 300 mm, what is the diameter of the other pipe? Neglect minor
losses and assume f = 0.02 for both pipes.

𝐏𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝟏 𝐏𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝟐
𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐦 − 𝟑𝟎0 mm 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐦 − 𝐃 = ?

𝐐𝟏 𝐐𝟐
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
8.) A pipe system, connecting two reservoirs whose difference in water surface elevation is 13 m, consists of 320 m of
600 mm diameter pipe (pipe 1), branching into 640 m of 300 mm diameter pipe (pipe 2) and 640 m of 450 mm
diameter pipe (pipe 3) in parallel, which join again to a single 600 mm diameter line 1300 m long (pipe 4). Assuming
f=0.032 for all pipes, determine the flow rate in each pipe.

𝐏𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝟏
320 m
600 mm 𝐏𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝟐
640 m 𝟏𝟑𝐦
𝐐𝟏
300 mm
𝑨 𝐐𝟐
𝐏𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝟒
1300 m
600 mm
𝐐𝟑 𝑩 𝐐𝟒
𝐏𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝟑
640 m
450 mm