Explore 1

Teacher’s Guide

John Pallister
 Contents

Introduction to the series .................................................... 2

Introduction to Explore 1 ..................................................... 4

Chapter 1: What is geography? ........................................... 7

Chapter 2: Geographical Skills ........................................... 11

Chapter 3: Our Earth ......................................................... 15

Chapter 4: Atmosphere and weather ................................. 19

Chapter 5: Our World—the main features of the

Earth’s surface ................................................. 25

Chapter 6: Asia—our region of the world .......................... 29

Chapter 7: Pakistan—our homeland.................................. 34

Chapter 8: Pakistan—economic activities ......................... 40

Introduction to the series

Explore is a new, up-to-date geography series for secondary classes 6–8.

The series covers all the geographical topics and learning competencies
from the Pakistan National Curriculum for Geography. Guided by the
structure of the Curriculum, from Book 1 to Book 3 the focus gradually
switches from local (including the geography of Pakistan) to global (world
issues such as forest clearances, population and big city growth, and
globalization). However, this is done not by simply following the exact
sequence of the written curriculum, but by identifying and developing
particular topics and themes in context with the world around us, in
order to make the learning process more student-friendly and relevant.
Explore consists of three components: the Students’ Books, Workbooks,
and the Teachers’ Guides. Together, the three books and their components
provide a comprehensive introduction to geography for secondary classes.
They meet all the main Aims outlined in the Introduction to the National
Curriculum for Geography.

AIMS
* To create an understanding of the Earth as a planet within the solar
system—Book 1
* To familiarize students about the environment in which people are
living, by studying major land features of the Earth—Books 1 and 2
* To provide an insight into the natural and human geography
of Pakistan, and the changes taking place in its administration,
population, their activities, and resources—Books 1, 2, and 3
To provide more knowledge to students about the environment in
which they are living—Books 1, 2, and 3
* To create awareness among students about the neighbouring
countries—Books 1 and 3 in particular

Likewise, the full course will enable students to satisfy all the general
subject Objectives in the National Curriculum (numbered 1–10).
Although many are met throughout all three books, for some it is possible
to identify particular chapters where the objective is addressed more
strongly.

2
OBJECTIVES
1. To impart an understanding of the Earth as a home of man with
emphasis on spheres of water, land, and atmosphere.
Earth (Book 1, Chapter 3); Atmosphere (Book 1, Chapter 4); Land
and sea (Book 1, Chapter 5); Water (Book 2, Chapter 4)
2. To get acquainted with the concept of location and its importance with
regard to what, where, and how.
Throughout all three books
3. To understand varying environments depending on climate, fauna and
flora, natural resources, and related human responses.
Climate and human responses (Book 2, Chapter 3); Natural resources
and economic activities (Book 2, Chapters 5 and 6); Fauna and flora,
and human responses (Book 3, Chapters 1 and 2)
4. To develop consciousness about man-environment relationship and
environmental hazards.
From first mention of environmental geography in Book 1, Chapter 1
and throughout all three books; Environmental hazards and people—
Tectonic (Book 2, Chapters 1 and 2); Climatic (Book 2, Chapter 3);
Environmental problems (Book 2, Chapters 7 and 8)
5. To know main population characteristics and patterns of population
distribution.
Asia (Book 1, Chapter 6); Pakistan (Book 1, Chapter 7); the world
(Book 3, Chapters 3 and 4)
6. To understand nature of human dwellings: rural and urban, and
knowledge of selected cities and their functions.
Pakistan (Book 1, Chapter 7); Pakistan and the rest of the world
(Book 3, Chapters 5 and 6)
7. To get acquainted with the administrative divisions/units of Pakistan.
(Book 1, Chapter 7)
8. To enhance understanding of the physical and human aspects of
Geography of Pakistan.
In particular Book 1, Chapters 7 and 8; also throughout the rest of
Book 1, and Books 2 and 3
9. To acquire knowledge about major natural regions of the world.
Especially Book 3, Chapters 1 and 2
10. To get acquainted with Maps, Map Symbols, and Elementary Map Reading
Specifically Book 1, Chapter 2 and then throughout the three books

3
Introduction to Explore 1
STUDENT’S BOOK
Explore Book 1 consists of eight chapters. A photograph is used on the first
page of each chapter to illustrate the topic under study. Questions arranged
below it are intended to encourage pupils to observe and to think about
what they are going to learn under this geographical heading. Each chapter
is further broken down into Sections, typically between two and four in
number, for ease of study.
Activities are included both within and at the end of Sections. The majority
can be answered from book content, using both text and figures, either
directly or with some interpretation and thinking. A few activities require
pupils to search for answers elsewhere—from an atlas, from another written
source such as newspapers, from TV or the Internet, or from knowledge
and investigation of the home area. In those activities where pupils are
required to discover for themselves, some guidance about what to look for
and what to do is usually included in the question.
From time to time, opportunities are provided for pupils to work in pairs
or in small groups. Often it would be possible for the pupil to complete
the same activity working alone, should that be considered more desirable.
However, working with others can result in a greater number of suggestions
and a wider range of points being made. Likewise, pupils exchanging work
and marking another pupil’s work according to a marking guide can be
valuable in highlighting to them where they have done well and what is less
good about their own work as compared with that of others. If successful,
the technique might also be used for other activities in the textbook,
according to the teacher’s discretion.

WORKBOOK
The Workbook contains thirty-two pupil activities across the eight chapters.
The layout of these is of particular help to lower-ability pupils compared
with activities in the book, since spaces are left for completing the answers.
Tables, charts, and map outlines are provided for answers. Some graphs
have been started for pupils, or a graph of the same type has already been
drawn, so that pupils can see what they need to do when showing different
data. Certain different types of activities, such as word searches, are also
included.
Some workbook activities are merely extensions of activities in the book,
giving pupils extra opportunities to use practical geographical skills in

4
drawing maps, graphs, and diagrams. One of the features of the pupil’s book
are the Geographical Skills Boxes in which the techniques for completion
of graphs are itemized. Pupils can refer back to these for guidance. Explore
Book 1 contains the majority of these, although they are intended for use
throughout all three years of study (and for later use as well).

TEACHER’S GUIDE
The main purpose of the Teacher’s Guide is to provide a commentary to
make the textbook easier to use. The main focus of the work is indicated;
themes, topics, and key terms are identified. Ideas which may be useful in
planning and executing lessons are included; some ways to extend the study
are suggested. These can involve individual pupil investigation from other
sources such as the media or the Internet, while some of the others relate to
investigation of geographical characteristics in the local surroundings.
Some indication is given for what is expected from the Activities in the
textbook and workbook. As appropriate, the best or expected answers
to the questions are included. References to the workbook activities are
inserted in the commentary after the work, to which they are related, has
been covered in the main book. Occasionally it would be possible, and/or
desirable, for pupils to work ahead of coverage in the text.
At the beginning of each chapter is a table which summarizes
* learning objectives and outcomes in relation to the National
Curriculum,
* geographical skills included in the chapter,
* new geographical terms used, and
* workbook activities which support and extend book content and
activities.
At the end of each chapter is a summary of how the learning objectives
have been met, and how teachers might check the extent of pupil
knowledge and understanding.

LESSON PLANS
The inclusion of teaching objectives and learning outcomes, identifying
the main topics of each chapter, and the guidance and explanation
preceding each section’s content in the Teachers’ Guides will facilitate
lesson planning. A sample lesson plan outline is given below to facilitate
further lesson planning.

5
The sections in each chapter have their concluding questions in the textbook
and following activities in the workbooks, which give a framework for
planning lessons, class work and homework, and assessments.
Finally, it goes without saying that a good, updated, and comprehensive
atlas and a globe are indispensable components of teaching and
learning geography. The Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan (OUP, 2008) is
recommended for use along with the Explore series.

SAMPLE LESSON PLAN

Class: 6
Subject: Geography
Topic: Introduction to geography Pages: 1–6, Chapter 1
Additional resources: Photographs of home region of Pakistan/local area
Teaching time: (e.g. 2 periods—generally 40 minutes each)
Objective: To acquaint students with the subject of geography
Outcome: Knowledge of geography as a subject—how to observe, describe,
and display what is present on the Earth’s surface.
Introduction: Begin with a photograph of the home region or use
Figure 1.1. Ask students to describe what they can see—about the landscape,
about the signs of human settlement. Stress the importance of observation
in geography.
Lesson outline: Begin with a definition of geography.
Demonstrate geographical observation and labelling from photographs
(using Figure 1.3 and Geographical Skills Box). Check results and comment
on them.
Refer to other subjects which are related to geography, but emphasize
how geography is different because its focus is on the Earth’s surface.
Examine the variety of topics within geography illustrated in Figures 1.4,
1.5, and 1.6.
Activities: (Classwork) Activities 1–4, page 3
Reinforcement: (Homework) Activities 1–3 on page 6. Students are given
precise observational tasks with a geographical focus. They are required to
use practical skills, as well as show geographical understanding.
Recap/conclusion: Check student understanding of the key geographical
terms in the box on page 5.

6
Chapter 1 What is geography?
National Curriculum (NC)
Target study area in NC Introduction to geography
Teaching Objective An acquaintance with the subject of
geography
Learning Outcome Knowledge of geography as a subject

Geographical Skills
New practical skills—labelled sketches from photographs or own
observations, pie chart, pictograph, bar graph
New geographical terms
* geography * mountains
* human geography * plateaus
* physical geography * plains
* environmental geography * frost shattering
* environment * population
* cumulus clouds * settlement
* sedimentary rock * economic geography
* landscape * service industries
* relief * man-land relationships
* drainage * wilderness areas
* weather * reserves (of minerals)
* climate

SECTION 1: ALL ABOUT GEOGRAPHY (PAGES 1–6)

Stress to pupils that the Earth’s surface is the focus of geographical study.
Emphasize the importance of observation in geography. The Geographical
Skills Box, page 2, includes guidance for geographical recording based on
observation. Activities 1 and 2, page 3, give opportunities for pupils to
test their observational skills, while Activities 3 and 4 give them the
chance to reflect upon the quality of what they have done. Hopefully, this
will get them used to using a variety of visual techniques to support
written description, an important part of geographical work.
The brief reference to how geographical study is different from that in
related studies such as geology, meteorology, and biology is intended to
reinforce pupils’ understanding that the geographical focus is upon the
Earth’s surface. Therefore the study of landscapes is important in

7
geography. Activities 1, 2, and 3, page 6, are designed to show this focus
and highlight differences between geography and other related subjects.

SECTION 2: WHAT IS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY? (PAGES 6–10)

The objective is to introduce pupils to the main three areas of study
included under the heading of physical geography—natural landscapes
(including landforms), weather and climate, and natural vegetation and
soils. Pupils are introduced to the differences between the Earth’s three
major landscape features—mountains, plateaus, and plains—illustrated
by examples.
Activity 1 requires pupils to identify differences in relief between
mountain and plateau. The purpose of Activity 2 is to show pupils the
extreme height of the Himalayan peaks compared with mountains
elsewhere in the world. Activity 3 provides an opportunity to investigate
a big Asian river of their choice, as a prelude to later references in Chapter
6 about the big rivers of Asia and their associated high densities of
population.
A brief introduction to the study of climate, vegetation, and soils follows.
On page 9 pupils are introduced to the types of data used to summarize
the climate of a place; data for Islamabad is used, which serves as an
introduction to the climate of Pakistan. All this is developed further in
Chapter 4. At this point, natural vegetation is given no more than an
outline mention; it will receive more detailed study in Explore 2 and 3.
Activities 2 and 3 are about soils to support the text in trying to show
how a good, fertile soil for farming is different from one that is poor and
infertile.

SECTION 3: HUMAN GEOGRAPHY (PAGES 11–13)

Distinguishing different study areas is not as precise for human geography
as for physical. Still three topic areas, much used later throughout the
three books, are identified—population, settlement, and economy. In
particular, pupils are made aware of the variety of types of work included
within the service sector, the main sector of work in urban areas.
Photographs of two of the most heavily urbanized places in the world are
included, Hong Kong in Figure 1.16 and New York in Figure 1.17. No
physical features beyond flat land and sun shining (evidence from the
shadows of traffic in Hong Kong and from buildings on the streets in
Manhattan) can be seen. They provide a great contrast with the landscape

8
views in Figures 1.3, 1.4, and 1.9, dominated as they are by physical
geography.
Activities on page 13 again focus on pupils practising their geographical
skills. Activity 1 includes photographic interpretation, while Activity 2
gives pupils another chance to draw a pie chart, one of the most important
of geographical graphs. This follows on from the Skills Box on page 10.
It can be pointed out to pupils that the trend in employment in Pakistan
over the years is the same as what has already happened to a greater
extent in the UK, over a longer period of time. Activity 3 provides pupils
with their first opportunity to make geographical observations in their
home area. The task has been kept quite general, because of the wide
variations between pupils’ home areas. It can be made more precise for
known home areas, but should be kept simple. The basic aim is to make
pupils realize that geographical features are all around them, and that
they should be observed and used whenever possible. (Refer Workbook
Activity 1: Difference between physical and human geography)

SECTION 4: ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY (PAGES 14–20)

The link here between physical and human geography gives the
opportunity to mention ‘man-land relationships’, an important
geographical concept. The status of environmental studies in geography
is increasing, given the tremendous and increasing population pressure
upon the Earth’s resources. Only a brief introduction is provided here,
because Environmental Problems are given separate study in Book 2 and
Population Growth and its consequences are examined in more detail in
Book 3. The aim in the text and in Activities 1 and 2, page 16, is to
increase pupils’ awareness of the environmental problems that surround
them. The Skills Box, page 15, and Activity 3 introduce pupils to the
pictograph, a highly visual way of displaying geographical data. (Refer
Workbook Activity 2: Geographical observation from photographs and
Workbook Activity 3: Population growth)
To try to maintain a balanced approach, pupils are introduced to the
world’s wilderness areas, where the human imprint is much lower.
Difficult physical conditions for human settlement have saved these areas
from much of the environmental damage wrought elsewhere by people.
But at the same time human threats to them are increasing. Pupils are
then given a brief introduction to the finite nature of some of the Earth’s
natural resources; while plentiful supplies of many minerals are still
available at the moment, this is not going be true for ever.

9
A bar graph, perhaps the most flexible and widely used of geographical
graphs, is added to the list of skills here. Activity 1 gives pupils a chance
to draw one. The most likely choices for wilderness areas in Pakistan in
Activity 2 are mountainous areas in the extreme north (pupils could refer
back to the area shown in Figure 1.3) or to the desert areas of Balochistan
(Figure 1.4 could be of some help). (Refer Workbook Activity 4:
Wilderness areas of the world)
The world is a beautiful place: the photographs on page 19 are included
to show this. Often the beauty is physical, but sometimes human
structures enhance the natural scene. Answering Activity 1 well should
help to confirm that pupils understand the difference between physical
and human geography. Activities 2 and 3 are included to get pupils to do
some research of their own and to increase awareness of major
geographical features in Asia and Pakistan, ahead of references to them
later in the series. By looking at class results in Activity 4, individual
pupils will hopefully have their knowledge of Asia and Pakistan increased,
and their geographical horizons broadened.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Difference between physical and human features in
geography
Activity 2 Geographical observation from photographs (A Physical
geography, B Human geography)
Activity 3 Population growth (A World population, B Pakistan)
Activity 4 Wilderness areas of the world

Workbook Activity 1: The nine physical features are cloud types,

mountains, plains, natural vegetation, rivers, waterfalls, the weather,
plateaus, and soils. The odd one out in 2(a) is the weather as the only
physical feature; in (b) it is cities, the only human feature. Natural
vegetation is the only non-relief feature in (c). Several answers might be
possible in (d), which needs to be judged on the merits of the reason why
the choice was made. The intended answer was population growth, since
cities, trade, shops, and bazaars all go together well.
Workbook Activities 2 and 3 give pupils practice with geographical
skills. In Activity 2, they are required to make observations of physical
features from Figures 1.3 and 1.9, and human features from Figures 1.16
and 1.20. In Activity 3, population values have to be used to work out

10
rates of world population growth; this is followed by pupils drawing a
pictograph for the past, present, and estimated future total population of
Pakistan. Part A overlaps with Activity 1 in the textbook; the workbook
format (because of more space available) is the more pupil-friendly,
particularly for those who are less academically able.
Workbook Activity 4 extends the use of geographical skills by pupils. The
overall intention is to highlight the uniqueness of Antarctica, even among
the world’s wilderness areas.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objective: An acquaintance with the subject of geography
How it has been met:
• Definitions of geography
• How geography is different from other subjects such as geology and
biology
• What is studied in physical, human, and environmental geography
• What is meant by man-land relationships

Learning outcome: Knowledge of geography as a subject

Checking that the objective has been met:
• Show pupils a new photograph; ask them to identify geographical
features, then arrange them under headings (physical, human and, if
relevant, environmental).
• Take pupils out-of-doors and ask them to describe the geographical
features they can see.
• Look at pupil answers to Workbook Activity 4.

Chapter 2 Geographical Skills

National Curriculum
Target study areas in NC Map Reading: Geographical Diagrams
Teaching Objectives Knowledge of maps, their importance
and uses, knowledge of basic components
of maps
Appreciation of geographical diagrams,
their use and construction

11
Learning Outcomes Knows verity of maps, recognizes
importance and utility of maps, able to
identify directions, symbols, and
distances between places
Knowledge of showing different things
on diagrams and graphs

Geographical skills
New practical skills: maps (scale, distance, direction, and symbols),
divided bar graph, line graph

New geographical terms

* scale * cardinal points
* distance * contour line
* direction

SECTION 1: MAPS AND MAPPING (PAGES 21–23)

Stress to pupils the importance of maps in geography, and relate their
importance back to the study of the Earth’s surface. Get pupils to observe
from Figure 2.1 and answer the questions. As an introduction to maps
and mapping, compare detail of the Earth’s surface shown in Figure 2.1
with what is shown on the aerial view in Figure 2.3 and the map in
Figure 2.2.

SECTION 2: FEATURES OF A MAP (PAGES 23–30)

Begin with the ‘ideal’ in the Information Box, page 23, for what every
map should have. Activity 1, page 23, requires pupils to think about the
good points and weaknesses of the map in Figure 2.4, page 24. Then begin
the explanation of scale, emphasizing the importance of the scale line
when studying maps in atlases and books. Activities 2 and 3, page 26,
require pupils to look at three maps of Pakistan at different scales and
think about their uses and clarity.
When studying compass directions, stress the importance of from as the
key word for giving directions. Explain why map symbols are needed; they
are used to identify features which the map maker considers important.
Given their importance, they are drawn out of scale on the map (i.e. they
are much bigger than they should be for the scale of the map). Activity 1

12
allows pupils to suggest some of their own map symbols, bearing in mind
the guidance in the text that the symbol should be as obvious as possible.
(Refer Workbook Activity 1: Drawing a sketch map)
Interpretation of relief from maps that cover only small areas of land is
what many pupils find more difficult. Contours are the best way of
showing relief, because small variations in shape of the land and height
are indicated. The photograph in Figure 2.10 is an example of an area
with only small variations in relief. Figures 2.9 and 2.11 are maps of a
larger area which includes the area in Figure 2.10. For many pupils, it is
likely that Figure 2.9 will be the clearer representation of the area’s relief,
even if it does not have the detail and accuracy of Figure 2.11. Examples
of contour lines can be found in Activity 7 in the workbook, where more
space is available for drawing them. (Refer Workbook Activity 2: Heights
on maps and Workbook Activity 3: Contour patterns and landscape
features)
For most of the time in school geography lessons, pupils will see relief
represented by different coloured shading, as in Figure 2.12. The purpose
of Activity 1, page 30, is to make students aware of the colours traditionally
used for showing relief on atlas maps, and to think about the general
reasons behind the conventional use of green for lowland areas, brown
for upland areas, and purple and white for very high mountain areas.

SECTION 3: GRAPHS (PAGES 31–34)

Explain the importance of graphs in geography. They are used to show
many different kinds of geographical data; you could refer back to types
of data already used in graphs in Chapter 1 (climatic, employment,
population). Drawing up values in a graph makes it easier to identify the
size of differences between them, as well as trends / changes over time
(as was the case with the employment percentages in Pakistan and world
population growth). They are a visual medium.
In the remainder of this section an attempt is made to demonstrate to
pupils how they often have a choice of graphs for showing the same data.
This is particularly true when plotting numbers or values that have been
obtained by adding up and counting (such as rainfall and traffic). The
pupils themselves can decide which type of graph they think will show
the data best, or the type of graph they prefer to draw. This is the main
purpose of Activity 1, page 33, which lends itself well to pupils working
in a small group. It is impossible to do an exact count of vehicles and

13
types from Figure 2.16, but as long as each group agrees upon the totals
to be plotted, the activity will work.
However, for certain types of data there is no choice of method;
temperatures, for example, are always plotted using a line graph, because
the data is continuous. Figure 2.16, page 34, drawn using date from the
first column in Figure 1.11, page 9, shows this.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Drawing a sketch map—to help someone find their way
Activity 2 Heights on maps
Activity 3 Contour patterns and landscape features

Workbook Activity 1 is an introduction for pupils to draw their own

useful sketch map for an area which they know well and which could be
useful to others. The need for symbols should focus their attention on
major landmarks in the local area.
Workbook Activity 2 is the gentle introduction to how heights are shown
on maps; only three of the the most straightforward relief features require
recognition.
Activity 3 is targeted at more able pupils who are more likely to be able
to interpret relief features from contour lines on maps. A is delta, B
rounded hill, C plain, D plateau, E ridge, F scarp slope, and G valley.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Knowledge of maps and appreciation of geographical
diagrams
How these have been met:
• Introduction to maps of different scales and what they show
• Essential features of mapping covered such as scale, compass
directions, and use of symbols
• Five different types of graphs illustrated and used (pie, pictograph,
bar, divided bar, line)
• Practice with drawing geographical graphs (in book and workbook
activities)
Learning outcomes: Knowledge of maps, graphs, and diagrams and their
uses

14
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Show pupils a new map; set tasks to check knowledge and
understanding of scale, direction, use of symbols, and relief.
• Give pupils a new set of data; require them to show it using a specified
type of graph.
• Look at the pupils’ individual and group answers to Activity 1,
page 33.

Chapter 3 Our Earth

National Curriculum
Target study area in NC Introduction to the Earth
Learning Objectives Basic knowledge of movement of the
Earth, understanding of days and nights
and the seasons, acquaintance with lines
of latitude and longitude across the
globe, knowledge of the relationship
between longitude and time
Teaching Outcomes Recognition of shape and size of the
Earth, understanding of axis and orbit of
the Earth, knowledge of the phenomena
of day and night and the seasons,
knowing latitude, longitude, and time

Geographical skills
Locating places using latitude and longitude, calculating differences in
time between places using longitude

New geographical terms

* atmosphere * solstice
* crust * latitude
* hemisphere * longitude
* equinox * International Date Line
* season * time zone

15
SECTION 1: THE EARTH (PAGES 35–40)
Nothing more than a brief introduction to the Earth within the solar
system is intended on page 36. The Earth’s relative size compared with
other planets, and relative distance from the Sun, are the two key points
worthy of highlight from Figure 3.2. Facts about the Earth are summarized
in the Information Box on page 37. Pupils need to be made aware of the
thinness of the Earth’s crust below the surface (which is of great
significance in the study of tectonic activity in Book 2). How the rotation
of the Earth causes day and night is the main theme in the text on page
38. It is worth stressing that places in the east see the rising sun and
experience daylight before places in the west everywhere in the world,
irrespective of whether they are north or south of the Equator.
The revolution of the Earth causing the seasons is tackled on page 39. It
will be more difficult for all but the more able pupils to understand this
thoroughly and well. It might be useful to adopt the approach used in
Activity 1, page 40, and begin from today’s date and position of the Earth
relative to the Sun. In Activity 2, the first two statements are true, but the
next two (iii) and (iv) are false. Because the statement in (v) is also true,
pupils are restricted in answering part (b) to statements (iii) and (iv).

SECTION 2: LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE (PAGES 41–46)

The theme of page 41 is differences between latitude and longitude, which
are then summarized in the Information Box. Latitude values for the two
tropics and Antarctic and Arctic circles can be related back to the angle
of tilt of the Earth’s axis that is responsible for causing the seasons.
Although not mentioned here, differences in latitude are most significant
for variations in temperature and differences in climate. (These will be
referred to again in Explore 2.) Differences in longitude are important
because they control differences in time between and within countries.
The purpose of Activity 1 is to establish that pupils have grasped the
essential differences between lines of latitude and longitude. Activity 2
starts locally, with practice in using latitude and longitude to find
locations of places in Pakistan. (Refer Workbook Activity 1: Using latitude
and longitude to find locations, and Workbook Activity 2: Find the top
13 cities using latitude and longitude)
‘One hour time difference for every 15 degrees of longitude’ is the key
message in the sub-section on longitude and time on pages 43 and 44.
For the purposes of setting the world clocks, the Greenwich Meridian and

16
International Date Line split the world into two halves. This, however, is
man-made (as opposed to the Equator which is the natural divide for the
hemispheres). Any line of longitude could have been chosen as 0 degrees.
GMT is now accepted as the starting point for the world’s time zones.
This point was selected in 1884, for 0 degrees because it is at the Royal
Observatory in London where longitudinal concepts were worked in the
18th century.
Highlight to pupils the position of Pakistan on the world map of time
zones in Figure 3.12. Begin with the time now, and then time and date,
and ask them to work out times in different parts of the world. One
simple exercise is for them to draw clock faces showing different times
in cities around the world (as are sometimes displayed behind the
reception desks in big international hotels or at airports). Pupils can be
asked to imagine what it would be like if all places in the world kept to
their local time (i.e. 12 noon when the Sun is at the highest point in the
sky at that place). If they have relatives overseas, they can be asked when
are the good and bad times for calling them by phone. Activities 1–3
on page 46 give pupils practice in using the world time zone map in
Figure 3.12. (Refer Workbook Activity 3: Times zones and times for
watching cricket)

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Using latitude and longitude to find locations
Activity 2 Find the world’s top 13 cities in 2005 using latitude and
longitude
Activity 3 Time zones and times for watching cricket

Workbook Activity 1 goes global with the same type of task as in Activity
2, to identify the names of the world’s extreme physical features (highest
mountain, longest river, largest river, largest island, driest desert, and
largest desert). Since the names of two or three of these are likely to be
known by pupils, it should ease them into accurate use of latitudes and
longitudes. The word search in B can be used to check that answers in A
were correct.

17
 G R E E N L A N D Q

B R Z I L I R A E U

T I U L A Z L G W O

S H L S U V E E B Y

E V A A T A C A M A

R I N M A K J U S R

E D H A G A T P E A

V E N Z O Z O C S H

E K U O N O M T M A

C F E N P A Y H I S

Workbook Activity 2 extends the same task to discovering the names of

the world’s 13 biggest cities (according to the list published for 2005)
including Pakistan’s largest city. The cities are numbered according to size
on the map, and listed in order of size in the table for pupils to fill in.
Such a large number of these are located in Asia that, hopefully, there are
plenty of familiar names among them.
Workbook Activity 3 is an extension activity to try to get pupils to
recognize and think about some of the practical difficulties having
different time zones, in this era of international activities and travel.
Those who are interested in cricket may have already encountered some
of the problems associated with times for watching their team when it is
playing overseas.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Knowledge of movements of the Earth, day and
night, the seasons, latitude, longitude, and time

18
How these have been met:
• Studies of the Earth’s rotation and revolution around the Sun
• Explanation of how the Earth’s rotation causes day and night
• Information given about the equinoxes and solstices, and related
seasons
• Characteristics of latitude and longitude, and differences between
them, stated and illustrated
• World time zones shown on a map and explained in terms of
longitude

Learning outcomes: Knowledge and understanding of the shape and size

of the earth, axis and orbit of the Earth, day and night, the seasons,
latitude, longitude, and time
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Ask pupils to relate today’s date to the season, first in Pakistan and
then to a named place in the southern hemisphere.
• Give pupils the latitudes and longitudes for places around the world
(e.g. sports venues, countries currently in the news, overseas places
with significant populations of Pakistani origin) to discover using an
atlas.
• Look at the accuracy of pupils’ answers to Activities 1–3 on page 46.

Chapter 4 Atmosphere and weather

National Curriculum
Target study area in NC Weather
Teaching Objectives Knowledge of elements of the weather,
knowing of the relationship between
elements of weather
Learning Outcomes Understanding of different weather
elements, and knowledge of the
relationship between them

Geographical skills How to measure elements of the

weather—air pressure, temperature,
precipitation, wind speed and direction,
sunshine
How to draw a climate graph (in the
Workbook)

19
New geographical terms
* cyclone * air pressure
* meteorologist * precipitation
* weather forecast * monsoon
* weather station

SECTION 1: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER (PAGES 47–53)

At first the text focus is upon the great importance of the Earth’s
atmosphere, despite its being such a thin layer of gases. The text box
labelled A refers to the two main gases; a summary of the composition
of the atmosphere is shown in the pie chart in Figure 4.3. Box B explains
the vital role of the atmosphere in moderating surface temperatures and
allowing life on Earth to exist. Certain gases present in very small
percentages are of great importance. The content on page 49 is devoted
to three of these gases, namely carbon dioxide, water vapour, and high-
level ozone, and their importance. The main aim of the text on page 50
is to make pupils more aware of the normally invisible atmosphere that
is all around them, and of the occasions when they do become more
aware, such as with clouds, pollution, and living at high levels in mountain
areas. The two activities on page 50 are a summary of this work. (Refer
Workbook Activity 1: Importance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere)
From page 51 the focus switches to weather, and why geographers regard
its study as so important. The spider diagrams in Figure 4.5 are an
attempt to highlight some of the geographical effects of weather, both
physical and human. Pupils should be encouraged to give examples from
their own experiences. While many elements of the weather are measured,
some can only be observed. Clouds (amount and type) are an example.
Pupils can be asked to identify the types of cloud shown in Figure 4.7
with the help of the cloud types named in Figure 4.8. The purpose of
Activities 1 and 2 is to increase the profile of weather in the minds of
pupils; young people often seem to take less notice of the weather than
adults, probably because they are less directly affected by it. The focus in
Activity 3 is upon clouds which produce rain. (Refer Workbook Activiy 2:
Cloud types)

SECTION 2: MEASURING THE WEATHER (PAGES 53–60)

Pupils need to know how the weather elements are measured in order to
appreciate fully the day to day variations in the weather. If you are

20
fortunate enough to have a weather station nearby (whether official or
otherwise), it will help in the study of this section of the work.
Before reaching the sub-section about weather forecasts on page 54,
pupils can be asked to listen to the radio or find out from other sources
(newspaper, TV, the Internet) the weather forecast for the day. They can
then be quizzed about how they think the weather forecast was made—
who did it, where was it made, what information was used? Pupils can
also be asked to give their opinions about the accuracy of weather
forecasts before studying Figure 4.12. It is important to stress that the
accuracy of weather forecasts has greatly improved, as a result of better
coverage over the oceans and seas from satellites and airplanes. At the
same time, stress that weather can be very local, especially in mountain
or coastal areas, which is a problem for weather forecasters. (Refer
Workbook Activity 3: Daily weather diary)
Air pressure is the first of the weather elements to be studied, principally
because the level air pressure, high or low, is the factor which most affects
the likelihood of rain. The problem for the study of air pressure is that
variations between very high and very low are not great enough to be felt
by the humans, so that pupils are unaware of changes. Some might have
seen aneroid barometers, although they probably took little notice of
them! Figure 4.13 is an important diagram because it tries to explain why
wet weather is associated with low pressure while dry, sunny weather and
high pressure often go together.
How maximum and minimum thermometers work needs more careful
explanation. There are two basic rules.
1. The alcohol and mercury in both tubes will always show the same
temperature—the present temperature at the time of observation.
2. The bottom of the metal indicator is where the readings for both
maximum and minimum temperatures are taken.
The rain gauge is more straightforward. What is most important about
this instrument is careful siting placement for accurate measurement.
Activity 1, page 58, is about the Stevenson’s Screen, the most easily
identifiable feature in any weather station. Activity 2 requires pupils to
use the weather readings in Figure 4.11. The answers to (a) for 5th
January are 17 and 11.5°C, and for 8th January are 9 and 10.5°C. The
lower maximum on the 8th is due to the greater amount of cloud cover
and rain (b). In part (c) for 12th January, the daily range is given to pupils
because of the negative minimum temperature, which means that the

21
range is worked out by adding instead of subtracting. For (d) frost is
much more likely than snow given the high pressure, lack of cloud, and
absence of recorded rainfall.
Both wind speed and wind direction are measured at a weather station.
Wind direction is of great importance in Asia, as the following section
on the Asiatic Monsoon shows. For centuries, the wind speed was
estimated not measured, mainly by sailors for whom winds were of over-
riding importance because of their sailing ships. The examples of how to
estimate wind speed, given in Figure 4.19, represent a later adaptation of
the Beaufort scale for use on land. Pupils can be asked to estimate today’s
wind speed by looking at telltale signs outside. Wind matters a lot to
people and their activities, which is why the four activities on page 60 are
devoted to it. Activity 4 can be undertaken (if preferred) as a small group
activity, with some pupils concentrating on the advantages of strong
winds for people, and others the disadvantages. One ‘relatively new’
advantage of strong winds is how effective they are at clearing the
pollution from enclosed traffic-filled streets. Also in settlements built in
areas surrounded by hills or mountains, such as Quetta, any pollutant in
the air remains suspended longer than in places located on open plains
or coastal regions.
The final instrument is the sunshine recorder. Measuring sunshine hours
is most significant for holiday destinations which live by attracting
visitors from the ‘sun-starved’ parts of the world, like north-west Europe.
Bar graphs are always used to show these values, as in Activity 1 on
page 61.

SECTION 3: THE ASIATIC MONSOON (PAGES 61–64)

This is an introduction to the most important weather event in South
Asia. Changes in air pressure lead to changes in wind direction; these
cause the wet season and dry season regime in Pakistan and India. Use
of the maps and diagrams in Figures 4.21 and 4.22 is essential for pupils
to see how, and understand why, this happens. The Activities on page 62
cannot be answered without reference to them. The alignment of the west
coast of India means that it is open to full force of the wet south-west
summer monsoon winds (unlike Pakistan).
The sub-section ‘Using weather data’ guides pupils as to what to look for
when presented with average monthly temperature and precipitation
values for a place. If they follow the recommendations under A and B,

22
pupils will not be confused by the amount of data, and by not knowing
where to begin. Activity 1 gives them the chance to identify the same key
points for Peshawar as was done for Karachi. Once done, it becomes
easier to identify differences in climate between the two places, as
required in Activity 2. (Refer Workbook Activity 4: Comparing climates
of Karachi and Peshawar and Workbook Activity 5: Pakistan’s climate)
The final sub-section on page 64 returns to the effects of weather on
people. Figure 4.25 is intended to show how weather forecasts do matter
to many people and businesses, perhaps more and to a wider range than
pupils had ever imagined. This and Activity 1 are designed to reinforce
the importance of studying weather and climate in geography, one of the
main messages in this chapter.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Importance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
Activity 2 Cloud types
Activity 3 Daily weather diary
Activity 4 Comparing the climates of Karachi and Peshawar
Activity 5 What is Pakistan’s climate like?
Workbook Activity 1 extends (and to some extent, replaces) Activity 2
in the book. Carbon dioxide is in the news so much (often with a bad
press) that it is essential that pupils should appreciate its usefulness to life
on Earth. This is the main aim here. At the end of Chapter 5 and later in
the series, pupils will meet carbon dioxide again in the somewhat different
context of human pollution and global warming.
Workbook Activity 2 follows on from book activities; pupils are required
to draw their own labelled sketches of clouds to bring out differences
between them. It is hoped that by doing this, pupils will gain more
confidence in suggesting names for cloud types seen in the sky.
Workbook Activity 3 is a diary sheet for pupils to fill in about weather
forecasts and the actual weather, day by day, for a week. It can be used at
this point, or it could be used earlier as an introduction to weather and
weather forecasting.
Workbook Activity 4 partly overlaps with two activities on page 63; the
layout that is possible in the workbook but not in the main text should
make it easier for less able pupils to answer. However, all pupils are taken
a stage further by needing to draw a climate graph, of the type which will

23
be used in the rest of the series. The one drawn for Karachi shows them
what is needed.
Workbook Activity 5 is a gentle introduction to variations in climate
within Pakistan. The summary data within the boxes for the four cities is
sufficient to show up some of the national variations—a decrease in
temperature from south to north in winter, an increase in temperature
from coast to interior in summer, and a decrease in rainfall from north-
east to south-west.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Knowledge of elements of the weather and
relationships between them
How these have been met:
• Separate references to air pressure, temperature, precipitation, wind
speed and direction, and sunshine—the main elements of weather
• Relationships between them such as between temperature and
pressure, between pressure and winds, and between winds and
precipitation
• Study of the monsoon illustrates the relationship between temperature,
pressure, winds, and precipitation in South Asia
• Reference to the relationships between elements of weather and
people and their activities

Learning outcomes: Understanding of different weather elements and

knowledge of the relationship between them
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Show pupils a photograph or sketch diagram of a weather station; get
them to identify the instruments and the weather element measured
by each one.
• Provide pupils with weather data about yesterday’s weather and ask
them about relationships between elements such as pressure and
precipitation, or temperature and cloud cover.
• Evaluate pupils’ answers to Activities 1–3 on page 62.

24
Chapter 5 Our World—the main features of the
Earth’s surface

National Curriculum
Target study areas in the NC Continents and Oceans, Seas and Lakes
Teaching Objectives Acquaintance with continents and chains
of islands, understanding of major Earth
features, acquaintance with oceans, seas,
and lakes
Learning Outcomes Understanding of relief features, plains,
plateaus, and mountains with special
reference to Pakistan, understanding of
oceans, seas, and lakes and their
importance
Geographical skills Practical skills used in the activities
include ranking values by size, horizontal
divided bar graph, pie chart, line graph,
atlas work

New geographical terms

* continent * delta
* continental shelf * glacier
* island * gorge
* ocean * physical region
* sea * silt

SECTION 1: THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND SEA ON THE EARTH

(PAGES 66–67)
The basic feature is the dominance of sea on the Earth’s surface, with a
70:30 ratio in favour of sea. As an introduction, pupils can be directed
first to look at Figure 5.3. They can be asked whether there appears to be
more land or more sea shown in Figure 5.3. The reason why sea areas are
under-represented on most world maps is because the full extent of the
Pacific Ocean is seldom shown. You can use a globe to show more clearly
how much of the Earth’s surface is covered by the Pacific Ocean. (You can
look ahead to Figure 5.5 page 68, which shows the full extent of the
Pacific Ocean and to page 50 of the Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan. Note

25
also that Pacific-centred world maps are used in Book 2 in the Tectonic
section.) Next, pupils can also be asked whether Figure 5.3 shows a larger
area of land in the northern or southern hemisphere—before looking at
the bullet points on page 67. Also on page 67, pupils are introduced to
some of the variations in relief in the oceans (of which they are probably
little aware) and the extreme depth of ocean trenches off East Asia. Make
particular mention of continental shelves, the part of the oceans of greatest
importance to people. Activities 1–3 on page 67 reinforce the study.
(Refer Workbook Activity 1: Continents and oceans)

SECTION 2: THE OCEANS (PAGES 68–72)

Figures 5.5 and 5.6 can be used to highlight the great size of the Pacific
Ocean. The rest of this section is devoted to the importance of the oceans
for people. The oceans provide an international highway, avoiding travel
overland through difficult terrain, as well as the hassle of having to cross
borders and pass through many different countries. Where obvious sea
routes were blocked by narrow necks of land, sea canals were cut, such
as Suez and Panama. Additional information is given about the Suez
Canal in the text and in Figure 5.8, because of its significance to South
Asia for sea links to Europe. Activity 4 gives a framework for further
investigation.
Over the last 50 years the movement of manufactured goods by sea has
been revolutionized by the use of containers, hence the list of advantages
on page 69, the photograph of a container ship in Figure 5.7, and the
questions on containers in Activity 1. All the activities 1–4, pages 71 and
72, are devoted to the transport theme, with a particular focus on links
to and from Pakistan.
The oceans are an important source of food in coastal communities
everywhere. Pupils can be quizzed about fish in their own diets; comment
can be made about its availability in local food outlets. The world
distribution of fishing as a commercial activity is more restricted as it
relies upon natural conditions that favour the presence of large shoals of
fish. The outline of Pakistan has been added to Figure 5.10, which shows
that the major fishing grounds in Asia are some distance away from the
country. The majority are in ocean areas where water temperatures are
lower than those off Pakistan. (Refer Workbook Activity 2: Importance
of fishing in Asia)

26
SECTION 3: THE CONTINENTS (PAGES 72–76)
In simple terms the continents are made up of mountains, plateaus, and
plains. These three relief elements dominate in the names of the major
structural regions of the world shown in Figure 5.11. Differences between
them are described on page 73 and they are illustrated in the photographs
in Figures 5.12 and 5.13. Activity 1, page 75, aims to increase pupils’
awareness of world’s major structural features, with the focus on Asia.
Pakistan is an ideal example to use because of its enormous differences
in relief from the world’s highest mountain range in the north to one of
the big river plains of Asia in the south and east and a long coastal stretch
along the Arabian Sea in the south. In between are the upland areas of
the west dominated by plateaus. Introduce pupils to the concept of a
physical region as an area of land with similar relief features. Perhaps get
them to lay tracing paper above a physical map in an atlas and ask them
to pencil in lines dividing Pakistan up into physical regions, before
working with Figure 5.14. Stress that relief features do not need to be
identical everywhere within a region—otherwise there would be too
many divisions, which would defeat the object: to make the study of areas
easier.
The text on pages 74 and 75 is used to highlight significant relief features
in each of the three regions and principal differences between them.
Passing references are made to problems and opportunities for people.
Activity 2 is a general question about this. Activity 3 gives pupils the
chance to describe the physical geography in their region, and to state
how its physical geography is different from that of other regions in the
country. (Refer Workbook Activity 3: Physical regions of Pakistan)
Page 76 is different. The coastline where continents and oceans meet is
in constant change, partly as a result of land deposition and coastal
erosion (which are not mentioned here) and partly as a result of (at this
moment in the Earth’s history) rising sea levels. Reliable meteorological
records show that the Earth is warming up, leading to melting of ice
sheets on land and the increased risk of flooding in low lying coastal
regions (of which there are many in the world). Increased amounts of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from human activities is one of the
possible causes. The page is included to raise pupils’ awareness of this
major issue, in a geographical rather than mass-media setting, ahead of
fuller coverage later in the series. Bangladesh could be studied as an
example of a country at much greater risk than Pakistan. The Activities

27
are a mixture of practical skills (drawing a pie chart and a line graph) and
comment about global warming. This could lead to further class debate
about the issue.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Continents and oceans
Activity 2 How important is fishing in Asia?
Activity 3 Physical regions of Pakistan

Workbook Activity 1 uses Figure 5.3 to ensure that pupils get to know
the locations and names of the continents, oceans, and significant lines
of latitude—absolute basic geographical knowledge of the world.
Workbook Activity 2 is about fishing. Question 1 is about Asia. Question
2 is about Pakistan. The graph in A shows what you might have already
established from your pupils that fish is not an important part of the diet
in Pakistan as a whole compared with other countries; however, the
pupil’s graph in B will show that locally it is important in Balochistan,
closer to the source of fresh supplies. The average consumption here is
not far behind that of the UK. However, there is a real decline in
importance of fish in the diet from south to north in Pakistan.
Workbook Activity 3 first requires pupils to summarize the key features
of each physical region, then to show that they can identify the different
physical features shown in Figures 5.12 and 5.13. They will find it easier
to label the sketch showing mountain and plateau; plains almost by
definition are featureless. Expect many more labels on the sketch based
on Figure 5.12.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Acquaintance with continents, chains of islands,
oceans, seas, and lakes, understanding of major Earth features
How these have been met:
• Study of the world distribution of land and sea, continents and
oceans
• Separate studies of the Earth’s major structural regions and large relief
features (mountains, plateaus, and plains)
• Example of Pakistan to describe the large relief features more fully
and to highlight differences between them

28
Learning outcomes: Understanding of relief features, with special
reference to Pakistan and understanding of oceans, seas, and lakes and
their importance.
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Look at a physical map of the world in the atlas; ask pupils to compare
differences in relief between two of the continents.
• Ask pupils to compare (a) the relief of continents and oceans
(b) moving goods by land and sea.
• Evaluate pupils’ answers to Activities 1–3, page 75.

Chapter 6 Asia—our region of the world

National Curriculum
Target study area in the NC Pakistan: Our Homeland
Teaching Objectives Acquaintance with Pakistan’s location
with reference to the continent and
surrounding countries
Learning Outcome Students are expected to locate Pakistan
and her neighbours on a map
Geographical skills Practical skills used in activities include
horizontal and vertical bar graphs; study
of physical and political maps from
atlases; drawing a sketch from a
photograph with labels to match the
stated purpose

New geographical terms

* desert
* density of population
* average density of population
* distribution of population

SECTION 1: ASIA—THE BIG CONTINENT (PAGES 77–80)

Following on from the study of continents in the previous chapter, the
text on page 79 begins with reference to the sheer size of Asia. Using a
world map, Asia’s size in relation to other continents can be studied, as
well as its great latitudinal and longitudinal extents. The latitudinal extent

29
can be taken from Figure 6.2. Pupils can be reminded that one degree of
latitude is a distance of 111 kilometres (Information Box page 41); they
can also be asked to look back at Figure 3.12, page 45, to discover how
many different time zones are needed to cover all of Asia from west to
east.
Great height is another highly distinctive physical characteristic of Asia.
The text includes a cross-reference back to Figure 1.9 in Chapter 1. Asia
is also the continent of big rivers and great river plains. The world’s
longest river may be in Africa, and the world’s largest in terms of water
volume is in South America, but Figure 6.3 shows that seven of the
world’s twelve longest (and therefore, in effect, biggest) rivers are in
Asia.
Given the extent of the Asian land mass, it is not surprising that there are
great differences in climate, including some of the world’s extremes such
as wettest place (usually agreed to be Cherrapunji in the foothills of the
Himalayas in Assam) and very high annual temperature ranges (between
winter and summer), like the 56°C range in Verkhoyansk, deep in Russian
Siberia. This is calculated from the data in Figure 6.4.
Throughout pages 79 and 80 the text is interrupted by questions for the
pupils to answer in studying Figures 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4 (all are different
source types). Pupils can answer them either as the work is being covered,
or all together in Activity 1. The purpose of Activity 2 is to compel pupils
to focus more specifically on the physical features of their home region
in South Asia. Having already studied the physical geography of Pakistan
in some detail in Chapter 5, they should be well placed to make
meaningful comparisons between Pakistan and its neighbours. (Refer
Workbook Activity 1: Different climate in Asia)

SECTION 2: ASIA—THE CONTINENT WITH MOST PEOPLE

(PAGES 81–86)
Most atlases include both physical and political maps of the continents.
Figure 6.5 introduces pupils to the political map of Asia showing all the
countries (although not quite the full extent). Although Russia is the giant
in terms of physical size, it can be pointed out to pupils that many of the
world’s very large countries do contain large areas of land difficult to
settle. For example, both Russia and Canada have vast expanses covered
by snow and ice in winter—conditions that do not encourage
settlements.

30
Even more significant than size in Asia is its population. Figure 6.7 shows
that while Asia is comfortably the largest continent, it is far and away the
most populated with well over half of the world’s total population. It
houses the two world population giants—China and India (Figure 6.8).
Six out of the world’s top ten largest countries are in Asia. This is not
expected to change much by 2050 (Figure 6.9), although Japan will drop
out of the list to be replaced by an African country in terms of
population.
Activities 1 and 2, page 83, require pupils to display data from Figures
6.8 and 6.9 in order to highlight in a more visual manner the relative
population sizes of the big Asian countries in 2001 and the forecasts for
2050. As pupils work through the questions in Activity 2, China dropping
from number 1 to number 2 by 2050 and Japan falling out of the top 10
should be noticed by them. In question 2(c) the most important change
is India replacing China as the world’s most populous country. However,
what is also highlighted is the big rise in population that is expected in
Pakistan. This is an issue that you might wish to take further with pupils.
(Population as a global issue is covered in Book 3.) (Refer Workbook
Activity 2: South Asia and its neighbours—countries and cities)
From page 83 the focus is switched to density of population. Although
some of the world’s most densely populated rural and urban areas are
found in Asia, there are still large empty areas as well. These are the areas
with less than 10 people per square kilometre in figure 6.10. The format
of asking questions in the text, to try to guide pupils into what to look
for when studying the figures, is continued here. Activity 1 gives pupils
the chance to pick out significant areas of different density within Asia
as a summary, and then to name them.
When attempting to explain low and high densities of population, it is
always recommended to begin with physical factors. Nature is the basic
controller of human opportunities for making a living, particularly in
rural areas. However, in industrial and urban areas human factors are
much more significant for explaining high densities of population. Many
of the factors affecting densities of population are listed in Figure 6.11.
In Activity 2, page 85, pupils are asked to separate out physical from
human factors (relating back to the work in Chapter 1), as well as those
for high densities from low densities. (Refer Workbook Activity 3: South
Asia and its neighbours—population density, and Worbook Activity 4:
High population densities in Asia)

31
Finally, some applied geography: Pupils need to use five of the labels for
low density from Figure 6.11 and their answer to Activity 2, page 85. In
the marking scheme outlined in part 2 of the Activities box on page 86,
equal weight is given to the quality of the sketch and usefulness of the
labels in showing a relevant factor, applied accurately to the area shown
in the sketch. Looking at and marking another pupil’s work can point the
way to improvement, as well as showing up what the pupil is already
doing well.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Different climates in Asia
Activity 2 South Asia and its neighbours—A Countries and capital
cities
Activity 3 South Asia and its neighbours—B Population density
Activity 4 High population densities in Asia

Workbook Activity 1 does the same for climates in Asia as was done for
variations in climate in Pakistan in Activity 5 in Chapter 4. After pupils
have identified coldest, hottest, wettest, etc. in question 1, they should be
better placed to assess the worth of the summary statements about Asia’s
climate in Question 2.
Workbook Activity 2 is included specifically to meet the National
Curriculum objective for pupils to become acquainted with Pakistan’s
location in relation to surrounding countries. Locations for each country’s
capital city are marked on Figure 6.5. Pupils can use the word search to
find the ten names. They then need to arrange them in the list below by
country.
In Workbook Activity 3, South Asia and the neighbouring countries are
again the area in focus. This time pupils are required to draw a shading
map on the outline to show densities of population in the ten countries.
Provided that pupils have used an effective scheme of colouring or
shading, it will be easier for them to assess how typical is the average
density of population in Pakistan for the region in the first part of the
question.
Workbook Activity 4 is a shorter activity to comment on Asia’s wide
trends in population density using Figure 6.10.

32
WORD SEARCH SOLUTION

I X B E I J I N G P

W S C A T R T U N B

Z F L J H D O E A R

N Y S A I B P O R Y

O A U H M A K A H D

Q N T O P A A W E Z

G G L G U E B I T H

I O Q U S M U A K Z

C N E M I H L E D A

U D N A M H T A K R

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Acquaintance with Pakistan’s location with reference
to the continent and surrounding countries
How these have been met:
• Pakistan’s location shown on various maps of Asia—physical,
political
• Pakistan’s location in relation to surrounding countries targeted in
workbook activities—countries and capital cities, population
density
Learning outcomes: Students to locate Pakistan and her neighbours on
a map

33
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Provide pupils with an outline map of countries in and surrounding
South Asia, for them to name the countries.
• Evaluate pupils’ answers to Activities 1 and 2, page 80.
• Look at the quality of work in Workbook Activities 3 and 4.

Chapter 7 Pakistan—our homeland

National Curriculum
Target study area in the NC Pakistan: Our Homeland, Population and
Settlements in Pakistan
Teaching Objectives Knowledge of the area and location of
administrative units, and knowledge of
administrative sub-units such as districts
and tehsils
Familiarity with population distribution
both density and rural-urban,
understanding of different types of
settlements both villages and towns/
cities
Learning Outcomes Identifies Pakistan’s administrative units,
including provinces, districts, and tehsils,
recognizes factors of population
distribution and density in Pakistan,
describes key features of rural and urban
settlements in Pakistan, knows factors
affecting settlements in Pakistan
Geographical skills Practical skills used in activities include
pyramids to show hierarchies, pie graphs,
flow diagram, bar graphs
New geographical terms
* hierarchy * rural settlement
* migration * service
* push factor * settlement
* pull factor * site of a settlement
* mega-city * urban settlement
* millionaire city

34
SECTION 1: HOW PAKISTAN IS DIVIDED FOR ADMINISTRATION
(PAGES 88–90)
Pakistan’s administrative divisions are referred to in order of size, with
further information given about the provinces and the centrally
administered areas outside them. The hierarchy upwards from tehsils,
districts, and provinces to federal capital are shown in the pyramid in
Figure 7.4. The obvious starting point is the administrative hierarchy in
the home region. It is left to pupils to draw a similar pyramid using names
from their home area in Activity 1, page 90. The size and locations of the
larger administrative areas are shown in Figures 7.2 and 7.5, but these
mark much greater variations in numbers of people. This is why Activity
2 is included—so that pupils can compare the sizes of the administrative
divisions with population totals. Pupils in the final part are asked to
comment on the extremes, between well-populated Punjab and sparsely
peopled Balochistan. It is a link to Section 2.

SECTION 2: WHERE PEOPLE LIVE (PAGES 90–92)

As in most countries, the distribution of population in Pakistan is uneven.
This is the starting point for the study of where people live. Pupils never
find it easy to see general patterns on density maps like the one in
Figure 7.6. This is why a guide is given in the text for what to look for. It
begins with the extremes of high and very low densities. In this instance,
pupils are given the answers as the areas of different density are named,
which means that everyone is beginning from the same point for the
explanation on page 91. Because the high densities are countryside-based
in Pakistan, the main reasons are physical. What is in the text is extracted
and highlighted separately in the flow diagram in Figure 7.7, to help
pupils’ understanding.
Activity 1 requires pupils to locate the home area and state what Figure
7.6 shows about its density of population. By definition, the majority will
live within areas shown to have high densities, so that they can find in
the text a reason to explain the density in their home area. To answer
Activity 2, pupils need to take content from the final paragraph on
page 91 and insert it into another diagram like the one used in Figure 7.7.
They should come up with a flow diagram along the lines of the one
shown below.

35
 Unfavourable physical factors
|
Relief Soils Climate
| | |
Plateaus, hills, and mountains Infertile soils Desert/short of water
for irrigation
| |
Difficult land to cultivate
|
Not many crops grown
|
Low food output; not many can be fed
|
Low rural densities of population

Activity 3 is a short general question about the importance of water in

Pakistan; water supply for agriculture is one of the sub-sections in
Farming in Pakistan in Chapter 8. (Refer Workbook Activity 1: Population
density in Pakistan)

SECTION 3: CITY GROWTH (PAGES 92–95)

Begin with the study of what Figure 7.8 shows. The trend during each
20-year period was the same—declining percentage in rural areas,
increasing percentage in urban areas. The content in the Information Box
shows that this trend is worldwide; in fact, the pace of urbanization has
been slower in Pakistan than in many other countries.
The factor responsible is rural to urban migration. Migrations everywhere,
of all types, are caused by a mixture of push and pull factors, albeit with
variations in relative strength between the two depending on the type of
migration. With rural to urban migration it is typically a mixture of the
two, with perhaps the pull factors stronger now than they have ever been,
since new economic activities and modern developments are
overwhelmingly concentrated in the big cities. The bigger the city, the
faster the pace of change. (Big city growth is a global issue explored in
Book 3.) The two photographs in Figure 7.9 illustrate well the old and
new, traditional and modern, between rural and urban areas. Activity 1,
page 95, is based on Figure 7.9. (Refer Workbook Activity 2: Reasons for
rural to urban migration)

36
On page 94, outline information is given about the two largest cities:
Karachi, the main commercial centre and Lahore, a much older city, and
Islamabad the federal capital and a planned new city—to bring out
significant differences between them. Activity 2 asks pupils to draw a bar
graph to show relative sizes of the top 10 cities of Pakistan listed in Figure
7.10. Once pupils have completed the first two parts of Activity 3, the
answer to part (c) will act as a link back to population density.

SECTION 4: SETTLEMENT TYPES (PAGES 96–100)

Settlements come in many different sizes. Having been introduced to the
idea of a hierarchy for the administrative regions of Pakistan, the same
concept is applied to settlements in Figure 7.12. The smaller rural
settlements in the bottom half of the hierarchy are much more numerous
than the larger urban settlements in the top half. Although size is the
factor most often used to distinguish between rural and urban settlements,
other factors are important as well. These are summarized in Figure 7.13.
Pupils should by now be familiar with the pyramid diagram used in
Figure 7.14. Check that they can still name the one mega-city and seven
millionaire cities in Pakistan! Many should be able to give named local
examples of cities, towns, and villages that belong to the middle layers in
the diagram. Activity 1, page 99, is about this.
It is a good idea to make pupils aware that separating a large village from
a small town, or a large town from a city, is not always easy; not everyone
will agree. Villages become small towns by growing a little more, and by
increasing the range of non-agricultural occupations. Emphasize that big
urban settlements are dynamic places—always growing, always changing.
This aspect can be commented on when comparing the two photographs
in Figure 7.16. The differences that pupils are asked to identify in
Activity 2 are relevant to rural to urban migration as well as to the
differences between rural and urban settlements which are being studied
in this section.
The final sub-section focuses on the sites / locations of settlements. What
are now thriving modern settlements have usually grown from very old
sites. The fact that the old sites were not abandoned indicates how
carefully most old settlements were located. The main siting factors are
shown in Figure 7.16. Sometimes one factor was very dominant, such as
for defence; however, most settlements were sited where several favourable
factors combined to make that site better than any other in the area.

37
The siting factors needed by a farming village and a trading town are
totally different. People siting a village are only interested in making a
living from the surrounding land, which makes them more interested in
factors such as fertile soils and plenty of water. Whereas for a trading
town to be successful, good route links with other places, some many
kilometres away, are more important. Food can be brought in by traders.
The more reasons there are for traders to pass through the town, such as
because it is the only bridging point over a river, the more economically
successful the town is likely to be. Activity 3 requires pupils to show
understanding of the different siting needs of rural and urban settlements.
(Refer Workbook Activity 4: Investigating your home area)
The Activities on page 100 are a final check on pupils’ knowledge of the
names of the main administrative regions and big cities of Pakistan.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Density of population in Pakistan
Activity 2 Why are many people migrating from rural to urban
areas?
Activity 3 The big cities of Pakistan
Activity 4 Investigating your home area
In Workbook Activity 1 pupils are required first to draw a simplified
density map of population in Pakistan, based on data for provinces
instead of all the districts. Their map gives a more easily observable
summary of very high density in the Punjab, very low density in
Balochistan and intermediate densities in the central band running north
to south. What it will not do is identify areas within provinces with
particularly high density, such as around Karachi in Sindh, as the district-
based map does. Parts 2(c) and (d) merely reinforce work already covered
in book activities.
Workbook Activity 2 lists (in a jumbled manner) a greater number of
push and pull factors for rural to urban migration than it was possible to
include in the main book. Those expressed negatively, or with a negative
included, are definitely push factors (no work, no electricity, jobs in
farming and not much else, no clinic, feeling of hopelessness—nothing
changes). Other push factors are those indicating a difficult or unhappy
situation (droughts reduce farm output, dusty dirt tracks, poor soils, long
journeys to the nearest town, ponds and canals dry up in the dry season).
The pull factors are those which indicate the presence of modern services

38
(safe water supply, street lights, pipes for water supply and sanitation in
homes, easy to go places in buses and taxis, paved roads, hospitals,
secondary schools and colleges, bazaars and modern shops), and those
which suggest that opportunities exist (many different types of work,
better paid jobs).
Workbook Activity 3 requires pupils to select and use information from
the text on page 54. The opening statements about relative sizes of the
cities in parts A, B, and C need Figure 7.10 for the answers (with or
without the help of the bar graph drawn in Activity 2).
Workbook Activity 4 hopes to build on work already done in Activity 3,
page 13 (Chapter 1), in the book, and in Activity 5 in the workbook. They
attempted to make pupils more geographically aware of their home
area—to look at it through geographical eyes. The first part of A is the
lead-in; it overlaps slightly with the previous activities. The second part
places the focus on local shops and services; it might be necessary to
amend the distances for some pupils, according to local conditions. The
third part is to discover whether regularly used services are closer to their
homes than those used less frequently. Part C requires pupils to think
about the merits or otherwise of the home area. Individual investigations
like this will yield many different outcomes; therefore, it is the care with
which the work was undertaken, and its quality that are more important
than results which match geographical expectations.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Knowledge of the area and location of Pakistan’s
administrative units, familiarity with its population distribution including
density and rural-urban migration; understanding of different types of
settlements both villages and towns/cities
How have these been met:
• Large and smaller administrative units of Pakistan mapped, showing
location and extent
• Density of population shown on a map of Pakistan and explained
• Push and pull factors for rural-urban migration identified and used
to explain increasing percentage of total population living in cities
• Hierarchy of settlement in Pakistan from farms and villages to towns
and cities shown and explained
• Different characteristics of rural and urban settlements identified
with examples

39
Learning outcomes: Identifies Pakistan’s administrative units; recognizes
factors of population distribution and density in Pakistan; describes key
features of rural and urban settlements in Pakistan, knows factors
affecting settlements in Pakistan
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Look at the accuracy of pupils’ answers to Activity 1, page 100.
• Show pupils a different type of map showing population distribution,
such as dot map, and ask them to give the different reasons for high
densities and low densities.
• Ask pupils to list the key features of (a) large urban areas shown in
Figures 7.1, 7.11 and 7.16 (b) rural areas shown in Figures 6.13 and
7.16, and then (c) to select the three greatest differences between
them.

Chapter 8 Pakistan—economic activities

National Curriculum
Target study area in the NC Means of Transportation in Pakistan
Teaching Objectives Knowledge of major means of transport,
roads, railways, airways, and water
transport
To enhance understanding of the human
geography of Pakistan
Learning Outcomes Appreciate various means of transportation
and acknowledge usefulness of transport
for the community

Geographical skills Practical skills used in activities include

labelled sketches, bar graph, line graph,
spider diagrams

New geographical terms

* cash crop
* commercial farming
* irrigation
* subsistence farming
* high yielding varieties (HYVs)

40
SECTION 1: FARMING (PAGES 101–106)
One way to begin is with a study of Figure 8.1. Pupils can be asked how
typical of farming in Pakistan is the scene in the photograph. It can be
used as the lead to subsistence farming in the first paragraph of text. How
is the farming scene in Figure 8.2 different from that in Figure 8.1? The
focus from page 103 is on water supply for agriculture, using both
modern and traditional methods of irrigation.
Refer back to previous references about the climate of Pakistan in order
to emphasize the need for, and great importance of, irrigation in all parts
of Pakistan. Page 103 largely deals with modern methods; study Figure
8.4 and highlight how water storage is concentrated in the north, and ask
pupils to explain why. Include a study of the Tarbela Dam shown in
Figure 8.6, page 104. The rest of page 104 and all of 105 are devoted to
traditional methods of irrigation.
Pupils could be divided into small groups to put together lists of the
advantages and disadvantages of modern methods compared with
traditional methods of farming. If necessary, they could be guided by
providing them with headings, such as the amount of water, economics/
cost, technology (high or low), environmental effects, suitability for use
by subsistence farmers. Alternatively, as each method is studied,
individual pupils can be given a checklist to mark with alternatives such
as:
* large amount of water / only a small amount of water
* high cost / low cost
* modern technology needed / old technology readily available
* can damage the environment / little impact on the environment
* subsistence farmers need outside help / easy to use by subsistence
farmers
Activity 1, page 106, is included to reinforce pupils’ understanding of the
fundamental differences between traditional subsistence and modern
commercial farming. Figures 8.1 and 8.2 are the obvious ones for pupils
to use as the basis for their sketches. Activity 2 concentrates on traditional
methods of irrigation. Now that pupils are towards the end of the first
year’s course, irrigation gives the opportunity for a more extended piece
of written work. The questions are offered to provide pupils with a guided
framework and to ensure meaningful coverage with reasonable breadth
to it. (Refer Workbook Activity 1: Irrigation methods in Pakistan)

41
SECTION 2: WHERE ARE FOOD CROPS GROWN? (PAGES 106–108)
Wheat is given special mention because it is the most widespread food
crop grown in Pakistan. Countries in South Asia and many other
developing countries have been helped over the last twenty years by the
wide-ranging use of high-yield varieties of seeds; these have fed their
growing populations. The other main food crops are given a passing
mention. Find out how much pupils know about the types of crops grown
in their own region; among children from long established urban families,
it could be surprisingly little. When studying the map of cultivated areas
in Figure 8.10, pupils could be asked to compare it with some earlier
maps, particularly Figure 7.6 on page 91 showing density of population.
Activity 1, page 108, is repeated as Workbook Activity 2; in the workbook
it is possible for pupils to draw the chart to complete it. The purpose of
Activity 2 is to give an international perspective on wheat output. While
the values suggest that Pakistan ‘could do better’, perhaps with more
investment in farming, they could also be a reflection of more difficult
physical conditions than in many other countries. Activity 3 is to get
pupils to ‘think local’ again. (Refer Workbook Activity 2: Types of food
and where it comes from and Workbook Activity 3: Main crop-growing
areas in Pakistan)

SECTION 3: INDUSTRY (PAGES 108–111)

The basic point is that Pakistan is not a manufacturing/industrial country
in the way that many other Asian countries are, particularly those in East
Asia. However, the one industry that is important both internationally
and domestically is cotton textiles. The Information Box is included to
highlight the long history of cotton in Pakistan. In Figure 8.12 the main
centres for making cotton textiles are superimposed on the shading map
showing cotton-growing regions. In the text, pupils are asked to compare
the two, guided by the the commentary. Another suggestion that is not
in the text might be put to pupils—that the distribution of cotton making
centres reflects the distribution of people. This would make sense for such
a basic industry which serves everyone’s needs.
Otherwise too many industries in Pakistan depend on raw materials from
agriculture; this is illustrated in Figure 8.14. Special mention is made of
Karachi, the largest industrial centre; being a port, it is best placed to
receive imported raw materials and fuels which are in short supply in
Pakistan: these tend to be bulky and costly to transport in raw form. The

42
final sub-section is devoted to heavy industries. Stress their importance
for producing goods needed in construction, transport, and a wide range
of useful agricultural and household products. (Refer Workbook
Activity 4: Pakistan’s trade in 2005)

SECTION 4: TRANSPORT (PAGES 111–115)

A familiar worldwide story is decline of railways and growth of road
transport. Pakistan is no exception. The graphs in Figure 8.16 are a visual
representation of railways’ decline. Pupils can be asked when they think
the ‘era of road transport’ began in Pakistan. Figure 8.19 is an attempt to
show visually why most companies prefer to send their goods by road—
no breaks of transport and further loading and unloading are needed
until the goods reach their destination.
This can also be linked back to the containers in Chapter 5, page 69: if
the truck in Figure 8.19 had been shown loaded with a container, how
far could the container have travelled without needing to be opened and
the goods emptied and reloaded? The flexibility of road transport
(different types of vehicles, go anywhere i.e. beyond the paved roads,
available at the times when it is needed /when wanted) is its big advantage
over rail. Another is cost. Looking at the photograph in Figure 8.17 pupils
can be asked about the costs of track construction, and why road building
is much cheaper everywhere, but especially in areas with the type of
terrain shown in Figure 8.17.
The map in Figure 8.20 shows the main road and rail routes in Pakistan.
Again pupils can be referred back to the map of population density in
Chapter 7 and asked to compare patterns. The line graph that pupils will
draw when answering Activity 1, page 115, shows the opposite story for
road to that of rail in Figure 8.16. Activity 2 can be done individually, or
by pupils working in pairs or even small groups. The more advantages
and disadvantages of road transport pupils come up with, the better it
will be. (Refer Workbook Activity 5: Main road and rail transport
corridor in Pakistan)
Activity 3, page 115, is a local fieldwork investigation of traffic. What to
do and how to do it is shown in greater detail in Workbook Activity 6.
This includes the results of a traffic survey in Karachi, which can be used
for drawing the graphs (useful for pupils unable to undertake their own
traffic survey).

43
WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Methods of irrigation in Pakistan
Activity 2 What food do you eat? Does it all come from Pakistan?
Activity 3 Where are the main crop growing areas in Pakistan?
Activity 4 Pakistan’s trade in 2005
Activity 5 Where is the main transport corridor for road and rail
in Pakistan?
Activity 6 Doing a traffic survey

The layout of Workbook Activity 1 about irrigation methods is intended

to help less able pupils. It is essentially a replacement for the textbook
Activity 2.
Workbook Activity 2 is Activity 1 from the book, but with all the spaces
for answering, which will benefit less able pupils.
Workbook Activity 3 makes fuller use of Figure 8.10. Notice that in
Question 1 the focus is again upon the extremes of high and low
percentages, because these are always easiest for pupils to understand.
Question 2 is about the general pattern shown, often not easy for pupils
to recognize. Option A is the best choice (and it matches well the overall
pattern of population density in Figure 7.6, which fits since Pakistan
remains a predominantly agricultural country, with a higher percentage
of people still living in rural areas). However, it will be possible for pupils
to make some progress with reasons if they choose one of the other two
options, but it will be less easy for them.
Workbook Activity 4 focuses on the overseas trade of Pakistan. Exports
reflect domestic economic activities. The divided bar graph of exports
shows the dominance of agriculture-related goods. Whereas the imports
are dominated partly by oil and other fuels, the majority by value are
manufactured goods. Unfortunately, agriculture-based goods tend to be
of lower value than manufactured goods. In 2005, the trade gap was
US$4.5 billion (17.9–13.4); this means Pakistan was spending more than
it earns in visible overseas trade. The trade data clearly shows the great
importance of cotton and cotton goods, which justifies their special
mention in the book.
Workbook Activity 5 makes further use of Figure 8.20; the summary
should lead pupils to highlight the vital north-south corridor of
movement, linking south and north in Pakistan, following the line of the

44
Indus Valley (easy movement without major relief barriers, linking the
big cities, passing through the most densely populated part of the country,
linking the chief port to other parts of the country, the economic
heartland of Pakistan). It also acts as a summary for the human geography
of Pakistan. When answering the different parts of question 2, able pupils
can draw upon work covered in earlier chapters.
Workbook Activity 6 expands on Activity 3 on page 115 of the textbook.
Here student guidance is provided—about choosing a good location,
picking the best time to undertake the survey, recording the traffic counts
and showing the results. The results of a traffic survey by students on two
roads in Karachi are included so that students, who are unable to
undertake their own local fieldwork investigation, can still complete the
process by drawing graphs to display the results.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: To give knowledge of major means of transport; to
enhance understanding of the human geography of Pakistan
How have these been met:
• Summary map of the main roads and railways in Pakistan is included,
with commentary in the text and related activities both in the book
and workbook
• Explanation given for the growth of roads and decline of railways
• Study of the distributions and importance of other economic activities
in Pakistan, especially agriculture and industry, which need the
transport links
Learning outcomes: Appreciation of various means of transportation and
acknowledge usefulness of transport for the community
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Look at the quality of pupils’ answers to Activities 1 and 2, page 115,
to check their understanding of the overwhelming dominance of road
transport in Pakistan and the reasons for it.
• Show pupils a map of regular air routes in Pakistan; ask them to
describe and explain the pattern (in relation to aspects of the
geography of Pakistan studied in the book, such as population
distribution, locations of top 10 cities, centres of industry).

45
Explore 2
Teacher’s Guide

John Pallister
 Contents

Introduction to the series .................................................... 2

Introduction to Explore 2 ..................................................... 4

Chapter 1: Earthquakes, volcanoes and fold mountains ...... 7

Chapter 2: Tectonic activity and the effects on people ...... 11

Chapter 3: Climate and human activities ........................... 17

Chapter 4: Water—the most vital natural resource ........... 22

Chapter 5: Forest resources ............................................... 27

Chapter 6: Minerals and fossil fuels ................................... 31

Chapter 7: Pollution—types, causes, and effects ............... 39

Chapter 8: Pollution—can it be controlled? ....................... 44

Introduction to the series

Explore is a new, up-to-date geography series for secondary classes 6–8.

The series covers all the geographical topics and learning competencies
from the National Curriculum for Pakistan. Guided by the structure of
the Curriculum for Geography, from Book 1 to Book 3 the focus gradually
switches from local (including the geography of Pakistan) to global
(world issues such as forest clearances, population and big city growth,
and globalization). However, this is done not by following the exact layout
and order of the written curriculum, but by identifying and developing
particular topics and themes, in order to make the learning process more
student-friendly and relevant.
Explore consists of three components: the Students’ Books, Workbooks,
and the Teachers’ Guides. Together, the three books and their components
provide a comprehensive introduction to geography for secondary classes.
They meet all the main Aims outlined in the Introduction to the National
Curriculum for Geography.

AIMS
* To create an understanding of the Earth as a planet within the Solar
System—Book 1
* To familiarize students with the environment in which people are
living, by studying major land features of the Earth—Books 1 and 2
* To provide an insight into the natural and human geography of
Pakistan, and the changes taking place in its administration,
population, their activities and resources—Books 1, 2, and 3
* To provide more knowledge to students about the environment in
which they are living—Books 1, 2, and 3
* To create awareness among students about the neighbouring
countries—Books 1 and 3 in particular

Likewise, the full course will enable students to satisfy all the general
subject Objectives in the National Curriculum (numbered 1–10).
Although many are met throughout all three books, for some it is possible
to identify chapters where an objective is addressed more particularly.

2
OBJECTIVES
1. To impart an understanding of the Earth as the home of man with
emphasis on the topics of water, land, and the atmosphere.
Earth (Book1, Chapter 3); Atmosphere (Book1, Chapter 4); Land and
sea (Book1, Chapter 5); Water (Book 2, Chapter 4); Landforms
(Book 3, Chapter 2)
2. To become acquainted with the concept of location and its importance
with regard to what, where, and how.
Throughout all three books
3. To understand varying environments depending on climate, fauna and
flora, natural resources and related human responses.
Climate and human responses (Book 2, Chapter 3); Natural resources
and economic activities (Book 2, Chapters 5 and 6); Fauna and flora
and human responses (Book 3, Chapters 1 and 3)
4. To develop consciousness about human-environment relationship
and environmental hazards
From first mention of environmental geography in Book 1, Chapter
1 and throughout all three books; Environmental hazards and people:
Tectonic (Book 2, Chapters 1 and 2); Climatic (Book 2, Chapter 3);
Environmental problems (Book 2, Chapters 7 and 8); Natural regions
(Book 3, Chapters 1 and 3)
5. To know main population characteristics and patterns of population
distribution
Asia (Book1, Chapter 6); Pakistan (Book 1, Chapter 7); The world
(Book 3, Chapters 4 and 5)
6. To understand the nature of human dwellings, rural and urban and
knowledge of selected cities and their functions
Pakistan (Book1, Chapter 7); Pakistan and the rest of the world (Book
3, Chapters 6 and 7)
7. To get acquainted with the administrative divisions/units of Pakistan
(Book 1, Chapter 7)
8. To enhance understanding of the physical and human aspects of the
geography of Pakistan
In particular Book 1, Chapters 7 and 8; also throughout the rest of
Book 1, and Books 2 and 3, including settlement (urban and rural)
Book 3, Chapter 6.
9. To acquire knowledge about the major natural regions of the world
In particular Book 3 Chapters 1, 2, and 3
10. To get acquainted with map symbols and elementary map reading
Specifically Book 1, Chapter 2 and then throughout the three books

3
Introduction to Explore 2
STUDENT’S BOOK
Explore Book 2 consists of eight chapters. A photograph is used on the
first page of each chapter to illustrate the topic under study. Questions
arranged below it are intended to encourage pupils to observe and to
think about what they are going to learn under this geographical heading.
Each chapter is further broken down into sections, typically between two
and four in number, for ease of study.
Activities are included both within and at the end of the sections. The
majority can be answered from the book’s content, using both text and
figures, either directly or with some interpretation and thinking. A few
activities require pupils to search for answers elsewhere—from an atlas,
from another written source such as newspapers, from TV or the Internet,
or from knowledge and investigation of the home area. In those activities
where pupils are required to discover for themselves, some guidance
about what to look for and what to do is usually included in the
question.
From time to time, opportunities are provided for pupils to work in pairs
or in small groups. Often it would be possible for the pupil to complete
the same activity working alone, should that be considered more
desirable. However, working with others can result in a greater number
of suggestions and a wider range of points being made. Likewise, pupils
exchanging work and marking another pupil’s work according to a
marking guide, can be valuable in highlighting to them where they have
done well and what is less good about their own work compared with
that of others. If successful, the technique may be used for other activities
in the textbook, according to the teacher’s discretion.

WORKBOOK
The Workbook contains twenty-nine pupil activities across the eight
chapters. The layout of these is of particular help to lower-ability pupils
compared with activities in the book, since spaces are left for completing
the answers. Tables, charts, and map outlines are provided for answers.
Compared with Explore 1, there is less emphasis on practical skills in
favour of more written answers, but some questions also provide an
opportunity for discussion. This is because of the different nature of the
geographical work between Books 1 and 2, and it also takes into account

4
the maturity level of the pupils. However, the important geographical
skills learned in Explore 1 continue to be used. As in the workbook for
Explore 1, some workbook activities are merely extensions of activities in
the book, giving pupils extra opportunities to use practical geographical
skills in drawing maps, graphs and diagrams.

TEACHER’S GUIDE
The main purpose of the Teacher’s Guide is to provide a commentary to
make the textbook easier to use. The main focus of the work is indicated;
themes, topics, and key terms worthy of highlight are identified. Ideas
which may be useful in planning and delivering lessons are included.
From time to time some ways to extend the study are suggested. These
can involve individual pupil investigation from other sources such as the
media or the Internet, while others rely upon pupil investigation of
geographical characteristics in the local surroundings.
Some indication is given for what is expected from the activities in the
textbook and workbook. As appropriate, the best or expected answers to
the questions are included. References to the workbook activities are
inserted in the commentary after the work to which they are related has
been covered in the textbook. Occasionally it would be possible, and/or
desirable, for pupils to work ahead of coverage in the text.
At the beginning of each chapter is a table which summarizes the
• teaching objectives and learning outcomes in relation to the National
Curriculum,
• geographical skills included in the chapter,
• new geographical terms used, and
• workbook activities which support and extend book content and
activities.
At the end of each chapter is a summary of how the teaching objectives
have been met, and how teachers might check the extent of pupils’
knowledge and understanding.

LESSON PLANS
The inclusion of teaching objectives and learning outcomes, identifying
the main topics of each chapter, and the guidance and explanation
preceding each section’s content in the Teachers’ Guides will facilitate
lesson planning. A sample lesson plan outline is given below to further
facilitate lesson planning.

5
The sections in each chapter have concluding questions in the textbook
and follow-up activities in the workbooks, which give a framework for
planning lessons, class work and homework, and assessments.
Finally, it goes without saying that a good, updated, and comprehensive
atlas and a globe are indispensable components of teaching and learning
geography. The Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan (OUP, 2008) is
recommended for use along with the Explore series.

SAMPLE LESSON PLAN

Class: 7
Subject: Geography
Topic: The effects of volcanoes on people Pages 27–29, Chapter 2
Additional resources: Photographs or news reports of erupting volcanoes;
news report of a recent eruption from news websites, such as www.dawn.
com or http://news.bbc.co.uk.; update on volcanic eruptions such as for
the volcano in Montserrat at www.mvo.ms or Vesuvius in Italy
Teaching time: 1 period (generally 40 minutes)
Objective: To acquaint students with the effects (both positive and
negative) of volcanoes on people
Outcome: Knowledge of how people can be affected by volcanoes and
understanding of the difference between positive and negative effects;
pupil awareness that volcanoes can have benefits as well as
disadvantages
Introduction: Begin by showing students a photograph of an erupting
volcano and information about a major eruption such as Pinatubo, 1991
(Information Box page 29), or Krakatoa, 1883 (in the text page 28)
emphasizing power, size, and scale.
Lesson outline: Examine in turn the positive and negative effects of
volcanoes. Compare these effects with those of previously studied
earthquakes. Discuss why volcanoes kill fewer people. Why can volcanoes,
unlike earthquakes, bring benefits?
Activities: (Class work) Activities 1 and 2, page 29
(Workbook) Chapter 2 Activity 2, pages 7–8
Reinforcement: (Homework) Activities 3 and 4, page 29
Recap/conclusion: Check students’ understanding of the key geographical
terms relating to volcanoes (page 7) and the world distribution of active
volcanoes on page 8 in Chapter 1.

6
Chapter 1 Earthquakes, volcanoes and fold
mountains

National Curriculum
Target study area in NC Volcanism and Earthquakes, Mountains
Teaching Objectives An introduction to tectonic activity
including earthquakes and major relief
features formed by movement at plate
boundaries, such as volcanoes and fold
mountains
Learning Outcomes Un d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h at c au s e s
earthquakes, volcanoes, and the creation
of fold mountains; identification and
understanding of the locations of the
major earthquake and volcanic belts
around the Earth

Geographical Skills
Practical skills used include comparison of distributions from world
maps, division of a country into physical regions, and drawing labelled
diagrams

Key geographical terms

* constructive plate boundary * epicentre
* destructive plate boundary * Richter scale
* conservative plate boundary * crater
* magma * vent
* lava * dormant volcano
* faults * extinct volcano
* earthquake focus * fold mountains

SECTION 1: TECTONIC PLATES AND PLATE BOUNDARIES

(PAGES 1–11)
Introduce pupils to the idea that the Earth’s crust is not just one unbroken
rock layer; instead, show from Figure 1.2 that there exist eight very large,
separate rock plates and many smaller ones. As background, briefly refer
to the theory of continental drift; ask pupils to look for the good fit

7
between the shapes of the South American and African continents, which
suggests that they were once joined together as part of a larger continent.
(Even the continents we have today are not ‘set in stone’ in relation to
geological time scale.)
Next, examine the three different types of plate boundaries and explain
what happens at each one. Stress that these boundaries are the areas of
great tectonic activity, action zones. This leads naturally into a study of
earthquakes, volcanoes, and young fold mountains. The focus in this
chapter is on their causes, formation, and characteristics, not on their
effects on people; this follows in the next chapter. Figures 1.2, 1.6, 1.11,
and 1.15 have been made the same size, deliberately. It could be a good
idea for pupils to trace the main plate boundaries from Figure 1.2, and
use the tracing as an overlay on the other three Figures. By doing this,
pupils will be better able to appreciate the near-perfect relationship
between plate boundaries and the distribution of earthquakes, active
volcanoes, and young fold mountains.
Because this is a long section, the activities are broken up into four sets,
one each for the main study themes of plate boundaries, earthquakes,
volcanoes, and young fold mountains. Since plate boundaries pass
through Pakistan, the common element in Activities 1–3 on page 3 is the
situation in Pakistan in relation to aspects of the broader world picture.
The second set on page 6 refers back to earthquakes. The focus of
Activities 1–3 is on earthquake measurement and what happens during
an earthquake. The next set of activities about volcanoes is on pages 8
and 9. Activities 1 and 2 test pupils’ knowledge and understanding of
volcanic activity, while in Activity 3 the field of study is narrowed down
to Asia. Activities relating to young fold mountains are at the top of page
11 and cover both Asia in particular and fold mountains in general.

SECTION 2: MAJOR RELIEF FEATURES OF PAKISTAN (PAGES 11–14)

The objective here is to use wider world knowledge gained by pupils to
increase their understanding of the physical geography of Pakistan. A
long-established concept in physical geography, used to facilitate pupil
study, is the division of areas or countries into regions. Pakistan is a good
country to study because of the scale of the differences in relief between
northern mountains and the Indus plains. It is relatively easy for pupils
to distinguish three physical regions from Figure 1.16. The work relates
back to showing relief on maps and the geography of Pakistan, covered

8
in Explore Book 1. Activities 1 and 2 on page 13 test pupils’ understanding
and skill in this regard. Activity 3 gives pupils a chance to write about the
physical geography of their home area. The chapter is rounded off by
references to the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’, where the frequency and strength
of current volcanic activity are greater than anywhere else in the world.
Activities 1 and 2 on page 14 provide opportunities for case study and
research.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Earthquakes
Activity 2 Measuring the strength of an earthquake
Activity 3 What happens in earthquakes?
Activity 4 Volcanoes

Workbook Activity 1: Question 1 isolates (from the world map showing

the distribution of earthquakes) the two major, active earthquake zones
in Asia—one from west to east which includes Pakistan, and the other
from south to north running through the island chains of East Asia /
western Pacific Ocean. The further north one goes in Asia, the lower the
earthquake risk. Question 2 focuses on the destructive plate margin
where the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates are actively moving against,
and sinking under, the giant Eurasian plate, and on what is happening
there to create these zones of high earthquake activity in Asia.
Workbook Activity 2: After every earthquake, the most significant piece
of information is its strength. The value reported to the media is measured
on the Richter scale. Pupils are shown a seismograph and a sample
recording sheet of an earthquake. When the ground moves during an
earthquake, the spring in the seismograph is agitated and ink marks from
the pen attached to it are left on the recording sheet wrapped around the
slowing revolving drum. The marks increase in size and are greatest
during the main earthquake shock. The answer expected in Question 1(c)
is to show shock waves of gradually decreasing size, but with occasional
larger aftershocks, almost invariably smaller than the main shock wave
(identified by X on the recording sheet in B). The best order of earthquake
effects in Question 2 is shown below.
3: often felt, but rarely causes damage
4: noticeable shaking of indoor items; significant damage unlikely

9
5: can cause major damage to poorly constructed buildings over small
regions; at most slight damage to well-designed buildings
6: can cause serious damage over larger areas
7: can be destructive in areas up to about 160km across
8: can cause serious damage in areas several hundred kilometres across
9: devastating in areas several thousand kilometres across.
Workbook Activity 3: This first makes use of Figure 1.7. Earthquake
terminology is needed in Question 1, with ‘focus’ and ‘epicentre’ as the
first two answers; this is followed by a description of decreasing damage
from less strong shock waves away from the centre. The three parts of
Question 2 require explanation, for people’s responses in (a) and (b) and
for a later secondary effect in (c).
Workbook Activity 4: The focus changes from earthquakes to volcanoes.
Asia is again highlighted within the world distribution; active volcanoes
are much more noticeably concentrated along the destructive plate
margin which runs through the island arcs of East Asia. Question 2
checks pupils’ understanding of the differences between volcanoes,
according to the type of plate boundary, between constructive (volcano A)
and destructive (volcano B). The table has been partly completed as a
guide.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objective: An introduction to tectonic activity
How it has been met:
• World maps of plate boundaries, earthquakes, active volcanoes, and
fold mountains
• Separate studies of causes of earthquakes, and formation of volcanoes
and fold mountains
• Study of the major relief features of Pakistan showing the effects of
tectonic activity
• Mention of active tectonic zones such as the Pacific Ring of Fire

Learning outcome: Knowledge and understanding of plate boundaries,

earthquakes, volcanoes, and fold mountains
Check that the objective has been met:
• Pupils study a physical map of the world; ask them to identify and
explain major relief features of the continents such as high mountain

10
 ranges; then to do the same for location and distribution of islands
in the oceans due to tectonic activity such as the island arcs of East
Asia.
• Refer to a recent tectonic event; ask pupils to investigate its
characteristics and then explain its occurrence in relation to the map
of plate boundaries.

Chapter 2 Tectonic activity and the effects on people

National Curriculum
Target study areas in NC Volcanism and Earthquakes, Mountains
Teaching Objectives Knowledge and understanding of the
effects (both negative and positive) of
earthquakes, volcanoes, and fold
mountains on people
Learning Outcomes Students will learn about the problems
and opportunities which result from
earthquakes, volcanoes, and fold
mountains, including taking measures to
prepare for future tectonic hazards like
earthquakes and volcanoes

Geographical skills
Practical skills used include drawing sketches from photographs,
organizing data, drawing graphs and tables in order to summarize
information

Key geographical terms

* primary effect
* secondary effect
* aftershock
* glacier
* growing season

SECTION 1: EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE (PAGES 16–23)

It is important to distinguish between the first (primary) effects caused
directly by the main earthquake shock and the later (secondary) effects

11
that happen in the minutes, hours, and days after the main shock.
Secondary effects add to the damage and loss of life. Far and away the
largest secondary event in recent times was the great Asian tsunami of
December 2004, the results of which are summarized in the Information
Box. Figure 2.3 is an example to illustrate what Figure 1.7 showed about
decreasing damage away from the earthquake centre. Another important
area of study is why the effects of earthquakes vary so much; some of the
factors referred to here are developed further later in the chapter.
Activity 1 on page 18 uses the practical skill of a sketch based on
observation; in the best responses labels will be used to highlight the
question theme of earthquake damage. Question 2 homes in on factors
affecting the scale of damage and loss of life with high magnitude, self-
built housing, epicentre in a housing area, earthquake focus near surface,
and high density of population—the five factors most likely to lead to
much destruction and many deaths and injuries. Question 3 takes the use
of Figure 1.7 a stage further before requiring pupils to write longer
answers to show their understanding.
Destructive plate margins in Asia having been explained in Chapter 1,
the figures on pages 19 and 20 give further information. Figure 2.5
illustrates the high frequency of powerful earthquakes along the southern
border of the Eurasian plate, some of which caused many deaths. Figure
2.6 shows just some of the many major faults in Pakistan associated with
the India-Asia collision zone, while Figure 2.7 records the major
earthquakes within recent history in this zone.
In the Activities, a study of Figure 2.5 gives strong support for a close
relationship between high earthquake strength and large numbers
killed for Question 1(b). The evidence for this includes;
* the strongest earthquake (8.9) led to the largest number of deaths
(250,000)
* the least strong earthquake (6.0) caused the lowest number of deaths
(just 70)
However, there are examples where support for the statement is weak;
* the second strongest earthquake (8.7) was the fourth lowest for deaths
(1300)
* the fourth weakest earthquake (6.5) was the third highest for deaths
(30,000)

12
This means that different pupils can justify different answers because
strength is just one factor for numbers killed, albeit an important one.
The natural follow-up is what people can do to prevent or reduce
earthquake losses. It is made clear from the start that the occurrence of
individual earthquakes cannot be predicted, unlike volcanoes which often
give preliminary warning signs (page 28). But places with a high
earthquake risk are known (for example, northern and western Pakistan)
so adequate measures can be taken. Methods to make even high-rise
buildings earthquake proof are described. Figure 2.9 shows the critical
importance of the type of building material for determining how well
buildings can withstand earthquake shocks of different strengths. This
can lead to a class discussion about why loss of life is still expected in
future earthquakes.
In the Activities on page 23, pupils are most likely to use bar graphs (as
in Figure 2.9) when answering Question 1(a). Part (c) tests their
understanding of why the authorities and people in rich countries are
better placed to prepare for earthquakes. Question 2 is a different way of
asking what people trapped inside buildings in an earthquake can do to
increase their chances of survival. This topic gives plenty of opportunities
for small group and class discussions, particularly because of its relevance
in Pakistan. Question 3 suggests ways in which small group discussions
might be channelled for productive outcomes.

SECTION 2: CASE STUDY: PAKISTAN EARTHQUAKE, OCTOBER 2005

(PAGES 24–27)
Figures 2.11–2.13 contain information and comment about this
devastating earthquake. The map in Figure 2.11 is similar to those carried
by newspapers and on the Internet news sites after all major earthquakes;
pupils should now be in a stronger position to interpret what it shows
and its significance. Figure 2.12 shows the data of the earthquake and
Figure 2.13 summarizes the different phases of rehabilitation during the
first year; these are typical for the effects of a major natural event, namely
immediate effects from the event itself, relief aid in the form of emergency
help, relief work for redevelopment and recovery, and an assessment of
what has been achieved one year later. It is worth stressing to pupils that
media interest wanes considerably after one year and that the chances of
further outside help fuelled by publicity are greatly reduced. Comments
about what has or has not happened in Balakot (the worst hit town closest
to the epicentre in 2005) follow.

13
Question 1 in the Activities on page 27 refers to the immediate effects of
the earthquake. The pattern of estimates for the number of deaths should
become clearer once pupils have drawn the bar graph. Estimates tend to
go down with time because some people who are reported missing by
relatives (often living outside the affected area) in the early days eventually
turn up elsewhere or return at a later date; others, who were assumed to
have been in the building when it collapsed, were either not there as was
thought, or managed to escape. Factors covered earlier on pages 17-18
are relevant for answering Question 3.

SECTION 3: VOLCANOES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON PEOPLE

(PAGES 27–29)
Volcanoes form distinctive landforms in the way that earthquakes do not.
Also certain benefits of volcanoes can be identified. Volcanic soils, rich
in minerals once the erupted materials have had time to be broken down
by weathering, are in the top two of the world’s most fertile soils along
with silt soils in big river valleys and deltas. Nevertheless, volcanoes are
destructive and disruptive, and can cause loss of life, albeit in smaller
numbers than in many earthquakes. Massive eruptions, such as those of
Krakatoa and Pinatubo, can cause secondary effects that are felt well
outside the local area.
The purpose of Question 1 in the Activities on page 29 is to check pupils’
understanding of the differences between primary and secondary effects.
The four that are most obviously primary effects are ‘people killed’,
‘farmland and buildings destroyed’, ‘roads blocked by lava flows’ and
‘public services disrupted’; this is because these are direct results of the
eruption and happen during the eruption. In Question 2 the skill is to
highlight with labels the features which show that the area in and around
the crater is a wasteland. The best answer to Question 3 is ‘fertile soils’.
This one is most easy to support, using content from the paragraph
beginning with a reference to the 500 million people living in the vicinity
of active volcanoes. Question 4 gives pupils the chance to write about
what has been one of the main themes running through this chapter, and
to demonstrate their comprehension.

14
SECTION 4: FOLD MOUNTAINS: PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES
FOR PEOPLE (PAGES 30–34)
The map in Figure 2.20 shows population density across Pakistan. As an
introduction to this section, look back to Figure 1.12 and ask pupils to
identify factors to explain why no one can live here; similarly, Figure 1.18
can help explain why population density is low on the Balochistan
plateau, among the lowest in Pakistan. Also, ask pupils to look at Figure
1.17 on the opposite page to explain why opportunities for human activity
are better here. Their responses should highlight the importance of
physical geography for determining opportunities for people and
settlement, before they are illustrated in Figure 2.21. In high mountain
areas, changes in land uses and human activities are vertical (i.e. height-
related). Figures 2.23 and 2.24 provide a good contrast between the great
opportunities on the valley floor in the lower Chitral Valley compared
with the virtually nil opportunity in the mountains higher up the Chitral
Valley. The text expands upon the physical factors behind the changes in
land use with height.
In Question 1 in the activities on page 33, pupils can enhance the visual
effect of part-valley cross-section in Figure 2.22 by drawing sketches to
bring out the major differences in landscape appearance between valley
floors (Figure 2.23), upper slopes (Figure 2.24), and mountain peaks
(Figure 1.12). In Question 2, the use of spider diagrams is a good way to
summarize advantages and disadvantages and check the extent of pupils’
comprehension. Question 3 supports written explanation of the concepts
covered in this section.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Earthquake in India
Activity 2 People vs. volcanoes
Activity 3 Loss of life in earthquakes—must it happen?

Workbook Activity 1 makes use of the information about the Gujarat

earthquake in Figure 2.3 in preparation for the later, more detailed study
of the Pakistan earthquake of 2005. Question 2 is the same as a later
question in the textbook (Question 1, page 23), and as an advantage for
lower-ability pupils, provides a graph paper base for graph construction.
It introduces pupils to the issue of building materials, which is continued
into Question 3, and can be used in advance of more detailed coverage
in the textbook.

15
Workbook Activity 2 is an adapted newspaper report about the eruption
of Mount Etna. The volcano is passing through one of its more active
periods, having erupted regularly since 2000, although more recent lava
flows have not been as extensive. This lava flow was no threat to life, but
a serious threat to property; it shows the measures that people in a
developed country tried to take in order to defeat nature. It gives pupils
an opportunity to assess the relative value of the people’s actions.
Workbook Activity 3 begins with comments from earthquake survivors
in Turkey, following an earthquake with heavy loss of life. These
comments echoed those from other earthquakes, such as at Balakot.
Question 2 allows pupils to show what can be done to prepare for an
earthquake, provided that there is the money, will, and organization to
allow it.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Knowledge of the effects of earthquakes, volcanoes,
and fold mountains on people
How these have been met:
• Examples of the types of damage caused by earthquakes and
volcanoes
• How and why the effects of earthquakes differ
• Ways to reduce the likely effects of future earthquakes
• Negative and positive effects of volcanic eruptions
• Problems and opportunities of fold mountain ranges for people
Learning outcomes: Knowledge of problems and opportunities resulting
from earthquakes, volcanoes, and fold mountains
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Pupils study the effects of a recent earthquake; they are asked to
explain the relative scale of loss of life and damage in relation to
strength, location, and other factors.
• Show pupils new photographs of high mountain areas; ask them to
describe and explain human land uses and activities.
• Check pupils’ answers to summary activities such as Activity 3 on
page 27 for earthquake effects and Activities 1, 3, and 4 on page 29
for the effects of volcanoes.

16
Chapter 3 Climate and human activities

National Curriculum
Target study area in NC Climate
Teaching Objectives Introduction to the Earth’s major
climates, including factors influencing
them; understanding of the relationship
between climate and human activities
Learning Outcomes Knowledge of the elements and factors
of climate; knowledge and understanding
through examples of how climates affect
human activities

Geographical skills
Practical skills used include drawing and interpreting climate graphs,
drawing labelled diagrams for explanation, calculations using climate
data, and labelled sketches from photographs

Key geographical terms

* relief rainfall * onshore wind
* urban heat island * global warming
* smog * greenhouse effect
* haze * heatwave
* fog * cyclone
* offshore wind * natural hazard

SECTION 1: HOW CLIMATES CHANGE BETWEEN THE EQUATOR

AND THE POLES (PAGES 36–44)
As an introduction, you may begin with basic features of the climate(s)
of Pakistan, covered in Explore Book 1, with particular reference to the
climate of your local region. Pakistan’s climate(s) can be fitted into the
world climate summary in Figure 3.2. Questions A–G listed at the bottom
of page 36 are a guide to identifying key characteristics of, and differences
between, the world’s major climatic types. Essentially, tropical climates
are always hot; therefore, rainfall (amount and seasons) is the main
distinguishing factor. In temperate latitudes, differences in temperature
increase in significance with latitude, until they dominate in polar
climates.

17
In Figure 3.4, the global dimension is narrowed down to changes from
south to north in Asia. The climate graphs are arranged so that pupils
can work from south to north or vice versa and confirm the changes
shown in Figure 3.2. The five climatic elements identified in the table at
the bottom of Figure 3.4 show the key items that pupils should look for
when studying climate graphs. Emphasize the need to pick out highest
and lowest monthly temperatures, used for working out annual range of
temperature. The overall shape of the temperature line is a visual
illustration of the temperature range between summer and winter.
Monthly rainfall amounts are clearly displayed in the graphs; total amount
and seasonal distribution are the key elements needed.
Question 1 in the activities on page 38 enables pupils to understand what
is to be checked in Figure 3.2. Question 2 brings pupils back to the
climate of Pakistan. Lahore was chosen because it displays many of the
characteristics of the monsoon climate, without the scale of summer
wetness in coastal Mumbai. It would make sense to use climate data for
the home region if it varies significantly from that of Lahore, such as for
those living in the deserts in the south and west of Pakistan.
How latitude and altitude affect climate is the theme of the next sub-
section. Latitude has the greatest affect on temperature; Figure 3.5
illustrates higher rates of insolation around the Equator than in temperate
and polar latitudes, due to more direct rays of light from the Sun and
smaller area of the Earth’s surface to heat up. Altitude has direct effects
on both temperature and precipitation; these are illustrated in Figures 3.6
and 3.7. Emphasize how high mountain ranges like the Himalayas cause
major variations from the climate experienced in surrounding lowland
areas. Stress the wide climatic variations and the existence of ‘local
climates’ within high mountain ranges. Figure 3.8 attempts to give one
example of this.
Questions in the activities on page 40 continue these themes. In Question
1, labelled diagrams are used for this. Question 2 gives some climate data
for places in the Gilgit Valley. The answers in (a) are 700 metres, 3.8ºC,
and 2.1ºC and in (b) 0.5, and 0.3 per 100 metres. For the answer to (c),
winter temperature change is seen to be closer to the average expected.
Perhaps the strength of the tropical sun may be the offsetting factor in
summer.
Distance from the sea and the wind direction are the next two factors
examined for their effects on climate. The most obvious effect of both of

18
these in South Asia is on total precipitation. The caption on Figure 3.9
guides pupils to work from South-east to North-west Asia so that they
follow the progressive decline in annual precipitation, until they reach
the dry interior (Gobi Desert). Questions A–C in the text are an additional
guide for what to look for in Figure 3.9. Differences in temperature
between land and sea are of little significance to people living in a tropical
country such as Pakistan, but for those living in Siberia they are of major
importance. The examples of Irkutsk and Beijing in Figure 3.10 highlight
the significance of inland locations in temperate latitudes. Questions
D–J in the text help pupils to identify what is most significant.
There is no better example than the South Asian monsoon for showing
the dominant, but different, effects of onshore and offshore winds on
rainfall. The text explains why coastal Pakistan is not as favourably
located as other South Asian countries for receiving the full benefit from
the summer monsoon rains. This should help pupils to understand the
distribution of annual precipitation in Pakistan shown in Figure 3.12.
Questions 1 and 2 in the activities on page 44 check pupils’ understanding
of what is shown in Figures 3.9 and 3.10. Question 3 checks the
understanding of the differences between onshore and offshore winds,
and their effects on rainfall in Pakistan. Question 4 relates this to the
distribution of annual precipitation in Pakistan as shown in Figure 3.12.
This question could be tied more closely to the local region, if desired.

SECTION 2: DO PEOPLE AFFECT CLIMATE? (PAGES 44–47)

This section begins with urban areas, where the question can be answered
with a definite ‘yes’. Some of the content here must be within the
experience of pupils; this can be tapped into and used in the lessons. One
important general theme is that favourable natural conditions for fog
formation are made worse by humans: it then develops into haze and
smog in cities. Many (but not) all people would now answer ‘yes’ to
human contributions to the greenhouse effect and global warming. How
the greenhouse effect works is illustrated in Figure 3.18. Part C puts
forward some of the arguments used by the doubters, the ‘No’ lobby,
which can be used to initiate class, group, or individual discussion.
In the activities on page 47, Question 1 requires pupils to use Figure 3.13
to explain why city centres (particularly in big cities in temperate
latitudes) are measurably warmer than the surrounding countryside on
most days. Question 2 brings the focus back to Pakistan. To help answer

19
part (a) pupils can look ahead to page 103; part (b) tests pupils’ ability to
apply general climatic factors for haze and smog to the specific example
(Karachi). Question 3 requires pupils to identify evidence for climate
change and global warming, and then demonstrate how humans might
be contributing to global warming. Finally they must decide in a reasoned
way their view about the possible human contribution.

SECTION 3: HOW CLIMATE AFFECTS PEOPLE IN PAKISTAN

(PAGES 48–52)
In every country, some types of work are more directly affected by
weather and climate than others. Worldwide, farmers are more dependent
on climate than people in most other occupations. At first the focus of
the text is on Pakistan. Figure 3.20 shows that where physical conditions
are most favourable (relief and soils as well as climate), percentages of
land under cultivation are highest. High agricultural productivity in the
Punjab can be contrasted with very limited opportunities in the dry
uplands of Balochistan. Climatic variations from the average (or expected)
conditions bring problems. The main climatic hazards which affect
Pakistan are described on page 50.
In the activities on page 50, Question 1 requires pupils to observe
photographs and identify what is good and bad about farming in the two
areas of Pakistan shown. The same theme is continued into Question 2,
but this time for Pakistan as a whole. The purpose of Question 3 is to
help pupils realize that not all climatic hazards affect people to the same
degree.
The next short section broadens the coverage of the effects of natural
hazards (including many that are climatic) for the whole world. Figure
3.24 shows how much more serious are losses of life from climatic
hazards, notably drought and flood, than from those tectonic hazards
referred to in Chapters 1 and 2. Questions A–C, which are included as
part of Figure 3.24, help pupils reach this conclusion. The number of
people affected by natural hazards is increasing, and two reasons are put
forward for this in the text. The questions in the activities on page 52
include a mixture of graphical and written responses, plus individual and
class assessment of their importance.

20
WORKBOOK
Activity 1 How do climates change from north to south in Asia?
Activity 2 Tropical cyclones
Activity 3 Flooding in Bangladesh

Workbook Activity 1 states the climate data which was used to draw up
the climate graphs in Figure 3.4. Pupils are required to identify key
elements and complete the table before completing the sentences to
describe how climates change from south to north in Asia. Workbook
Activity 2 is focused more narrowly on tropical cyclones as one of the
major natural hazards affecting people. Question 1 is a skills exercise to
complete a block graph, as an alternative to the more frequently used pie
graphs (variety of presentation is to be encouraged). Question 2 is about
how and why cyclones can be so destructive, while Question 3
concentrates on location in Asia, and why, in terms of cyclones, Pakistan
gets off more lightly than some other Asian countries. The focus of
Workbook Activity 3 is even narrower; however, Bangladesh has perhaps
the highest flood risk of anywhere in the world. In some years, like 2004,
floods were particularly bad; many of the advantages that the floods bring
in normal years are destroyed in years of bad floods.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Knowledge of major climates and related human
activities
How these have been met:
• General survey of how climates change between the Equator and the
Poles
• Factors responsible for these changes including latitude, altitude,
distance from the sea, and wind direction
• How climate affects people and human activities in Pakistan
• Worldwide, how bad are the effects of climatic hazards for people
compared with tectonic hazards

Learning outcomes: Knowledge and understanding of factors affecting

climate and how climate affects human activities
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Look at accuracy and quality of pupils’ answers to questions A–J
posed in the text and used in Activities 1 and 2 on page 44.

21
• Give pupils a list of different occupations affected by the climate in
Pakistan; ask them to describe how climate affects the work and to
give an assessment of the strength of these effects.
• To check understanding of factors, ask pupils to explain why summer
is the wet season and winter is the dry season in Pakistan and much
of the rest of South Asia.

Chapter 4 Water—the most vital natural resource

National Curriculum
Target study area in NC Freshwater Resources, Uses of Freshwater
Resources
Teaching Objectives Knowledge of fresh water as a resource
and of the major sources of fresh water
on Earth (both surface and underground),
their availability, and various uses
Learning Outcomes Understanding of water as a resource and
its different sources; understanding of
the different uses of fresh water and
associated problems with particular
reference to water supply and uses in
Pakistan and the need for conservation

Geographical skills
Practical skills used include interpreting and drawing a variety of graphs,
and drawing labelled diagrams. The new technique is interpretation and
construction of dispersion diagrams.

Key geographical terms

* renewable natural resource * perennial irrigation
* evaporation * tributary river
* condensation * managed river
* run-off * barrage
* impermeable rock * dam
* permeable rock * aquifer
* infiltration * water wealth
* inundation irrigation * desalination

22
SECTION 1: SOURCES OF FRESH WATER (PAGES 54–57)
Expand on the first statement about water being vital for life on Earth.
Stress the scarcity of fresh water as a natural resource, since only 3 per
cent of the water on the Earth’s surface is fresh water, and most of this is
inaccessible for human use because it is locked up as ice and snow.
However, the good news for people is that the available supplies of fresh
water are constantly being renewed by precipitation. This leads into the
study of the water cycle, which requires pupils’ understanding of the six
key geographical terms highlighted in bold in the text. Pupils must also
know the difference between permeable and impermeable rocks, because
they affect the ratio between run-off and infiltration after rain. Stress
their human significance for water supplies, whether obtained on the
surface or from underground.
Question 1 in the activities on page 56 focuses on water-cycle terms with
a Mix and Match exercise to match term to definition. Pupils can make
use of Figure 4.4 to answer Question 2; a simple flow diagram will be
enough to show renewable nature, although for some pupils it may be
helpful to suggest it, starting with ‘precipitation’ at the top. The answer
to Question 3 explains why fresh water is a scarce natural resource (a
theme which will be further developed later in the chapter).
The purpose of the sub-section about uses of freshwater is to emphasize
the value of water as a natural resource, particularly in countries with dry
climates, like Pakistan. Figure 4.6 highlights the dominant use of water
as a source of irrigation for food production in Pakistan. Question 1 in
the activities on page 57 requires pupils to interpret the graph in Figure
4.6 and explain the high agricultural use of water in Pakistan. A skills
exercise in Question 2 (a) is followed by study of how and why the use
of water in a developed country (the UK) with a cooler and wetter
climate, is different from that in Pakistan. Question 3 offers an
opportunity for individual investigation (which might usefully be
undertaken along with Activity 2 on page 16 in the Workbook).

SECTION 2: WATER SUPPLY IN PAKISTAN (PAGES 58–66)

Figure 4.7 introduces pupils to the three main natural stores of fresh
water on land. They are then placed in a Pakistan context, one of the
world’s countries with examples of all three. Figure 4.8 shows that rivers
and surface supplies provide about 80 per cent; however, the contribution
from wells and local groundwater supplies is very important. The purpose

23
of Figure 4.10 is to show that rivers have many more uses than only for
water supply.
Question 1 of the activities on page 59 requires pupils to draw their own
version of Figure 4.7, but then link it to Pakistan by adding names of
rivers such as the Indus, and of sources such as the Himalayas. Question
2 requires pupils to organize the randomly arranged uses in Figure 4.10,
before recognizing potential conflicts between certain river uses. Question
3 checks pupils’ understanding of underground stores. D or E would be
the best choice of place for digging a tube well because of nearness of the
aquifer to the surface. In question 4, pupils need to explain how
underground water supplies are obtained. Question 5 encourages
evaluation after pupils have listed the advantages and disadvantages of
the two major sources of water supply in Pakistan. There is no final
answer to part (c); it is the justification that matters.
Different methods of surface irrigation are illustrated on page 61. All rely
upon water management of the River Indus and its tributaries, wherever
possible, to allow perennial irrigation and year-round cultivation. The
related activities are on page 62. Answering Questions 1 and 2 should
help pupils to understand why the Tarbela Dam was needed for perennial
irrigation. Much of the information needed for the case study answer in
Question 3 can be obtained from pages 61–2, but use of a good atlas map
will help as well.
Next, pupils are introduced to the concept of ‘water wealth’, which relates
a country’s freshwater resources to its total population. There are
enormous variations between world regions and countries, as well as
within countries. Asia is the continent with highest water scarcity (Figure
4.15). Pakistan (like many of its neighbours) has high water scarcity
nationally, now (Figure 4.16) and expected in the future (Figure 4.17).
Within Pakistan much less rain falls in the southern half of the country
(Figure 3.12) as compared to the north. Water scarcity naturally leads to
‘water stress’, made worse in Pakistan by the ever-increasing demands for
more water (Figure 4.18). In relation to geographical techniques, pay
particular attention to Figure 4.15. This might be the first time that most
pupils have met a dispersion diagram, which is a useful technique for
showing the spread and range of a set of values. Refer to the geographical
skills box on page 64.
The related activities are on page 64. In Question 1, pupils are given the
chance to draw a dispersion diagram for themselves and to comment on

24
what it shows. Question 2 requires use of the dispersion diagram in
Figure 4.15. If desired, it would be easy to formulate other questions
about water scarcity at continental and national scales using Figure 4.17;
alternatively, use Workbook Activity 3 on page 17.
The theme of the next short sub-section is how freshwater supplies can
be supplemented. The technology exists to extract fresh water from sea
water using desalination. Unfortunately, for energy-poor countries like
Pakistan, this is not an option. This is why most of the world’s desalination
plants are in oil-rich Gulf States and Saudi Arabia (Figure 4.19). The
advantages and disadvantages of the options for increasing freshwater
availability in a country are given in Figure 4.20. Questions in the
activities on page 65 try to establish how many of these are viable options
for Pakistan. Question 1 confirms the need for more water. Question 2
weighs up the options and leads to a decision. Although there are many
advantages of pupils working in pairs or small groups to discuss the
options, the task can also be undertaken as an individual exercise.
As a conclusion to this section, the costs and benefits of large dams (one
of the most widely used of the options in Figure 4.20) are examined on
page 66. The benefits are labelled in Figure 4.21; these essentially reiterate
what was covered in the section on irrigation works in Pakistan on pages
60 and 61. The newspaper report in Figure 4.22 concentrates on the costs
(social, economic, and environmental), which are described by it as
‘unacceptable’. In the activities, Question 1 focuses on advantages,
Question 2 on disadvantages, and Question 3 requires an assessment of
likely public opinion about large dams in Pakistan.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 The water cycle
Activity 2 Water use in the home—Pakistan and the UK compared
Activity 3 Differences in water wealth between continents—now
and in the future
Activity 4 Effects of forest clearance on the water cycle

Workbook Activity 1 checks on understanding of key watercycle terms

(Question 1) and conditions which favour high rates or large amounts
for three of them (Question 2). Workbook Activity 2 illustrates
differences in the amount and types of water use between people in the
developing and developed worlds. Water use is shown to be four times

25
greater in the UK than in Pakistan. Some of the reasons for explaining
the size of this difference are in the uses; these indicate activities
associated with greater wealth; household appliances undertake work
done by hand in developing countries. What is not directly shown, but
only implied, is that virtually every UK home, even in rural areas, has a
piped water supply inside the house, permanently available at the turn of
a tap.
Workbook Activity 3 makes use of Figures 4.15 and 4.17 on pages 62
and 63. The table entry for Europe has been done as a guide to the pupils
for what they are expected to do. The theme of Workbook Activity 4 is
changes to the water cycle as a result of forest clearances. It is shown to
cause increases in surface run-off at the expense of water infiltrating into
the ground and evaporating back into the atmosphere. The already
significant changes resulting from partial forest clearance will be further
increased once forest clearance is complete. The reason why this activity
was placed fourth instead of second was that it can be used as a link into
the next chapter about Forest Resources.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Knowledge of freshwater sources and their uses
How these have been met:
• Reference to the distribution and availability of freshwater sources on
the Earth’s surface and general uses of fresh water
• Water supply and water use in Pakistan (as an example)
• Fresh water as resource for human use worldwide—how scarce is
it?
• How can available fresh water supplies be increased to satisfy all the
demands?

Learning outcomes: Understanding of water as a resource and how it is

used, including the need for conservation
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Use the diagrams showing natural freshwater stores, such as Figures
4.7 and 4.11, to check pupils’ understanding of water sources and how
they can be used by people.
• Show pupils photographs or diagrams of different water uses and ask
for comments about possible sources and size of use.

26
• Ask pupils to identify major zones with and without water scarcity
from Figure 4.17 and relate these to the distribution of major climates
in Chapter 3.
• Look at the worth of pupils’ answers to activity questions which act
as section summaries such as Activity 3 on page 56, Activity 5 page
59 and Activities 1 and 2 on page 65.

Chapter 5 Forest resources

National Curriculum
Target study areas in the NC Forest Resources
Teaching Objectives Appreciation of the importance of forests
to the Earth’s environment, including a
study of major types of forests
Learning Outcomes Knowledge of forest resources and their
importance in economic development in
general, and to Pakistan in particular

Geographical skills
Practical skills used include observation and interpretation from
photographs and sketches, organizing information into a table, and
drawing sketches to show changes in vegetation cover and soils

Key geographical terms

* natural resource
* ecosystem
* soil erosion
* desertification
* nutrient cycle

SECTION 1: WHY PLANTS AND FORESTS ARE IMPORTANT

(PAGES 68–74)
Forests are a major part of the Earth’s natural resource base upon which
humans depend. Stress the importance of green plants for the survival of
all life on Earth, not just human. If not already studied as part of their
science course, acquaint pupils with the process of photosynthesis and
the concept of food chains. Introduce pupils to the concept of ecosystems.

27
Ask pupils to identify the ‘living’ parts of the forest ecosystem from
Figure 5.4 (trees and animals) and the ‘non-living’ elements (sun, rain,
and soils). Explain how they are linked together by natural cycles, water
(refer back to the water cycle), energy, and nutrients. Ask pupils to
identify stages in the nutrient cycle from Figure 5.4 beginning with ‘dead
leaves fall’. Why do forests provide more than just food for people?
In the activities on page 70, Question 1 is about the Earth’s natural
resources in general. Question 2 is about plants as the producers of food
on Earth for consumers such as humans and other animals. Question 3
requires pupils to describe the different ways in which forests are a
valuable natural resource for people.
As an introduction to the next sub-section about the main types of forests
and their global locations, it could be useful to look back to page 36 and
refresh pupils’ memories about the main types of climate and their
distribution according to latitude, perhaps one zone at a time (tropical,
temperate, and polar). Climate is the main control for the world
distribution of natural vegetation and forest types. From Figure 5.5 it is
possible for pupils to identify the main natural vegetation zones that were
dominated by forests—tropical rainforest and savanna in the tropics,
Mediterranean, deciduous, and coniferous in temperate latitudes. Two
types of forest extend over much larger areas than the others, mainly
because of limited clearances; their contrasting distributions are shown
in Figure 5.6. These two forest types are the focus of study, with brief
mentions of monsoon and savanna.
What makes the forests unique is the theme under-pinning the study of
tropical rainforests. The ideal climate for vegetation growth (all year heat
and rainfall) explains forest size and diversity. The activities on page 73
relate to work covered so far. Question 1 is to identify salient points about
the world distribution of natural vegetation. Question 2 focuses on
tropical rainforest characteristics.
The brief references to monsoon forest and savanna are made in the
context of how they are different from the rainforests because of changes
in climate away from the Equator. How the vegetation adapts to the
longer and more pronounced dry season forms the focus of the coverage.
The next sub-section is devoted to coniferous forests. Many of the
distinctive characteristics of the trees and forests are shown in Figure
5.11. Pupils can be asked to identify differences with tropical rainforests.
The text explains how coniferous trees are adapted to withstand

28
challenging climatic conditions. The activities on page 74 focus on the
characteristics of the monsoon forests of Asia.

SECTION 2: ECONOMIC USES OF FORESTS AND TREES

(PAGES 75–77)
The major difference in timber use between developed and developing
countries is highlighted first, essentially between commercial and
subsistence uses, and the reasons for it. Figure 5.14 gives summary
percentages for the continents which show this, as well as a comparative
value for Pakistan. Of course, commercial forestry does exist in tropical
and monsoon forests, but exploitation is less easy here than among the
stands of coniferous trees in temperate forests. The text explains why.
Question 1 in the activities on page 77 is skills-based, to show in a more
visual way the major differences in use of wood between developed and
developing countries. Question 2 requires pupils to assemble different
uses of wood from trees before answering Question 3, which is an
explanation for the section’s major theme. Question 4 is about sustainable
forest use. One of the arguments put forward against further use of
hardwoods from tropical rainforests is non-sustainability, since it takes a
long time for hardwood trees to grow to full maturity; also, the most
commercially valuable trees are dotted around the forests. They cannot
be replanted after felling in the same way that fast growing coniferous
trees can. Man-made coniferous forests, such as the one shown on the
Alpine slopes in Figure 5.16, are almost indistinguishable from natural
forests.

SECTION 3: FOREST RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN (PAGES 77–82)

Figure 5.17 is a ‘historical’ record of what the natural vegetation cover of
Pakistan was thought to have been like before human interference. The
climate is too dry in most of the country for thick forests; instead it is
likely that thorn forest was the dominant cover in most of the country.
This has now been reduced to thorn scrub at best (Figure 5.18). The
exception is the coniferous forest on the slopes of the northern mountains.
Figure 5.19 is a section from north to south showing the same information
as on Figure 5.17, but in a different way. The pie charts and map in
Figures 5.20 and 5.21 show just how badly off Pakistan is for forests and
forest resources. This theme is continued into Question 1 of the activities
on page 79. Question 2 gives pupils the opportunity to refer to vegetation
cover (or the lack of it) in their home area.

29
The text becomes more general again relating to the effects of forest
clearance on the water and nutrient cycles. Figures 5.22 and 5.23 illustrate
the workings of the water cycle before and after forest clearance. This
reinforces the content of Workbook Activity 4 on pages 18 and 19 for
Chapter 4. Figures 5.24 and 5.25 do the same for the nutrient cycle. The
negative results of forest clearances include soil erosion and desertification.
The related activities are on page 81; the questions cover usefulness of
forests, changes in the nutrient cycle and soil erosion. The final part of
Question 3 provides pupils with another chance to think and then make
a judgement.
The chapter summary is a random arrangement of students’ views about
the advantages of forests in Figure 5.26, which pupils are required to
organize under four headings in Question 1 of the activities on page 82.
In Question 2, pupils are asked to select the three which, in their opinion,
are the most important and give reasons for their choice. The reasons
given are more important than the choices. Drawing a poster in
Question 3, of the type that might be designed by a conservation/
environmental group, is an alternative way to communicate a message.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Tropical rainforests
Activity 2 Coniferous forests
Activity 3 Forest and tree cover in Pakistan

Workbook Activity 1 reinforces pupils’ knowledge of flora and fauna

within tropical rainforests. Workbook Activity 2 does the same for the
flora of coniferous forests, but by using a different approach to answering.
Workbook Activity 3 narrows the area of study down to Pakistan and is
mainly a skills-based exercise to show the distribution of forest and tree
cover in Pakistan, before written description and explanation are
required.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Appreciation of the importance of forests and
knowledge of the major types of forests
How these have been met:
• Study of why forests are important for life on Earth, in general, and
for people, in particular

30
• General study of the main types of forests and their locations,
supported by special studies of tropical rainforests and coniferous
forests
• Economic uses of forests and trees and an example of forest resources
in Pakistan
• Study of the disturbing effects caused by forest clearance on the water
and nutrient cycles
Learning outcomes: Knowledge of forest resources and understanding
of their importance
Check that the objectives have been met:
• For knowledge of world forest resources, look at the worth of pupils’
answers to Activities 1 and 2 on page 73.
• For understanding of the importance of forests for the environment,
look at the worth of pupils’ answers to Activities 1–3 on page 81.
• For understanding of the poverty of forest resources in Pakistan, look
at the worth of pupils’ answers to Activity 1 on page 79.

Chapter 6 Minerals and fossil fuels

National Curriculum
Target study area in the NC Minerals and Fossil Fuels
Teaching Objectives Study of the importance of minerals and
fossil fuels as resources for economic
development, including an appreciation
of mining as an important human
activity
Learning Outcomes Understanding the importance of
minerals and fossil fuels; appreciating
differences in economic opportunity
between Pakistan and other Asian
countries, especially oil-rich Gulf States

Geographical skills
Practical skills used in activities include horizontal and vertical bar
graphs; study of physical and political maps from atlases; drawing a
sketch from a photograph with labels to match the stated purpose

31
Key geographical terms
* mineral
* reserves
* fossil fuel
* opencast mining
* Industrial Revolution

SECTION 1: THE WORLD’S MAJOR MINERALS (PAGES 84–88)

This section begins with a simple classification of minerals between
metallic and non-metallic, using examples of minerals most likely to be
familiar to pupils. Minerals are very widely distributed within the rocks
of the Earth. However, the point to emphasize about the exploitation of
minerals is that they must be concentrated in large quantities at or near
the surface in order to be commercially viable. One of the few exceptions
to this is gold mining by individuals ‘panning’ in streams because of the
high value of gold. Figure 6.3 identifies certain areas of the world which
can be described as mineral-rich—places where in earlier geological
periods conditions were favourable for large-scale mineral formation. The
map shows that western Asia is rich in oil and gas, but in nothing else.
Pakistan is definitely in the category of a mineral-poor country. Minerals
that are in plentiful supply, such as rock salt and limestone, are of low
value.
Within the activities on page 86, Question 1 asks for examples of useful
minerals. The percentages in the Information Box can be used to explain
in Question 2 why the Middle East is a major oil exporter; the difference
between world percentages for production and consumption is 23 per
cent. Over three quarters of the oil produced is available for export. Since
the region has more than half the world’s reserves of oil, it is going to
export oil for many more years, even if home consumption increases.
Question 3 brings the focus back to Pakistan with a skills exercise and
written explanation.
As an introduction to the next part on fossil fuels, pupils can be asked
for examples of fossil fuel use by them and their families. How dependent
are they upon fossil fuels? Emphasize the dominant role of fossil fuels in
allowing improvements in technology and economic development. This
section on fossil fuels is laid out in the form of a question and answer
guide, supported by illustrations of the ‘fossil’ element. Figure 6.9 on page
88 exemplifies the earlier general point that minerals need to be formed

32
and found in sufficient quantities to be commercially viable. Oil
companies spend much time and money ascertaining first where the
geological structure is favourable for the formation of an oil trap and next
on trial drilling to discover whether the oil actually exists and whether it
is in commercial quantities. Pupils’ knowledge of the difference between
permeable and impermeable rocks (covered in Chapter 4) is essential to
the understanding of this topic.
The answers to Questions 1 and 2 within the activities on page 88 can be
obtained from the question and answer guide. Question 3 also uses Figure
6.9, while Question 4 is a follow-up task, exploring pupils’ comprehension
more fully.

SECTION 2: METHODS OF MINING AND DAMAGE TO THE

ENVIRONMENT (PAGES 89–91)
The focus is on how mining damages the environment. Pupils are
introduced to the two methods of mining, using coal as the example, but
many other minerals could have been used instead. When studying
Figures 6.10 and 6.11, pupils are recommended to read the labels in
number order. Of the two methods, opencast mining is much easier and
cheaper than deep mining. Explain to the pupils that opencast mining
uses the same methods as quarrying to obtain rocks. The problems of
deep mining are highlighted in the text, supported by the Information
Box naming major mining disasters in the three years 2005–07. Pupils
could be asked why anyone ever wants to be a miner. The main answer
is that it is better paid than other jobs in the same area; in some places it
is the only type of male work available. Mining and environmental
damage are inseparable for the reasons explained in the text and
summarized in the spider diagram in Figure 6.12.
The answers needed for Question 1 in the activities on page 91 are all in
the text and Figures, and likewise with the answer to Question 2; however,
requiring pupils to draw a spider diagram means that they need to isolate
disadvantages more effectively. Question 3 requires higher levels of
understanding and more judgement. The cheapest choice would certainly
be C (oil trap on land) and the most expensive B (deep underground
mine). The positions of the other two on the line are less clear cut; the
opencast mine, despite needing more workers throughout its period of
operation, might just be cheaper than the gas rig in deep water because
it is on land. Although more automated, setting up and servicing a gas

33
rig are always more expensive at sea than on land. Explanation in part
(b) is made easier by asking only for the two extremes. The others are
better left for class discussion.

SECTION 3: USES AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS

(PAGES 91–93)
The focus switches from mining to use. Stress to pupils, with examples,
how most minerals have a multitude of different uses, many of which
only the companies processing them are aware of. Figure 6.13 on page 92
helps to explain this. By way of introduction to the sub-section about
minerals and economic growth and development, provide pupils with a
historical perspective of mineral use by humans—from the earliest times
(e.g. Iron Age, Bronze Age). The text in this book picks up the story from
the time of the ‘Industrial Revolution’ and the major changes wrought by
using coal, steam power, and metals such as iron ore. Emphasize why this
was such a revolution; Figure 6.14 tries to help with simple sketches of
before and after for making things and for transport. Bring it up to date.
How great are the changes now being wrought by the ‘Hi-tech Revolution’?
Why are none of them possible without the Earth’s mineral supplies?
The activities relating to this part of the work are on page 93. Question
1 requires pupils to extend Figure 6.13 to include precious and ferrous
metals. Question 2 focuses on the two periods of great change for
economic development. Question 3 gives pupils the opportunity to bring
Figure 6.14 up to date using their own hi-tech experiences.

SECTION 4: MINERAL RESOURCES IN PAKISTAN AND THEIR USES

(PAGES 93–100)
Once again the study area is narrowed down to Pakistan. Continuing one
of the earlier themes, some of the many uses of limestone are shown in
Figure 6.15, followed by the uses of other commonly found minerals in
Pakistan in Figure 6.16. Fossil fuel and energy supplies are singled out
for a short special study and their distribution is summarized in Figure
6.17. The greatest disappointment for Pakistan has been the failure to
discover large deposits of oil. Of all the minerals, oil has the greatest
number of and most varied uses, as Figure 6.19 shows. For many of these
uses, there are no direct substitutes and certainly none that are as
cheap.

34
Question 1, in the activities on page 96, concentrates on the Salt Range,
the area with the greatest variety of minerals in Pakistan. Pupils may go
back to Figure 6.4 to answer part (a) more quickly. Part (b) maintains the
theme of varied uses. Question 2 requires more careful study of the oil
refinery in Figure 6.18. Question 3 is intended to increase pupils’
awareness of the dominance of products made from oil, above that of all
other minerals. Figure 6.19 provides the clues for this task.
Pakistan’s disadvantage in terms of minerals has hindered economic
development. Oil is an expensive import. High oil consumption and
development go together. This is what Figure 6.20 shows—that the
average person in the USA consumes 25 times more energy per year than
the average person in Pakistan, a truly massive difference. Unfortunately
for the economy of Pakistan, oil consumption has been rising (shown in
Figure 6.21). The proportion that needs to be imported is greater for oil
than for any of the other energy sources (Figure 6.22). Shortage of oil is
an important contributory factor to why Pakistan remains primarily an
agricultural country, with up to half its working population still employed
in farming (Figure 6.23).
To vary the geographical skills practised, Question 1 in the activities on
page 98 requires the drawing of a line graph which should provide a clear
visual impression of the persistent increase in energy consumption in
Pakistan. This is despite the low energy consumption per head as
compared to developed countries, as shown in Figure 6.20 (Question 2).
When the totals of all the energy sources shown in Figure 6.22 are added
together, it is the equivalent of 47.3m tonnes of oil (Question 3). The
energy gap in (a) is 16.1m tonnes; the percentage produced in Pakistan
is 66 per cent (b). The difference between production and consumption
of oil in Pakistan is represented by a pie chart (c). It is a drain on the
economy and limits industrial as well as economic development (d). A
study of Figure 6.23 (for answering Question 4) shows that Pakistan is
still far from having the employment structure associated with an
economically developed country, even if its industrial development is
greater than that of many developing countries in Africa. Farming
continues to dominate, and industry is the smallest sector of employment,
despite a high dependence on labour rather than machines in the many
small workshops.
The summary page aims to promote discussion and debate about what
might be holding back industrial progress in Pakistan. Figure 6.24 shows

35
general factors which favour industrial growth in a country. In a way, the
fact file comparing Japan and Pakistan is a little unfair, because Japan is
such an industrial powerhouse, and something of a unique case. The
disparity between the two countries in wealth and industrial output for
export is enormous. But it does reveal one interesting statistic—the
percentages employed in manufacturing are similar in the two countries,
albeit for entirely different reasons. This shows the levels of mechanization
in Japanese factories and industrial efficiency which reduces the number
of employees. Figure 6.24 is the starting point for answering the questions
in the activities on page 100. One factor, capital, has been filled in to
provide a guide for how to answer for the other factors. This is the ideal
type of activity for a group brainstorming session as there is plenty to
discuss; the end product needs to be tangible, which is why drawing a
spider diagram has been suggested.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Chuquicamata copper mine, Chile
Activity 2 All about fuels
Activity 3 Rising world oil prices
Activity 4 Oil refining

Workbook Activity 1 requires use of Figure 6.1, a valuable resource about

opencast mining on an enormous scale, in a desert where there are few
permanent inhabitants and where there is little destruction of vegetation
and habitats. Massive trucks and cranes are dwarfed and almost invisible
in comparison with the scale and size of the open pit. Question 2 and the
information about the mine are attempts to reinforce pupils’ understanding
of this.
Workbook Activity 2, as it says, is all about fuels. Looking for differences
between six pairs will increase pupils’ understanding of the topic. The
non-renewable fossil fuels are isolated in Question 2. Question 3 tests
pupils’ understanding of the use of fossil fuels in comparison with other
fuels that are widely used in rural areas of developing countries (wood
and animal dung). This is due to the availability and cheapness of the
latter (mostly free).
Workbook Activity 3 includes the record of world oil prices from 1900.
A major change that occurred during the 1970s forms the basis of
Questions 1 and 2. Before this time, prices were consistently low; after

36
this they began to take off, although with significant fluctuations. The
phenomenal rise from 2004/5 is the basis of Questions 3 and 4. You may
wish to update pupils on the (approximate) current oil price because
during early 2009 the price fell well back from its peak of US$149 per
barrel in mid-2008, making the range of fluctuations greater than
anything previously known. (It is important to explain briefly the reasons
behind these price changes. After 1973, oil prices rose when OPEC—the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries—put an embargo
(control) on the export and raised prices. Later, in the 21st century, oil
prices rose again as a result of the Iraq War.) In Question 5, pupils are
required to think about likely winners and losers from high oil prices.
The winners include oil-producing countries (especially those with high
exports), the big oil companies, companies and people engaged in
searching for and developing new oil fields, and foreign workers in the
Gulf States with plenty of employment opportunities. The losers include
countries without oil that rely on imports, industries and transport
companies which use large amounts of oil (metal smelting and chemical
industries, owners of aircraft, ships, trucks, and buses), and consumers
(ordinary people) with cost increases in fuels for cooking, for electricity,
and for manufactured goods. The poorer the country, the more chance
of their economy being badly hit by oil price rises.
Workbook Activity 4, part 1 begins with a plan of an oil refinery
(supporting what is shown on page 95 in the textbook). The crude oil
comes in by tanker and pipeline (A); petrol and refined products go out
by rail and road (B). The differences in bulk, and input of one product
compared with the output of many different products, explain why
different means of transport are normally used (C). What happens at A
is described in the label on Figure 6.18 in the textbook (D). A variety of
storage tanks, smaller compared with those for the crude oil, are shown
(E). The second part is a decision-making exercise. Four possible
locations for siting an oil refinery are indicated by letters A–D on the
map. The choice which is easiest to justify is C—on flat land, but near to
deep water for large oil tankers carrying crude oil, away from the sand
and mud deposits, built-up area, and sensitive wildlife in the nature
reserve. Of the others, A is next to shallower water and further up the
estuary, and perhaps too close to the settlement, with the danger of an
explosion and air pollution. B is shallow water and environmentally
sensitive. D is near the deep water and well out of the way, but is on high
and sloping land, where it will not be as easy to build the refinery.

37
Question 3 is an opportunity for more able pupils to write and explain
the usefulness of oil (the modern equivalent of coal during the early
Industrial Revolution).

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Importance of minerals and fossil fuels for economic
development. Appreciation of mining as an important human activity
How these have been met:
• Classification of minerals and identification of major mining areas of
the world
• Methods of mining (opencast and deep mining)
• Uses and importance of minerals for wealth and economic
development
• Economic effects of mineral poverty with particular reference to
Pakistan

Learning outcomes: Understanding of the importance of minerals and

fossil fuels for economic development; appreciation of differences in
economic opportunities that follows from the presence or otherwise of
minerals.
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Look at the worth of pupil answers to Activities 1 and 2 on page 91.
• Look at the quality of pupils’ work in Activities 1–2 on page 100 for
limited industrial development in mineral-poor Pakistan.
• Provide comparable industrial and wealth data for countries of
contrasting mineral wealth such as Middle East and South Asian
countries with and without oil, or South Africa and its mineral-rich
neighbours and other sub-Saharan countries, for pupil study and
explanation.

38
Chapter 7 Pollution—types, causes, and effects

National Curriculum
Target study area in the NC Environmental Problems
Teaching Objectives Study of pollution as a hazard; knowledge
and understanding of major
environmental problems associated with
air and water pollution, and land
degradation
Learning Outcomes Recognition of different types of
pollution and understanding of pollution
as a hazard to human life and activities

Geographical skills
Practical skills used include interpreting and drawing graphs, making
observations of pollution from photographs and as part of an investigation
in the local area near home or school, and making summary sheets for
pollution information and observations

Key geographical terms

* pollution * acid rain
* air pollution * salinization
* land pollution * eutrophication
* water pollution * toxic waste

SECTION 1: TYPES OF POLLUTION (PAGES 102–111)

As an introduction to this topic you might ask pupils to investigate types
of pollution in the local area and their effects. Then use the evidence in
Figure 7.2 as a warning that, while most pollution is from people, some
is natural, particularly in areas of volcanic activity. Emissions of sulphur
have given this stream in Costa Rica (below the volcanic crater shown in
Figure 2.17) its yellow-brown colour. Begin with as precise a definition
of the term ‘pollution’ as possible and refer to Figure 7.3 to examine
different ways in which people pollute the environment. For ease of study,
pollution is normally classified according to the natural environment
being polluted. Air, land, and water pollution are studied in that order.

39
The underlying point about air pollution is that it is both global and local
in its effects. The most obvious example of global pollution, the
greenhouse effect and global warming, was covered in Chapter 3. Chapter
7 focuses on local pollution, both types and effects. Air pollution is always
going to be greatest and easiest to observe where large numbers of people
are concentrated—in big urban areas. All big cities experience the type
of traffic congestion shown in Figure 7.4 on work days. Labels on Figure
7.4 identify the cocktail of gases released from exhausts; those on the
right label the effects on people and the environment. Certain cities,
including some in the developed world, are noted for their high levels of
air pollution; refer pupils back to pages 44–45 in the chapter on climate.
Wet, windy climates, such as that of the UK, aid dispersal of pollutants,
whereas climates with sinking air and light winds, such as in Pakistan,
favour accumulation.
In the activities on page 104, Question 1 requires pupils to identify the
types of air, land, and water pollution shown in Figure 7.3. Explain that
what this Figure shows is far from complete; as an extension activity
pupils could be asked to add to what the sketch shows. Question 2 brings
pupils back closer to their likely personal experiences, while Question 3
makes fuller use of Figure 7.4 and supports earlier work in Question 2 in
the activities on page 47.
The next section is about land pollution. The focus is upon the two types
most associated with hot, dry climates, namely salinization and
desertification. Words ending in ‘-ization’ like salinization, urbanization,
etc. indicate increasing amounts or increasing numbers. Salinization is
not simply salt in the soil (some salt is present in all soils in dry climates),
but increasing amounts to the point where plant growth is badly affected,
as shown in Figure 7.5. The cropland shown in the photograph has passed
through all the stages shown in the flow diagram in Figure 7.6. The use
of large amounts of water for irrigation is the primary cause—but how
much cropland would there be in Pakistan without the use of irrigation
water? The Information Box shows that this problem is not unique to
Pakistan.
Refer back to page 81 for desertification: it is soil erosion in dry climates,
which leads to the spread of deserts. Natural vegetation rarely forms a
complete cover in desert and semi-desert areas due to lack of rainfall (to
be explained under natural regions in Explore Book 3). Any human
activity which overuses the limited vegetation resources runs the risk of

40
triggering off the sequence of events illustrated in the flow diagram in
Figure 7.8. Activities related to land pollution are on page 106. Questions
1 and 2 are about salinization and desertification, with particular
reference to Pakistan. Question 3 is a comparative exercise between them,
based on what can be seen in the two photographs in Figures 7.5 and
7.9.
Water pollution is the most widespread of all, simply because most people
in the world live close to a water course. The red lines showing water use
on the sketch in Figure 7.10 indicate why the risk of water pollution from
humans and their activities is so high. Emphasize to pupils how the water
flowing down large rivers, such as the Indus or the Ganges (perhaps an
even better example to use), will have been used many times, in several
different ways, before it reaches the sea. Figure 7.10 shows just some of
the ways. The other point to emphasize is that the risks of pollution are
not equal from all the uses. For example, water in electricity power
stations is simply used for cooling and passes back into the river warmer
than it was, but without any contamination, whereas, if water from
factories and homes is returned untreated, it is more likely to be toxic
and a risk to plant and animal life downstream. Figure 7.11 is a summary
table giving causes, effects, and an assessment of how serious the pollution
is for each of the three main users of river water.
The answers to Question 1(a) in the activities on page 108 are choice of
snow/ice in the mountains or lake for natural water store, and dam or
reservoir for man-made store. For (b) the least pollution is where there
is no sign of settlement upstream from the dam; in general, the nearer
the source, the more guaranteed the purity of the water, with mountain
springs being one of the most used sources for bottled water. The nearer
the mouth of the river, the greater is the chance of polluted water. After
studying the three types of pollution, pupils are in an even better position
to extend or initiate an investigation into pollution in the local area.
Question 2 suggests an order for doing this and provides a framework
for making an overall assessment.
A broader, more worldwide view of water pollution follows. First, pupils
are encouraged to think about the benefits of clean water—social,
environmental, and economic. There are many causes of poverty in rural
areas of developing countries, but unsafe and inadequate domestic water
supply is definitely an important contributor. The flow diagram in Figure
7.12 shows this. Again there are many reasons why there is not the same

41
size of gap between urban and rural wealth for people living in rural areas
in developed countries. One of them is equal access to clean water (refer
back to Workbook Activity 2, Chapter 4 for the major contrasts in water
use between rural Pakistan and rural UK). The two sets of bar graphs on
page 110 show the inadequacy of sanitation provision in developing
countries and in rural areas in particular. Reasons are easy to find and
these have been assembled in the spider diagram in Figure 7.15.
The activities on page 111 focus on clean water and sanitation in Pakistan.
Equivalent values to those in Figure 7.14 for sanitation are stated in
Question 1 to enable pupils to draw them up into a pie chart in part (a).
In their comments in part (b), pupils need to bear in mind that the values
in Figure 7.14 are for all countries, both rich and poor, so that Pakistan
cannot be expected to match them, but do its percentages have to be so
low? Question 2 is for pupils to place reasons in order of importance and
to justify the top two. Question 3 can be answered in writing or with the
help of an amended version of the poverty cycle flow diagram.

SECTION 2: HOW BAD IS POLLUTION IN PAKISTAN?

(PAGES 111–114)
For the rest of the chapter, the focus remains upon pollution in Pakistan.
Some examples of air, water, and land pollution are shown in Figure 7.16.
Ask the pupils how many of these have been experienced or seen by them.
Special mention is made of Karachi and its pollution problems, because
it is far and away the largest city, as well as being the major port and
industrial centre. Also, it is close to coastal mangrove forests and, as
previously mentioned, has a dry climate favouring high levels of air
pollution. In other words, human and physical factors combine to
increase the amount of pollution.
The information in Figure 7.17 gives an example of the problems for clean
water supply facing most rural dwellers in Pakistan. Later, in Chapter 8
on page 123, the situation described here can be compared with that in
villages where improvements in water supply have been made. Question 1
in the activities on page 113 asks pupils to describe and explain the
problems in the rural areas (to link in later with Question 1 in the
activities on page 124). Question 2 focuses on pollution in Karachi and
why it is so bad. Question 3 gives pupils the chance to compare what they
can observe for Karachi as a whole with their own local experiences.
The map in Figure 7.18 only indicates in general terms where pollution

42
and environmental damage are most noticeable. However, it guides pupils
towards the main issue in different parts of the country—deforestation
in the mountains and uplands of the north and west, waterlogging of soils
and high salinity in the irrigated croplands of the Indus Valley, unsafe
drinking water in dry rural areas of the south and west, and marine
pollution close to the port of Karachi. These can be identified and
elaborated upon by pupils on the summary sheet requested in Question
1 in the activities on page 114. Question 2 provides a framework for a
summary of earlier investigations of pollution in pupils’ home areas.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Traffic pollution in big cities
Activity 2 Desertification
Activity 3 How human activities cause river pollution
Activity 4 Pollution in Karachi

In Workbook Activity 1 pupils are required to put together in Question 1,

using a different style of diagram, the pollution risks to human health
and the environment from heavy traffic in cities. Questions 2 and 3 are
to be answered from pupils’ own experiences of traffic pollution. The two
diagrams in Workbook Activity 2 illustrate the southern spread of the
Sahara Desert in Africa (sometimes referred to as the ‘advancing Sahara’).
Pupils are expected to describe and explain the changes and then to
suggest what is likely to happen in future if the process of desertification
continues.
Workbook Activity 3 is based around a diagram, which is a variation on
Figure 7.10 on page 107. Pupils are required to fill the boxes to describe
how three different human activities cause river pollution. The best
position for P on the diagram is downstream from the oil refinery and
tanker terminal where the effects of all upstream water users and
pollution will be felt. As an extension activity, go back to the uses of rivers
on page 59 and discuss concerns of river use. Some reactions of residents
living with Karachi’s pollution, taken from a newspaper article, are quoted
in speech bubbles in Workbook Activity 4. Pupils are asked to summarize
the causes and effects of the pollution and comment upon how much
ordinary people can do about it.

43
SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Knowledge and understanding of pollution as a
hazard, and the major environmental problems associated with air, water,
and land pollution
How have these been met:
• Classification of types of pollution for what is included
• Separate studies of air, land, and water pollution dealing with
characteristics, causes, and effects
• Coverage of these includes references to where and why pollution is
greatest
• Assessment of the nature and distribution of different types of
pollution in Pakistan

Learning outcomes: Recognition of different types of pollution and

appreciation of the effects of pollution, which makes it a hazard to human
life and activities
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Look at the accuracy of pupils’ answers to Activity 1 on page 104 and
Activities 1–3 on page 113.
• Show pupils different examples of pollution and ask them to identify
types and effects, and then to suggest explanation for causes.
• Assess the worth of pupils’ own investigations into pollution in their
home areas for Activity 2 on page 109 and Activity 2 on page 114.

Chapter 8 Pollution—can it be controlled?

National Curriculum
Target area of study in the NC Environmental Problems
Teaching Objectives Introduction to ways of controlling
pollution, including seeking alternatives
to fossil fuels, and ways to improve water
quality and supply
Learning Outcomes Appreciation and evaluation of people’s
roles and responsibility to improve the
natural environment and maintain a
healthy environment for life and work

44
Geographical skills
Practical skills used include labelled sketches and drawing graphs
(including a pictograph)

Key geographical terms

* recycle
* alternative energy source
* sustainable energy
* acid rain

SECTION 1: WAYS TO CONTROL POLLUTION (PAGES 116–121)

Discuss general issues—why pollution is cheap but cleaning it up is
expensive, why governments and authorities are reluctant to tackle the
obvious pollution from transport (Figure 8.2 and earlier). The text is
arranged according to the ‘stick and carrot’ approaches to controlling
pollution. The stick approach involves taking direct action and punishing
companies, organizations, and individuals who fail to comply with laws,
rules, and regulations. One change that makes a big difference is
compulsory installation of catalytic converters on car exhausts; it takes
nine modern cars to give out the same emissions as one old car (Figure
8.4), but fitting the converter costs money. Some pressure from the
authorities is needed. In developing countries, more progress is being
made with urban public transport, such as increasing numbers of CNG-
powered vehicles (Figure 8.1), than with trucks and private cars. The
carrot approach is gentler and relies upon better education to make people
think in terms of the three Rs—reduce, recycle and reuse. Figure 8.5 on
page 118 illustrates recycling and reuse. Developed countries and rich
people in developing countries are the main culprits for creating waste.
Some cities in developing countries have very efficient waste collection
and recycling systems, even if they often form part of the informal
sector.
Question 1 in the activities on page 118 is about catalytic converters.
Question 2 is about Los Angeles and what the authorities have done there
to try to reduce the city’s notoriously high smog levels. Drawing the graph
should give clear visual evidence for the downward trend in smoggy days,
with immediate reductions recorded after the regulatory changes in 1975
and 1996. Individual pupil views are encouraged by the question wording
in (d), hence there is no ‘right’ answer. But the natural conditions for fog

45
formation remain and there is still a base level of pollution from transport
and other human activities in one of the world’s big cities, Los Angeles.
Another approach to controlling pollution is to seek alternatives to fossil
fuels, which are non-polluting or considerably less polluting. Best of all
are energy sources which rely on natural resources which will never run
out (water flow after rain, wind, sun, heat from volcanoes, and waves of
the sea). These are truly renewable and sustainable. Slightly different is
nuclear power (shown in Figure 8.6 C). The most detail is given about
hydroelectric (hydel) power because it is the alternative of greatest
importance in Pakistan. Mention of Tarbela Dam on page 120 supports
earlier references to it in the context of irrigation stores (pages 60–61).
Advantages of alternative energy sources are summarized in the spider
diagram in Figure 8.9. The obvious question which needs answering is:
if alternative sources are renewable, sustainable, and non-polluting, why
are they not used more? Figure 8.10 gives the principal reason—cost.
Also, many alternatives require new technological breakthroughs to make
them as cost-effective as fossil fuels. Fossil fuels have been so cheap and
so easy to use for so long that the impetus to undertake research and
development for alternatives has never been strong enough.
In the activities on page 121, Question 1 requires pupils to use varied
figures and text in order to give information about two alternative energy
sources as examples. Question 2 requires pupils to think about which of
the newer alternatives might be useful in Pakistan in future years. Of the
choices given, solar energy would appear to offer the best prospects in
terms of the country’s natural resources, but look at its relative cost in
Figure 8.10.

SECTION 2: WAYS OF IMPROVING WATER QUALITY AND SUPPLY

(PAGES 122–125)
An improved, clean, and safe water supply will improve the quality of life
and standard of living of people in developing countries more than any
other change. Fortunately, international awareness of the issue is
increasing, even if implementation can be slow to follow. New statistics
quoted on page 122 and earlier data (page 110) make grim reading. The
example in Figure 8.12 on page 123 shows what can be done, and
describes the benefits which follow from the provision of a clean and
adequate water supply. What a contrast to the picture painted in Figure
7.17 on page 112! The supporting activities are on page 124. Question 1

46
is arranged as a case study with headings suggested to lead pupils through
it. In a sense, it is a ‘before and after’ exercise comparing Figures 7.17 and
8.12. Question 2 has the same theme in relation to polluted rivers which
are cleaned up.
The final section is on acid rain, traditionally a problem of the developed
world, but increasing in Asia as countries industrialize. China and India
are making increasing use of their large coal deposits. Acid rain in Figure
8.14 would be from the chimney to the right from which the oxides of
sulphur and nitrogen are being released. Water vapour from the cooling
towers, while it might look bad, is non-polluting. The study of acid rain
in Western Europe is useful for showing how international the problem
of air pollution can be. Sweden itself burns little coal, but its coniferous
trees are dying because the main winds travel from south-west to north-
east carrying pollutants from the UK and adjacent areas of continental
Europe with them. Coniferous trees in Scotland are little affected. The
final set of activities on page 125 covers the definition of acid rain, its
causes, and effects, why it is an international problem, and why pollution
problems (once they become international) become harder to control and
stop.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Recycling
Activity 2 Disadvantages of alternative energy sources
Activity 3 Improvements in an Indian village
Activity 4 Acid rain pollution

Workbook Activity 1 focuses on recycling. Workbook Activity 2 is about

the disadvantages of alternative energy sources. Question 1 asks for the
opposite picture to that of Figure 8.9 in the textbook. Question 2(a)
requires pupils to think about specific disadvantages of individual
alternative sources. Part (b) is an overall assessment of alternative
sources.
Workbook Activity 3 itemizes changes in an Indian village, which mirror
the improvements in villages in the Punjab in Figure 8.12 in the textbook.
The differences that are needed to complete the table in Question 1 are
23, 1, 8, 45, 2, 3000, and 25,800. Increased agricultural output and higher
income per household are the best two pieces of evidence for answering
question 2(a). Water supply is the key to the explanation in part (b).

47
Question 3 relates back to the big dam issue on page 66 in the textbook.
Workbook Activity 4 begins with a sketch which conveys a similar
message to that on the map in Figure 8.15; the diagram and activity
reinforce pupils’ understanding of this concept.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Knowledge of ways to control pollution, including
alternatives to fossil fuels and improved water quality and supply
How these have been met:
• Examples of both ‘stick’ and ‘carrot’ approaches to pollution control
• Study of alternative energy sources, including advantages and
disadvantages
• Example of improved water quality and supply in the Punjab
• Short case study of acid rain as an example of pollution across
frontiers

Learning outcomes: Ability to appreciate and evaluate ways people can

improve the natural environment to make it healthier for life and work
Check that the objectives have been met:
• To elicit appreciation of ways to reduce pollution, ask pupils about
what Figures 8.4 and 8.10 show.
• For pupil evaluation, look at the quality of answers given to Activity
2(d) page 118, Activity 2 on page 121 and Activity 4 on page 125.
• Suggest guidelines for pupil investigations in their home areas to
discover and/or suggest ways to reduce the effects of pollution
there.

48
Explore 3
Teacher’s Guide

John Pallister
 Contents

Introduction to the series .................................................... 2

Introduction to Explore 3 ..................................................... 4

Chapter 1: Natural regions—physical characteristics ........... 7

Chapter 2: Landscape features of natural regions .............. 11

Chapter 3: Natural regions—economic activities and issues 17

Chapter 4: World population ............................................. 24

Chapter 5: Population issues ............................................. 29

Chapter 6: Rural settlement and city growth in Pakistan ... 34

Chapter 7: World urbanization .......................................... 40

Chapter 8: World development and globalization ............. 45

Chapter 9: Exploring Asia and the rest of the world ........... 52

Introduction to the series

Explore is a new, up-to-date geography series for secondary classes 6–8.

The series covers all the geographical topics and learning competencies
from the National Curriculum for Pakistan. Guided by the structure of
the National Curriculum for Geography, from Book 1 to Book 3, the
focus gradually switches from local (including the geography of Pakistan)
to global (world issues such as forest clearances, population and big city
growth, and globalization). However, this is done not by following the
exact layout and order of the written curriculum, but by identifying and
developing particular topics and themes, in order to make the learning
process more student-friendly and relevant.
Explore consists of three components: the Students’ Books, Workbooks,
and the Teachers’ Guides. Together, the three books and their components
provide a comprehensive introduction to geography for secondary classes.
They meet all the main Aims outlined in the Introduction to the National
Curriculum for Geography.

AIMS
• To create an understanding of the Earth as a planet within the solar
system—Book 1
• To familiarize students about the environment in which people are
living, by studying major land features of the Earth—Books 1 and 2
• To provide an insight into the natural and human geography of
Pakistan, and the changes taking place in its administration,
population, their activities and resources—Books 1, 2, and 3
• To provide more knowledge to students about the environment in
which they are living—Books 1, 2, and 3
• To create awareness among students about the neighbouring
countries—Books 1 and 3 in particular

Likewise, the full course will enable students to satisfy all the general
subject Objectives in the National Curriculum (numbered 1–10).
Although many are met throughout all three books, for some it is possible
to identify particular chapters where the objective is addressed more
strongly.

2
OBJECTIVES
1. To impart an understanding of the Earth as a home of man with
emphasis on spheres of water, land and atmosphere.
Earth (Book 1, Chapter 3), Atmosphere (Book 1, Chapter 4), Land
and sea (Book 1, Chapter 5), Water (Book 2, Chapter 4), Landforms
(Book 3, Chapter 2)
2. To get acquainted with the concept of location and its importance with
regard to what, where and how.
Throughout all three books
3. To understand varying environments depending on climate, fauna and
flora, natural resources and related human responses.
Climate and human responses (Book 2, Chapter 3), Natural resources
and economic activities (Book 2, Chapters 5 and 6), Fauna and flora
and human responses (Book 3, Chapters 1 and 3)
4. To develop consciousness about man-environment relationship and
environmental hazards
From first mention of environmental geography in Book 1, Chapter
1 and throughout all three books; Environmental hazards and people:
Tectonic (Book 2, Chapters 1 and 2), Climatic (Book 2, Chapter 3);
Environmental problems (Book 2, Chapters 7 and 8); Natural regions
(Book 3, Chapters 1 and 3)
5. To know main population characteristics and patterns of population
distribution
Asia (Book 1, Chapter 6), Pakistan (Book 1, Chapter 7), The world
(Book 3, Chapters 4 and 5)
6. To understand nature of human dwellings; rural and urban, and
knowledge of selected cities and their functions
Pakistan (Book 1, Chapter 7), Pakistan and the rest of the world
(Book 3, Chapters 6 and 7)
7. To get acquainted with the administrative divisions/units of Pakistan
(Book 1, Chapter 7)
8. To enhance understanding of the physical and human aspects of
Geography of Pakistan
In particular Book 1, Chapters 7 and 8; also throughout the rest of
Book 1, and Books 2 and 3, including settlement (urban and rural)
Book 3, Chapter 6.
9. To get a knowledge about major natural regions of the World
Especially Book 3, Chapters 1, 2, and 3
10. To get acquainted with Maps, Map Symbols, and Elementary Map Reading
Specifically Book 1, Chapter 2, and then throughout the three books

3
Introduction to Explore 3
STUDENT’S BOOK
Explore Book 3 consists of nine chapters. A photograph is used on the
first page of each chapter to illustrate the topic under study. Questions
arranged below it are intended to encourage pupils to observe and to
think about what they are going to learn under this geographical heading.
Each chapter is further broken down into sections, typically between two
and four in number, for ease of study.
Activities are included both within and at the end of the sections. The
majority can be answered from book content, using both text and figures,
either directly or with some interpretation and thinking. A few activities
require pupils to search for answers elsewhere—from an atlas, from
another written source such as newspapers, from TV or the Internet, or
from knowledge and investigation of the home area. In those activities
where pupils are required to discover for themselves, some guidance
about what to look for and what to do is usually included in the
question.
From time to time, opportunities are provided for pupils to work in pairs
or in small groups. Often it would be possible for the pupil to complete
the same activity working alone, should that be considered more
desirable. However, working with others can result in a greater number
of suggestions and a wider range of points being made. Likewise pupils
exchanging work and marking another pupil’s work according to a
marking guide can be valuable in highlighting to them where they have
done well and what is less good about their own work compared with
that of others. If successful, the technique might be used on other
activities in the textbook, according to the teacher’s discretion.

WORKBOOK
The Workbook contains thirty-two pupil activities across the nine
chapters. The layout of these is of particular help to lower-ability pupils
compared with activities in the book, since spaces are left for completing
the answers. Tables, charts, and map outlines are provided for answers.
Compared with Explore 1 and 2, there is a lower emphasis on practical
skills in favour of more and slightly longer written responses. Largely this
is a reflection of the different nature of the geographical work between
Book 3 and the earlier books, but it also takes into account higher pupil

4
age. However, the important geographical skills learned in Explore 1, and
used again in Explore 2, are still much needed and used. As in the
workbooks for Explore 1 and 2, some workbook activities are merely
extensions of activities in the book, giving pupils extra opportunities to
use practical geographical skills in drawing maps, graphs and diagrams.

TEACHER’S GUIDE
The main purpose of the Teacher’s Guide is to provide a commentary to
make the textbook easier to use. The main focus of the work is indicated;
themes, topics, and key terms worthy of highlight are identified. Ideas
which may be useful in planning and executing lessons are included.
From time to time, some ways to extend the study are suggested. These
can involve individual pupil investigation from other sources, such as the
media or Internet, while some of the others rely upon pupil investigation
of geographical characteristics in the local surroundings.
Some indication is given for what is expected from the Activities in the
textbook and workbook. As appropriate, the best or expected answers to
the questions are included. References to the workbook activities are
inserted in the commentary after the work, to which they are related, has
been covered in the textbook. Occasionally it would be possible, and/or
desirable, for pupils to work ahead of coverage in the text.
At the beginning of each chapter is a table which summarizes
• teaching objectives and learning outcomes in relation to the National
Curriculum,
• geographical skills included in the chapter,
• new geographical terms used, and
• workbook activities which support and extend book content and
activities.
At the end of each chapter is a summary of how the teaching objectives
have been met, and how teachers might check the extent of pupils’
knowledge and understanding.

LESSON PLANS
The inclusion of teaching objectives and learning outcomes, identifying
the main topics of each chapter, and the guidance and explanation
preceding each section’s content in the Teachers’ Guides will facilitate
lesson planning. A sample lesson plan outline is given below to facilitate
further lesson planning.

5
The sections in each chapter have their concluding questions in the
textbook and following activities in the workbooks, which give a
framework for planning lessons, class work, and homework, and
assessments.
Finally, it goes without saying that a good, updated, and comprehensive
atlas and a globe are indispensable components of teaching and learning
geography. The Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan (OUP, 2008) is
recommended for use along with the Explore series.

SAMPLE LESSON PLAN

Class: 8
Subject: Geography
Topic: Distribution and density of population Pages 44–46, Chapter 4
Additional resources: Atlas maps of population distribution and density.
Population map of Pakistan for pupils to describe density of population
in the home region and suggest factors for high or low density compared
with densities elsewhere in Pakistan.
Teaching time: 1 period (generally 40 minutes)
Objective: To acquaint students with the concepts of distribution and
density of population
Outcome: Pupils will be able to recognize and describe population
patterns on maps and suggest factors to explain the uneven spread of
population shown, including factors for both high and low densities.
Introduction: Begin with the dot map in Figure 3.2 on page 28, showing
world population distribution. Ask pupils to focus on identification of
areas of very low and very high densities. Discuss the clarity of the map
for showing the uneven spread of world population.
Lesson outline: Explain the differences between population distribution
and density. Ask pupils to identify the main areas of high and low world
population density on Figure 4.2 (the bullet points in the text are given
as a guide for pupils). Study the physical and human factors affecting
population density; stress to pupils the significance of physical factors for
explaining low densities and allowing high densities of population.
Activities: (Class work) Activities 1 and 2, page 46
Reinforcement: (Homework) Workbook Activity 1, Chapter 4
Recap/conclusion: After completion of the workbook activity, discuss
with pupils the relative merits of the two mapping techniques for showing
the uneven spread of population. Identify factors responsible for the
high/low density of population in the home region.

6
Chapter 1 Natural regions—physical characteristics

National Curriculum
Target study area in NC Natural Regions I, II, and III
Teaching Objectives An understanding of the concept of
natural regions, knowing the basis of
their classification, especially climate,
flora and fauna; knowledge of selected
natural regions
Learning Outcomes Identification of natural regions on a
world map; knowledge and identification
of changing patterns of regions in
tropical, temperate, and polar regions in
relation to latitude

Geographical Skills
Skills used are mainly those of interpretation, from a wide variety of
source materials including photographs, world map, and climate data

Key geographical terms

* natural region * equatorial rainforest
* tropical * savanna grassland
* temperate * monsoon lands
* polar * hot desert
* flora * Mediterranean climate
* fauna * tundra
* landscape feature * fold mountains

SECTION 1: WHAT ARE NATURAL REGIONS? (PAGES 1–4)

Pupils have already been introduced to the geographical concept of
‘regions’ in earlier books. The study of natural regions represents a good
place to begin Explore 3. This is because natural regions are the starting
point for studying world geography. There are significant differences in
opportunities for human settlement and land use between tropical,
temperate, and polar zones shown in Figure 1.2, and roughly divided into
30 degree blocks of latitude north and south of the Equator. In advance
of individual studies of selected natural regions, pupils can be asked
questions such as:

7
• Why do so few people live in polar lands? Direct them towards
Figures 1.9 on page 10, 2.14 on page 19, 3.15 and 3.16 on page 39,
and 9.26 on page 131.
• Are the world’s wealthy countries (GDP above US$10,000 per head)
predominantly located in temperate latitudes? Look ahead to Figure
8.4 on page 98.
• How and why are opportunities for people so different within tropical
latitudes? Compare the photographs, all showing tropical views, on
pages 26–27 and 30–31.
Figure 1.3 shows the world distribution of major natural regions. Use the
bullet points on page 3 to guide pupils to look for what is of greatest
geographical significance. The text then emphasizes the importance of
the east-west alignment, indicating the dominant role of climate as the
major controlling factor. High relief is the most important factor for
disrupting the continuous east-west extent of natural regions across the
full width of the continents. Figure 1.4 shows how the equivalent natural
regions are arranged vertically in high mountain ranges as opposed to
latitudinally across lowlands and plains. Question 1 in the activities on
page 4 checks pupils’ understanding of the concept of natural regions.
Question 2 focuses on natural regions in Asia.

SECTION 2: NATURAL REGIONS IN THE TROPICS (PAGES 4–8)

The objective in this section is to give equivalent information about
climate, flora, fauna and landscape features for the four major natural
regions in the tropics so that they can be compared, and the distinguishing
differences between them are easier to pick out. Direct pupils to first look
at climate, the already identified key factor; most of the other differences
follow from differences in climate. What really matters in the tropics is
precipitation, which is why the average monthly totals have been given
for all months of the year. Although there are variations in temperature,
the climate is always hot—hot enough for plants to grow and for a wide
range of human activities to be carried on, provided that water is
available. Notice how the precipitation between the Equator and 30° N
and 30° S changes from rain all year, to seasonal rain, to little rain at any
time of year. This has consequences for the density and variety of flora
and fauna and the major landscape features—from dense rainforests (the
‘jungle’) around the Equator to bare sandy and rocky surfaces, and highly
specialized animals like the camel (Figure 1.7), between 20 and 30 degrees
north and south of the Equator.

8
Given the amount of detail, it is important that pupils are able to see the
significant differences. This is the purpose of Question 1 in the activities
on page 8. By directing pupils to select only information needed for
completing the table, they should have a summary of main changes from
0° to about 30°. Of course, there will still be a considerable amount of
detail communicated in the table; Question 2 aims to make pupils identify
a single, easy to use, distinguishing physical characteristic for each of the
four tropical natural regions.

SECTION 3: NATURAL REGIONS IN TEMPERATE LATITUDES AND

COLD POLAR LANDS (PAGES 8–10)
The same layout is used for one example of a natural region in temperate
latitudes (Mediterranean) and one in polar latitudes (tundra). Question 1
in the activities on page 10 attempts to highlight certain key features of
Mediterranean regions. Part (a) aims to make pupils aware of the larger
seasonal differences in temperature in a region located in temperate as
opposed to tropical latitudes. Part (b) refers to the unique characteristic
of a Mediterranean climate, i.e. seasonal summer drought, which does
not exist in any other climate type. Natural vegetation needs special
adaptations to survive (part c). Question 2(a) asks for explanation of the
tundra’s most defining feature (no trees) for determining where a cold
temperate climate ends and a tundra climate begins when moving north
in Asia and North America. Part (b) requires pupils to make use of Figure
1.9 (also useful after studying landforms made by ice in Chapter 2).

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Major natural regions in Africa
Activity 2 Variations in flora and fauna in the tropics
Activity 3 Tundra lands of the world

Africa was chosen in Workbook Activity 1 because of the regularity of

the layout of natural regions around the Equator running across the
middle of the continent (although the range of major natural regions is
less than in Asia). Africa offers quite strong support for the generalizations
made about the world distribution of natural regions on page 3 in the
textbook. However, it is also useful for showing pupils that nothing in the
natural world is ever that neat and simple, that the concept of natural
regions is a helpful guide for further study and not something that is set

9
in stone. In Workbook Activity 2, the focus is narrowed down so that
pupils can use the text and figures to assemble more detail about flora
and fauna in three contrasting tropical natural regions. Workbook
Activity 3 makes fuller use of the world map (Figure 1.3) and the
photograph (Figure 1.9). Three physical regions can be clearly identified
in Figure 1.9, namely mountains, and lowland, including the lake (water).
Pupils can return to this activity after studying the work of ice in
Chapter 2 in order to add even more precise labels for the landforms of
glaciation shown here (aretes, corries, and moraines).

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objective: Knowledge and understanding of the world’s natural
regions
How it has been met:
• World map of major natural regions
• Separate studies of natural regions in the tropics (equatorial
rainforests, savanna grasslands, monsoon lands, and hot deserts)
• Study of major natural regions in temperate latitudes and polar
regions (Mediterranean and tundra)

Learning outcome: Knowledge and understanding of the patterns of

location and main characteristics of the world’s major natural regions
Checking that the objective has been met:
• Pupils study a physical map of the world or one continent in
particular such as Asia or the Workbook example of Africa; ask them
to identify major natural regions and describe some of the main
differences between them.
• Refer to photographs in this chapter and from elsewhere for pupils
to identify distinguishing characteristics of selected natural regions.
• Look at the quality of pupils’ answers to Activities 1 and 2 on page 8
to check knowledge and understanding of natural regions in the
tropics.

10
Chapter 2 Landscape features of natural regions

National Curriculum
Target study areas in NC Mountains, and Plains, Plateaus and
Valleys
Teaching Objectives An understanding of how landscapes in
different natural regions are shaped by
the work of rivers, ice, sea, and wind
Learning Outcomes Students will be able to recognize major
surface landforms (of both erosion and
deposition) and understand their
formation in relation to the work of
rivers, ice, sea, and wind

Geographical skills
The main geographical skills practised are observation from photographs
and interpretation of diagrams, in order to identify landforms and
describe their main features. Practical skills used include drawing
sketches and cross sections from photographs

Key geographical terms

* weathering * glacier
* erosion * U-shaped valley
* freeze-thaw * hanging valley
* transport * corrie
* deposition * arete
* drainage basin * pyramidal peak (horn)
* source (of a river) * crevasses
* delta * moraine
* tributary * ribbon lake
* long profile * lateral moraine
* abrasion * ground moraine
* hydraulic action * terminal moraine
* V-shaped valley * cliff
* gorge * cave
* rapids * arch
* waterfall * stack

11
* lateral erosion * sand dune
* meander * spit
* ox-bow lake * bar
* flood plain * barchan
* levee * seif dune
* distributaries * wadi
* ice sheet

SECTION 1: LANDSCAPE FEATURES (PAGES 12–15)

Figure 2.3 and the introductory text essentially show and explain the
Earth’s rock cycle—what happens to rocks once they are pushed up by
major Earth movements (Chapter 1, Explore Book 2). The combined
effects of weathering and erosion break rocks down and wear them away.
Agents of transport (glaciers and rivers) carry them, until eventually they
are deposited as sediments in the sea where they accumulate. After
millions of years, these sediments may be folded up again into new
mountain ranges. It is important to stress to pupils how weathering and
erosion work together, with weathering often being the cause of initial
rock break-up before agents of erosion take over.
The work of rivers, as the most widespread agent of erosion, is studied
first. The River Indus is one of the world’s big rivers, dominating the
physical and human geography of Pakistan. This is why the extent of the
drainage basin is shown in Figure 2.4, essentially all of Pakistan. Rivers
are always studied going with the direction of flow from mountains to
sea. Figure 2.5 illustrates the change in gradient between upland and
lowland sections, which essentially marks the dividing line between
erosion and deposition as the dominant river processes. Figures 2.6 and
2.7 show some of the characteristics of mountain rivers and their valleys.
Here vertical erosion, or down-cutting, is dominant as the river tries to
reach base level (the sea).
Study of landforms involves the use of many specialized geographical
terms, some in widespread use, some not. Therefore, Question 1 is
included in the activities on page 15 so that pupils can keep on top of the
new terminology by making their own dictionary of geographical terms.
The terms are highlighted in bold in the text, and in most cases the
definition accompanies their use. An alternative approach would be a
‘Mix and Match’ exercise in which pupils match definitions to river terms.
Drawing a valley cross section in Question 2 may be a new task for some

12
pupils. The sketch drawn in Figure 2.8 quite closely matches the
cross section in the Indus gorge shown in Figure 2.7. The valley in Figure
2.6 would also be described as having a steep V-shape, but without being
as vertical as that in the gorge section.

SECTION 2: RIVERS AND VALLEYS IN THE LOWLANDS (PAGES 15–18)

The significant changes in river and valley features as the river enters the
lowlands are listed in the five bullet points on page 15. Pupils should be
able to pick out most of them in the photo in Figure 2.9. It provides a
real contrast with the features shown in Figures 2.6 and 2.7. Lateral
erosion and deposition replace vertical erosion as the dominant processes,
and they lead to the formation of meanders, ox-bow lakes, and flood
plains. For the formation of levees and deltas, deposition is the most
important process. It is worth stressing the importance of flooding to the
formation of all these landforms. It is during times of flood, when river
flow is stronger, that lateral erosion is greatest, when rivers are most likely
to break through two adjacent outside bends to cut off an ox-bow lake.
Flood waters, laden with sediment, build up the levees and add new layers
of silt to the top of the flood plain.
Acquaintance with geographical terms continues in a different way in
Question 1 of the activities on page 18: pupils are required to show that
they understand the difference between listed pairs of features. Figure
2.12 provides the base map for answering Question 2. The delta labels
that can be added include many distributaries (including two that are
noticeably larger), the River Nile splitting into distributaries (or the delta
starting) after Cairo, the triangular shape of the delta, silt or sediment for
the area shaded as delta land, and new land built into the sea beyond the
old coastline.

SECTION 3: THE WORK OF ICE (PAGES 18–21)

First explain the difference between an ice sheet and a glacier—both
made of snow and ice, but differentiated according to size and location.
After this, the focus is on the work of valley glaciers for a variety of
reasons—they are more numerous and more widespread; they make big,
easily observable changes to river valleys; they create distinctive
landforms; and they are to be found also in the Himalayan range
(including in northern Pakistan).

13
In any photograph of a glaciated mountain range, such as the one in
Figure 2.14, the pupils should be trained to look first for corries, as places
of snow and ice accumulation. In this photograph, corries can be seen
best in the centre at lower slope levels on K2, below its rocky (pyramidal)
peak; other corries can be seen at higher levels particularly towards the
top right. Ice movement down the valley, responsible for forming glacial
valley landforms, takes place from corrie hollows, while much of the
steepening and sharpening of the peaks above begins in the head wall of
the corrie. This is why the corrie needs to be studied first.
Diagrams A and B in Figure 2.15 show how glaciers do the work of
erosion and transport. The key processes of glacial erosion are abrasion
and plucking; pupils can be asked to compare these and how they work
with the abrasion and hydraulic work of rivers. The main landforms of
glacial erosion are shown and named in Figure 2.16; again, start the study
with the corrie and work in both directions up and down the mountain.
The scale and size of landforms of glacial deposition shown in Figure 2.17
are less dramatic. Glacial deposits are quite different from river deposits—
they are more mixed, less sorted, less rounded, and larger. Some are
blocks of rock / big boulders with sharp edges known as erratics. Most
other deposits go under the general heading of boulder clay, an unsorted
mixture of boulders, clay, and sand. This is dumped by the melting glacier
as ground moraine. Occasionally it is shaped by the moving ice into
regular small hills, called drumlins. More pronounced lines of moraine
are deposited at the glacier edges to form lateral moraines and at the
further point reached by the glacier to form a terminal moraine.
In the activities on page 21, Question 1 checks pupil understanding of
the difference between an ice sheet and a (valley) glacier. Question 2 is a
practical skills exercise, requiring a sketch to be drawn from a photograph,
and labelled to identify named glacial features. Question 3 focuses on
glacial deposition.

SECTION 4: THE WORK OF THE SEA (PAGES 22–24)

As an introduction to this section, pupils can be asked to describe what
they can observe from Figure 2.18. Many pupils may not have had
personal experience of coastal features. What is shown is the battle
ground between land and sea, with plenty of signs that these cliffs have
been eroded, even if the sea was too calm for much erosion to be taking
place at the time the photograph was taken. Notice the signs of

14
undercutting at the bottom of the cliffs, most clearly visible beyond the
boats on the left of the photo. Processes of sea erosion have the same
names as those for rivers, and operate in similar ways. Just as river
erosion is greatest during floods, sea erosion is greatest during storms
when waves are bigger and more powerful.
The basic coastal feature, the one that forms first, is the sea cliff. Where
rocks have many weaknesses, caves, arches, and stacks may form. The
main coastal feature of deposition, and the one most highly valued by
people, is the beach. Sea deposition can extend the beach along the coast
to form spits and bars, or the wind can blow sand inland to form coastal
(as opposed to desert) dunes. Activities for this coastal section are on
page 24. They all relate to landforms of coastal deposition. This leaves
opportunities for using Figures 2.18 and 2.21 for questions about coastal
erosion such as drawing sketches to describe coastal features shown,
writing a short paragraph to explain the formation of cliffs and arches,
and describing and explaining the changes shown at Paradise Point.

SECTION 5: WIND ACTION (PAGES 24–26)

Many places in the southern half of Pakistan—which has more desert—
have ideal physical conditions for wind action. The effects of wind
abrasion are easiest to notice on surface rock outcrops, which are highly
polished, with all rock weaknesses exposed (Figure 2.22). However, the
results of wind deposition are more extensive. Large areas of the Thar
Desert are covered by seif dunes. Rainstorms are irregular events in desert
regions; however, when they do occur, they are often in the form of
intense, sometimes violent, downpours. The flash floods that result have
great power of erosion; since water flow is not maintained in deserts, an
equally large amount of deposition occurs in and around their wide
channels as they dry up. The related activities on page 26 are a mixture
of definitions, description, and explanation.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 River in the lowland—before and after river flooding
Activity 2 How glaciers change river valleys
Activity 3 Changing coastlines

The same theme runs through the three Workbook activities—changes

to the landscape caused by agents of erosion. Workbook Activity 1 shows

15
the result of a river flood, eroding on the outside bend of the meander
(so that the fence is broken) and depositing more sediment on inside
bends as flood waters recede. The changes can be explained by factors
such as increased force of water in times of flood, main current
concentrated on the outside bend and silt/sediment deposition as water
levels drop back to normal flow in the channel.
Workbook Activity 2 is about the changes resulting from the passage of
a glacier down a pre-existing river valley. The weight of water locked up
as ice in the glacier is much greater than was the weight of flowing water
in the river; the glacier also fills more of the valley. Therefore, it is easy
to understand why the glacial valley is bigger (both deeper and wider),
straighter (the glacier has the power to push forward and remove spurs
of rock sticking out in its path), and more irregular (rock weaknesses are
more ruthlessly eroded by glacial abrasion and plucking).
Workbook Activity 3 shows how wave erosion has changed two sections
of coast. Sketch B shows further cliff collapse after a storm. Note that the
cliff has retreated inland from its position in Sketch A. The size of the
pile of loose rocks broken off by erosion has increased, now almost
reaching out to the lighthouse, which is a fixed point for comparison
between A and B. The stack in the foreground in Sketch C suddenly
collapsed, leaving the stump of rock shown in Sketch D. The rocks
forming the stacks can be seen to have both vertical and horizontal lines
of weakness. These help to explain the periodic collapses. There used to
be a total of twelve stacks on this section of the coast (only five of them
are shown in Sketch C); now there are only eleven. All will eventually
collapse; separated from the mainland cliffs, they are exposed to greater
wave forces and the sea has a larger area to attack, all around their
bases.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Understanding of how landscapes in different
natural regions are shaped by the work of rivers, ice, sea, and wind;
knowledge of the resulting landforms
How these have been met:
• General explanation about how the land is worn away by a
combination of weathering and erosion
• Separate sections on the work of rivers, ice, sea, and wind

16
• Frequent use and references to photographs and diagrams of
landscape features and landforms resulting from the work of rivers,
ice, sea, and wind

Learning outcomes: Ability to recognize major surface landforms of

erosion and deposition and understand their formation in relation to the
work of rivers, ice, sea, and wind
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Pupils can be shown photographs from elsewhere of different
landscapes and asked to identify landforms; photographs in other
chapters can also be used, such as Figure 1.9 for glacial landforms
like arete peaks and moraines.
• Ask pupils further questions about the photographs used in the
chapter, beyond the questions already used in activities.
• Check the worth of pupils’ answers to the Workbook activities, all of
which require understanding of changes to landforms.

Chapter 3 Natural regions—economic activities

and issues

National Curriculum
Target study area in NC Natural regions II and III
Teaching Objectives Impart knowledge of a number of
different natural regions in relation to
major economic opportunities for
people
Learning Outcomes Knowledge and understanding of
changing life patterns in selected natural
regions in the tropics and elsewhere

Geographical skills
Skills required include interpretation from maps, diagrams, and
photographs and the use of spider diagrams, as well as an ability to
express a view on a major issue and give support for it

17
Key geographical terms
* pastoralist * hunter-gatherer
* pastoral nomad * shifting cultivation
* oasis * sustainable activity
* Green Revolution * plantation agriculture
* temperate grassland * intensive farming
* indigenous people * extensive farming
* biodiversity * permafrost
* interception

SECTION 1 HOW ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES VARY BETWEEN

NATURAL REGIONS (PAGES 28–30)
The dot map of world population distribution (Figure 3.2) allows pupils
to identify both the well-populated and largely unpopulated parts of the
world. Letters on the map indicate natural regions with few people that
cover great expanses of land: A is tundra, B is hot desert, and C is tropical
rainforest in the Amazon Basin. The monsoon lands of Asia are shown
to be one of the largest areas with continuously high numbers of people.
The rest of this section concentrates on hot desert as a natural region
which hinders economic activity and human settlement. Physical
characteristics were covered in Chapters 1 and 2; questions in the text
direct pupils towards landscape features and climate in hot deserts.
The focus here is on traditional ways of life. Contrasts between nomadic
and settled ways of life are explained in the context of Arabia and North
Africa. Then these are compared with the modern ways of life in parts of
the Middle East where significant change has occurred as a result of great
oil wealth. Activities on page 30 follow up these themes. Part (b) of
Question 2 might offer follow-up possibilities, making use of pupils’
knowledge of family and friends who work in the Gulf States.

SECTION 2: MONSOON LANDS AND TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS

(PAGES 30–32)
Monsoon lands, and to a lesser extent temperate grasslands, are examples
of natural regions where physical advantages encourage economic
activities. As a result, little of the original natural vegetation cover
remains. The flood plains of the big rivers in South Asia offer ideal
environments for intensive farming through a combination of monsoon
climate with summer rains (i.e. rain during the main growing season),

18
flat land, and fertile silt (alluvial) soils. The introduction of high yielding
varieties of seeds, plus other farm improvements, has led to economic
advances with record levels of crop output. However, the results have
been socially less beneficial, creating a widening gap between landless
peasants and large landowners.
The temperate grasslands of North America and Asia are ‘bread-baskets’
supplying the urban and industrial areas of the temperate zones of Europe
and North America with wheat, maize (corn), and beef. Unlike the
monsoon lands, these areas were not densely populated by indigenous
peoples; new technology from the era of the Industrial Revolution was
needed to allow settlers from outside to successfully exploit the fertile
black soils. The level or rolling plains stretch for miles without a person
in sight, especially in areas used for pasture as Figure 3.7 shows.
In the activities on page 32, Question 1(a) asks pupils to state similarities
and differences between landscapes in the two different natural regions.
For answering part (b), you may direct pupils towards an atlas example
of a climate graph within the Prairies or Steppes, such as on page 78 of
the Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan. Question 2 is narrower, just about
the Green Revolution. Since this has had a big impact on South Asian
agriculture, it is worthy of special study; it is useful for emphasizing again
to students that changes for overall good do still have their downsides.

SECTION 3: TROPICAL RAINFORESTS (PAGES 32–35)

This and the next two sections are given over to tropical rainforests; this
can be justified on the basis of their global importance and the extent to
which their clearances have become a topic of international debate. By
means of an introduction, revise earlier coverage of the forests on pages
4 and 5. This time, lay stress on their great biodiversity, which is briefly
illustrated in the Information Box on page 33. As previously for hot
deserts, the human occupation is split between the traditional and the
new. The theme running through the traditional is one of sustainable
living—why do traditional activities such as hunter-gathering, shifting
cultivation and rubber tapping using wild trees leave such a low imprint
on the rainforests? The key question is put to pupils in the paragraph at
the top of page 33—why are they in decline when they are so
sustainable?
What might be called ‘modern’ forest uses and types of farming are
described in the rest of this section. After the separate information about

19
logging hardwoods, plantation agriculture and commercial cattle
ranching, pupils are asked the same question—how sustainable is each of
these activities? Of course, these farming activities have taken rainforest
regions a long way from their distinguishing characteristic of great
biodiversity, referred to in the first paragraph.
Questions in the activities on page 35 continue the themes in the text.
Question 1 checks pupil understanding of biodiversity. Question 2 asks
for the main differences between different types of farming, both
traditional and modern, subsistence and commercial. Question 3 is more
of an evaluation exercise. The best rank order for farm output is: 1 (most)
plantation agriculture, 2 cattle ranching, and 3 (least) shifting cultivation.
The best order for damage to the environment is: 1 (most) cattle ranching,
2 plantation agriculture, 3 (least) shifting cultivation. There is plenty of
supporting evidence in the text and figures for pupils to use to explain
this rank order for damage to the environment.

SECTION 4: PRESERVING THE WORLD’S TROPICAL RAINFORESTS

(PAGES 35–36)
The importance of preserving the world’s tropical rainforests is explained
first in terms of saving the forest soils, the fertility of which depends on
a continuous and rich nutrient cycle with few leaks. Figure 3.10B is good
visual evidence of what happens after forest clearance on a slope. Then a
more global view is taken, with reference to the usefulness of the
biodiversity of plant species to the discovery of new drugs and varieties
of seeds. Environmental uses of rainforests, particularly as carbon stores,
are now being given more prominence, with suggestions that countries
such as Brazil should be paid by rich developed countries for not clearing
their forests, thereby helping to reduce further rises in global carbon
dioxide emissions.
The themes of the activities on page 36 are tropical soils (Question 1) and
the value of tropical rainforests (Question 2). To keep their fertility, all
soils need constant mineral renewal and replacement. In the big river
valleys of Asia this is done by silt deposition in floods; in the temperate
grasslands it is minerals drawn up to the surface as annual evaporation
exceeds precipitation. In the rainforests it is the scale and speed of
nutrient recycling, but this is lost with forest clearance. When the topsoil
is washed away as in Figure 3.10B, what is lost is the richest part of the
soil, the part with the greatest organic content and concentration of

20
nutrients. This is why clearances need to be small and inefficient (as in
subsistence farming) for the forest vegetation to re-invade, which seems
unlikely in the area shown in Figure 3.10B.

SECTION 5: CASE STUDY OF THE TROPICAL RAINFOREST:

THE AMAZON BASIN IN BRAZIL (PAGES 37–39)
The first point to make is that there is an awful lot of rainforest still
remaining in Brazil. Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world by area;
it covers half the land area of South America. About half the country is
still covered by rainforests, most of which are in the Amazon Basin within
the area demarcated in Figure 3.11. Nevertheless, rainforest losses are
large; by giving an example in relation to the size of Pakistan will make
it easier for pupils to visualize this. A spider diagram is used in Figure
3.13 to summarize reasons for these losses. Economic losses are colour-
washed pink, social losses green, and political, blue. As is almost
invariably the case, the greatest weight should be given to the losses that
are economic. Money rules!
Further information about some of the recent (post-1970) developments
in the Amazon Basin are given in Figure 3.14 and the accompanying text.
Road building has been the key to opening up the Basin to new settlers
from established areas of settlement in the east of Brazil. Road building
was made feasible economically by the size of the mineral wealth. Loggers
and then farmers, cattle ranchers, and soybean growers followed.
The values in Figure 3.2 allow pupils to draw a bar graph to show
rainforest losses in Question 1(a) in the activities on page 39. In contrast,
part 1(b) requires expression and explanation of a view about future forest
losses. Explanation is what matters, not the view itself. Question 2 invites
pupils to select three of the seven reasons for forest clearances in Figure
3.13; again, the quality of explanation matters more than actual choice.

SECTION 6: TUNDRA LANDS (PAGES 39–42)

The study of tundra lands provides an interesting comparison with
rainforests. There are some similarities—both are natural regions covering
large areas, with few indigenous settlers, and of little interest to outsiders
until recently. The big difference is the climate and the problems caused
for plant growth and human (and other animal) survival in the tundra.
Before starting, pupils can be reminded of the world distribution of
tundra lands (Figure 1.3, page 2) and the climate (page 9). The text begins

21
with problems for plants, animals, and people. Despite all the problems,
groups of people such as Inuits in North America and Lapps in Europe
made it their home; although the two groups lived in different ways, both
survived by working with the environment and using nature’s resources.
Recent changes mirror those described for the Bedouins of Arabia.
Outsiders have had only one interest, exploiting the mineral riches. First
it was gold, then a wider variety of minerals, and now it is oil. There are
two main problems with this kind of development. Once commercial
quantities of the mineral are exhausted, everything is abandoned to leave
‘ghost towns’, like those in the old gold mining areas of the Yukon. It will
be no different once today’s minerals run out. Secondly, the tundra is a
fragile environment, where everything struggles to survive and disruption
spells disaster. The Alaskan pipeline was constructed to accommodate
environmental needs—but what will happen once the oil stops flowing?
Question 1 in the activities on page 42 focuses on the sustainability of
traditional lifestyles of the indigenous people in tundra lands. This
continues one of the main themes running through this chapter.
Question 2 is about the problems for outsiders and asks why mining is
the main activity for them. Pupil work or class discussion can be extended
to include the role of minerals in the development of the Middle East and
Amazon Basin—would these areas be changing so much without the
presence of minerals?

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Traditional ways of life and change in hot deserts
Activity 2 Monsoon lands
Activity 3 Rainforest clearances in the Amazon Basin of Brazil
Activity 4 Case study—Oil in Alaska
Activity 5 Further oil exploration in the Arctic—should it be allowed?

Workbook Activity 1 contrasts old and new in the Arabian Desert. Pupils
are guided through questions about traditional ways of life in 1(a) and
why this way of life is under threat in 1(b). In question 2 they are asked
to describe the ‘American’, ‘Western’ modern look of Dubai from
Figure 3.4. Question 3 is speculation about the future, but with an obvious
likely answer. Workbook Activity 2 is about monsoon lands and what
makes them among the most densely populated places on Earth. The
focus of Workbook Activity 3 is rainforest clearance in Brazil. Questions

22
1 and 2 are attempts to highlight the importance of roads for opening up
the Amazon Basin to new settlement and economic development.
Rainforest clearance is a controversial issue. Five different views about it
are given in the spider diagram in Question 3. Having identified people
for and against clearance, pupils are asked to explain the view they can
identify with most. As in answers to some of the activities in student
book, it is quality of pupil argument that matters more than the view held.
On completion of the activity, individual pupil choices can be collated to
give class totals, offering further opportunities for visual display and
discussion.
In Workbook Activities 4 and 5, the location switches to the Arctic
tundra. Activity 4 makes fuller use of the content in the student book,
about already existing oil exploitation in the region. Activity 5 follows a
different theme: should further, future oil exploitation be allowed? The
geographical background of an area now subject to oil exploration (but
not yet exploitation) is given in the Information Box and map in the
Activity. Pupils are first asked to identify features that make the area a
wilderness, to try to get pupils to appreciate what the area is like. Then
pupils are given four views about exploration to study (similar in many
ways to those for rainforest clearance in Brazil in Workbook Activity 3).
This time pupils are required to do answer in a different way, by writing
about their preferred view in the form of a speech, such as the type which
might be used by someone at a public meeting called for discussion of
the proposal. What makes a good speech? It is much the same as makes
a good written account, well organized with the main points clearly
stated.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Knowledge of different natural regions and related
economic opportunities for people
How these have been met:
• Identification of natural regions with low and high numbers of
people, in different latitudes
• Differences between traditional and modern ways of life, how and
why economic opportunities are changing in these regions
• Special studies of selected natural regions—hot deserts, monsoon
lands, tropical rainforests, and tundra lands

23
Learning outcomes: Knowledge and understanding of changing life
patterns in selected natural regions in the tropics and elsewhere
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Look at the accuracy and quality of pupils’ answers which focus on
change such as question 2(a) on page 30, Questions 2 and 3 on
page 35, Question 1 on page 36, and Questions 1 and 2 on page 42.
• Check pupils’ understanding of different views about change—why
some individuals and groups of people are more in favour of change
than others. Workbook Activities 3 and 5 are particularly useful for
doing this.

Chapter 4 World population

National Curriculum
Target study area in NC Pattern of Population Distribution,
Population
Teaching Objectives Awareness of basic population concepts
including distribution, density, and
growth; elementary knowledge of world
population distribution, including
identification of major areas of
population density
Learning Outcomes Ability to describe and recognize
population patterns on world maps and
appreciate factors of uneven distribution
and the relationship between population
change and economic development
Geographical skills Skills required include interpreting a
variety of maps, graphs, and diagrams
including shading maps, line graphs,
flow and dispersion diagrams.

Key geographical terms

* distribution of population * natural increase
* density of population * natural decrease
* birth rate * population change
* death rate * migration

24
SECTION 1: WORLD POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY
(PAGES 44–46)
The section begins with an explanation of what is meant by distribution
and density of population. The two terms are often used interchangeably
in a loose manner, but they are quite separate, even if at the end of the
day both have the same aim, i.e. identifying areas where many and few
people live. Distributions are always shown on maps by using dots; one
dot represents a stated number of people (or houses, animals, factories,
etc.). Figure 3.2 on page 28 shows the world distribution of population,
whereas density is shown on a shading (choropleth) map, as in Figure 4.2
for world population density, ideally with denser shading or stronger
colours for areas of high density. The two world population maps of the
same size in the student book give pupils the opportunity to discuss
which of two shows better the uneven spread of population over the
Earth’s surface. This is one of the key learning outcomes of the National
Curriculum.
The explanation of world population and density requires reference to
many geographical factors, both physical and human. The most important
factors are identified and elaborated upon in Figure 4.3. The text attempts
to explain how the relative importance of physical and human factors
varies according to location; overall, however, there is little doubt that
physical factors can never be ignored. The more difficult the physical
environment for human settlement, the stronger the physical influences.
Areas empty or almost empty of people were identified by letters A, B,
and C on Figure 3.2 and explained in the accompanying text for individual
natural regions within Chapter 3.
Question 1 in the activities on page 46 is an attempt to highlight variations
in population density in individual continents, beginning with the home
continent of Asia. Asia is characterized by some of the world’s highest
and lowest population densities. In Africa and Asia, the hot desert regions
stand out as areas of low density. In Australia note the coastal
concentrations; in Africa note the strip of higher density following the
Nile Valley in Egypt between the rest of the Saharan and Arabian deserts.
Question 2 is about the factors most useful for explaining high population
densities in rural and urban areas of Asia. The urban text on page 45
refers to big cities anywhere in the world; perhaps the world’s greatest
concentration of business skyscrapers is in Manhattan, New York
(Figure 4.4). Look ahead to Figures 9.1 and 9.5 for Asian equivalents.

25
SECTION 2: QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ABOUT WORLD
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION (PAGES 46–49)
The text layout is in the form of ‘Questions and Answers’ in an attempt
to explain the uneven spread of people across the Earth’s surface. Four
key features of world population spread are identified and explained.
Pupils should keep referring to Figures 3.2, 4.2, and 4.5. The text covering
natural regions should allow pupils to explain why some areas of the
world remain uninhabited. The flow diagram in Figure 4.6 summarizes
reasons why most hot deserts are sparsely populated. A similar summary
diagram could be drawn for areas that are too cold. The second feature,
a majority of the world’s population living within reach of the sea, brings
in human as well as physical factors and allows a reference to Pakistan.
The dominance of world population living in the northern hemisphere,
and in Asia and Europe in particular, are the third and fourth features
explained. Their explanation allows for an increasing use of human
factors, notably intensive farming and high levels of industrialization.
Questions in the activities on page 49 require pupils to adapt and apply
from the content on pages 47 and 48. Question 1 is about drawing
another flow diagram like the one in Figure 4.6, but this time to explain
why high mountain areas are sparsely populated; pupils have the frame,
but need to amend the contents. Question 2 reverses the second question
asked and answered in the text. For Question 3, pupils need to understand
how human factors are different between Europe and Asia for explaining
high population densities. In addition to these questions, this is perhaps
the best place to ask pupils about the relative merits of dot and shading
maps for showing the uneven spread of people over the Earth’s surface.
Using Workbook Activity 1 will help to do this.

SECTION 3: POPULATION CHANGE (PAGES 49–52)

Another major area of study in world population geography is population
change, or more precisely, world population growth. This has been
nothing short of phenomenal over the last 60 years as Figure 4.10 shows.
The number of years needed for world population to increase by one
billion fell significantly from about 1960, shown by the increased gradient
on the line graph. The specialist term applied to this is ‘exponential
population growth’. It is explained by studying the relationship between
birth and death rates, from which the rate of natural increase can be
calculated.

26
Examples for both continents and countries are given in Figure 4.11. This
table highlights the great variations in rates of increase between the
developed and developing worlds (Europe compared with Africa and
Asia), as well as between different parts of the developing world (Asia
compared with Africa). Death rates dropped fast in the second half of the
20th century for the reasons given on page 52. Therefore, what is most
significant for explaining population growth is the size of the birth rate.
As a result, the map showing the world distribution of birth rates in
Figure 4.12 can be viewed almost as a map of the world distribution of
population increases. The bullet points at the bottom of page 50 are
intended as a guide to pupils, to try to ensure that their attention is
focused on what is most significant. Teaching and examining experience
has shown that most pupils have problems identifying patterns from
maps. The extremes are always easiest to explain, which is why only
factors for low and very high birth rates are listed in Figure 4.13.
The content on page 52 focuses on death rates. It is never easy to explain
to pupils how and why death rates are so similar between countries, in
such stark contrast with big birth rate differences. All the countries with
death rates above 20 per 1000 are shown and listed in Figure 4.15; most
are within the range of 7–20 per 1000. Remember that the death rate is
a ratio—the number of deaths per 1000 of the population per year. In
countries with high birth rates, a high proportion of the population is
young; in some African countries over 50 per cent of the population is
below 15 years old, well below the age at which they can be expected to
die. This keeps the ratio for the death rate low, even in countries where
life expectancy is quite low.
In the activities on page 52, pupils will find it easier to answer Question 1
if they take note of the bullet points at the bottom of page 50; by
restricting the description to above 25 years and below 15 years, the world
pattern is more clear-cut. Over 25 is essentially restricted to countries in
Africa and South Asia, and only a few others (for example, Mexico,
Bolivia, North Korea, and Mongolia). Below 15 is confined to Western
Europe, Canada, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand. Question 2 reduces
the area of study to the home country. Question 3 is about how health
care reduces death rates. As extension work, pupils could be asked why
it is always quicker and easier to reduce death rates than to reduce birth
rates.

27
WORKBOOK
Activity 1 World population—distribution and density
Activity 2 Why cold tundra lands are sparsely populated
Activity 3 World population growth—when did ‘take-off ’ happen?

Workbook Activity 1 makes pupils think about the uneven spread of

population, as well as the relative merits of the two mapping techniques
for showing it. The same size of Figures 3.2 and 4.2 in the book should
help them make direct comparisons. Workbook Activity 2 focuses on
two areas with great differences in population density. Pupils are required
to organize the factors responsible in summary flow diagrams, as used in
Figure 4.6. Workbook Activity 3 makes use of Figure 4.10 on page 49.
The practical skills exercise to draw a bar graph is followed by written
explanation, which requires pupils to demonstrate a degree of
judgement.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Awareness and knowledge of world population
distribution, density, and growth, including major areas of high
population density
How these have been met:
• World maps showing variations in population density, physical
factors limiting population density and birth rates
• Explanatory text and comment about factors affecting population
densities
• Questions and answers about the key features of world population
distribution
• Explanation for variations in population growth in relation to birth
rates, death rates, and size of the natural increase

Learning outcomes: Ability to describe and recognize population

patterns on world maps and to appreciate factors of uneven distribution;
understanding the relationship between population change and economic
development
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Look at the quality of pupils’ answers to Activity 1 on page 52 for
ability to describe and recognize patterns from a world map.

28
• Do similar checks using world thematic maps related to population
in an atlas.
• Look ahead to Figure 8.4 on page 98 (world map of variations in
wealth related to economic development) and ask pupils to describe
and recognize patterns in relation to what Figure 4.12 shows for the
world distribution of high and low birth rates.

Chapter 5 Population issues

National Curriculum
Target study areas in the NC Population
Teaching Objectives To create awareness of the connection
between population change and levels of
social and economic development, both
between countries, and within the same
country between rural and urban areas,
and also of the relationship of population
with natural resources
Learning Outcomes Understand how levels of social and
economic development affect the speed
of population change; appreciation of the
relationship between population and
natural resources
Geographical skills Skills used are focused on the use of
graphs and their interpretation; this
includes line graphs, population
pyramids and bar graphs. Practical skills
required include calculation and drawing
a pie chart. Much emphasis is placed on
expressing views about issues and
supporting them with evidence.

Key geographical terms

* population structure
* population pyramid
* cycle of poverty
* population policy

29
SECTION 1: POPULATION PROBLEMS AND ISSUES IN POOR
COUNTRIES (PAGES 54–56)
Pakistan is used as the example around which to develop the text for
issues associated with rapid population growth, highly relevant to many
countries in Asia, Africa, and South and Central America. Population
structures are dominated by high percentages of young people. A
population pyramid (using either population numbers or percentages) is
the technique used by geographers to show the age-sex distribution of a
country’s population (Figure 5.3). Bullet points in the text on page 54
guide pupils towards what is required when interpreting the population
pyramid for Pakistan. An outline survey of problems resulting from rapid
population growth follows; in Figure 5.4 these are separated out between
rural, urban, and national for ease of study. However, there is much
overlap between the headings. The most significant message from each
one is highlighted by the question and answer in the bottom of each of
the boxes.
Activities relating to this section are at the top of page 56. The answers
to Question 1 for the population doubling times are 50, 21, and 26 years.
Population increases are 16.5, 33, and 66 millions, which should indicate
to pupils the fast speed of population growth. This is confirmed by the
steepness of the line gradient in Figure 5.2, used in Question 2(a). The
next two parts of the question isolate the key percentages for Pakistan’s
population structure for pupils to display in a pie chart and comment on
in terms of future population growth.

SECTION 2: POPULATION DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RURAL AND

URBAN AREAS (PAGES 56–58)
Population differences between the countryside and cities are highlighted
in this section, particularly in relation to attitudes towards children.
Poverty exists in both areas, but there always seems to be more hope of
breaking out of the poverty trap in the cities, even if it takes many years
of living there for hope to become reality. Urban poverty, made worse by
large family sizes, is most visible in slum areas, like the one shown in
Figure 5.7. Pupils could work in pairs or in small groups to assess and
agree upon the relative quality of housing shown in Figure 5.7—from
their own observation in Pakistan, is it the worst example of slum
housing? They could perhaps work together on Questions 1 and 2 in the
activities on page 58 before writing individual answers.

30
SECTION 3: POPULATION POLICIES IN ASIAN COUNTRIES
(PAGES 58–61)
Asia is a good area of study since national population policies here range
from the world’s strictest in China to non-existent in some oil-rich
Middle Eastern countries. This has led to wide differences in population
characteristics between Asian countries, some of which are shown in
Figure 5.8. The economies of Pakistan and South Korea are compared in
Figure 5.9 and the accompanying text. There has been a great divergence
since 1950 when the income per head was similar in the two countries.
South Korea became one of the ‘East Asian Tiger’ economies and
industrialized (look ahead to page 103 in the textbook), while Pakistan
remained predominantly agricultural. Birth and fertility rates have fallen
sharply in South Korea but much more slowly in Pakistan. A case study
of China’s ‘one child’ population policy follows on page 60. Certain
unique conditions existed in China which at first necessitated and then
allowed the implementation of the world’s strongest national population
policy.
In Question 1 in the activities on page 61, pupils are asked to identify
some of the similarities and differences between population characteristics
of the Asian countries shown in Figure 5.8. Question 2 requires pupils to
show understanding of the difference between the ‘carrot’ and ‘stick’
approaches to population control. In Question 3, pupils are invited to
express their own views about whether or not Pakistan needs a stronger
national population policy.

SECTION 4: PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT (PAGES 61–64)

Pollution and its effects on the environment have been regularly referred
to in earlier Explore books, most notably in Explore 2, Chapters 7 and 8.
Hence only a brief reference is made to them here in the context of
population growth: what is developed more fully is the effect of population
growth on the Earth’s natural resources. The reference to the views of
Thomas Malthus—expressed during the early days of the Industrial
Revolution in the UK—shows that the worries voiced by today’s
environmentalists are nothing new. An audit by environmental groups in
2000 indicated the unsustainable level of use, or overuse, of the Earth’s
natural resources. Figure 5.15 summarizes the value of natural ecosystems
for humans, at a time when such ecosystems are under increasing
pressure from growing human populations. Refer back, for example, to
the three sections on tropical rainforests within Chapter 3, pages 32–38.

31
For answering Question 1 in the activities on page 64, pupils may be
advised to look back to Chapter 3 to find information that will enhance
their answers. This is almost a summary question for work covered under
the heading of economic activities and issues in natural regions, which
additionally takes world population growth into account. Question 2
gives plentiful opportunity for pupils to formulate, express, and support
their views on the future. Evidence can be found to support the full range
of views from total pessimism to great optimism.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Population problems from great population growth in
developing countries
Activity 2 Population growth in Ghana
Activity 3 Population growth in China

Workbook Activity 1 makes fuller use of the substantial content within

Figure 5.4. It shows another way to categorize problems resulting from
great population growth, perhaps the way used most often. Placing
problems, factors, etc. into categories is an important geographical skill,
much used particularly in higher levels of study. Question 2 brings the
scale back from general and worldwide to what is most significant in
Pakistan. Workbook Activity 2 looks at population growth, population
policy, and differences in viewpoints between people living in rural and
urban areas in Ghana, a country with GDP and income levels per head
very similar to those of Pakistan. Pakistan can be compared with Ghana
for population characteristics and possibilities for future population
growth. Would interviews of people in the cities and countryside of
Pakistan be likely to yield similar comments to those from Ghana?
Workbook Activity 3 develops the China population policy case study
from page 60 in the student book. Differences between population growth
in China and Pakistan are also highlighted. Question 2(b) introduces
pupils to some of the negative effects of China’s policy. It is worth
reminding pupils to always look for both sides of an issue, since there are
positive and negative effects to most things.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Awareness of how population change (both between
countries and between rural and urban areas within countries) is related

32
to levels of social and economic development; also awareness of the
relationship between population and natural resources
How these have been met:
• Study of population growth and structure in Pakistan as an example
of a developing world country with a rapidly growing population
• Population differences between rural and urban areas and variations
in poverty levels
• National population policies, including a case study of China’s one
child policy
• Comparison of income per head and population change between
Pakistan and South Korea
• Population growth and consumption of the Earth’s natural
resources

Learning outcomes: Understanding of how population change is affected

by levels of social and economic development; appreciation of the
relationship between population and natural resources
Check that the objectives have been met:
• For understanding of population change and levels of social and
economic development, look at the quality of responses to Question 1
on page 59, and ask further questions about what Figure 5.9 shows
and why.
• For appreciation of the relationship between population growth and
natural resources, look at the worth of responses to Questions 1 and
2 on page 64.
• Look ahead to Figure 8.8 on page 101, showing GDP per head for
selected Asian countries; ask pupils to compare level of economic
development with population characteristics in Figure 5.8, especially
the birth rate and natural increase (say for Japan and Singapore,
compared with China and Thailand, and with India and Pakistan).

33
Chapter 6 Rural settlement and city growth
in Pakistan

National Curriculum
Target study area in the NC Rural Settlements, Urban Settlements,
World Cities with Functions
Teaching Objectives Impart an understanding of rural
settlements and the factors for their
location and village patterns; provide an
elementary knowledge of the structure
and functions of towns and cities,
including settlement hierarchy, with
particular reference to Pakistan
Learning Outcomes Ability to describe and explain locational
factors for rural settlements and
understand settlement patterns; recognize
different types of structure, growth, and
functions of towns and cities

Geographical skills
Practical skills used in activities include drawing labelled sketches,
completing a table and drawing a sketch map of urban zones. Study of
settlements from maps, diagrams and photographs is required throughout
the chapter

Key geographical terms

* dispersed settlement * linear settlement
* nucleated settlement * planned settlement
* site (of a settlement) * function (of a settlement)
* dry point site * urban zone
* form (of a settlement)

SECTION 1: PATTERN OF RURAL SETTLEMENT IN PAKISTAN

(PAGES 66–68)
Geographers recognize two basic patterns of rural settlement, dispersed
and nucleated. Of the two, nucleated is more common both worldwide
and in Pakistan. After a study of siting factors on page 67, pupils should

34
be in a better position to explain why nucleated settlement (focused on
villages) is more common than dispersed settlement (focused on
individual farms and houses) in the rural areas of Pakistan. Of the six
siting factors identified in Figure 6.5, water supply and resources for food
have always been the two most important, except in locations where there
were other special needs. The example given in the text is for defence,
but on flood plains in major river valleys where water availability and
good farmland are plentiful, a dry land site free from flooding was often
the key factor for siting the settlement. Whenever possible, you are
recommended to use local examples to illustrate these siting factors. The
section ends with a special note about water supply, vital everywhere, but
particularly important in countries like Pakistan with a mainly dry
climate.
Question 1 in the activities on page 68 tests pupils’ comprehension of the
differences between dispersed and nucleated patterns of settlement.
Question 2 focuses on the key siting factor of water supply. There may
be opportunities for extending the activities to an investigation of
settlement location in the home region in relation to water supply
availability.

SECTION 2: HOW DO VILLAGES IN PAKISTAN VARY IN FORM

AND LAYOUT? (PAGES 68–71)
The focus switches from site to form. Although rural settlements come
in many different sizes and shapes, certain distinguishing patterns of
layout are recognizable worldwide, none more so than the linear shape
following roads or even tracks. As the text explains, sometimes steep
valley relief makes an additional contribution to the linear shape. Over
time, some well-located villages grow and become towns. Most keep their
original form because growth tends to occur first along the sides of the
routes before the land between is filled in with buildings. Again, there
may be opportunities to replace or supplement the examples used in the
text with local examples.
In the activities on page 71, Question 1 identifies and isolates some of the
key settlement terms introduced in the text, and asks for definitions.
Pupils can support their definitions by sketches and diagrams for greater
clarity. Question 2 requires more detailed study of the planned settlement
shown in Figure 6.10. There are extension opportunities for comparing
the layout of this settlement with others in the textbook, such as in

35
Figure 6.3, or those in the thematic maps on page 21 in the Oxford School
Atlas for Pakistan.

SECTION 3: THE PATTERN FOR URBAN SETTLEMENT IN

PAKISTAN (PAGES 71–73)
The focus here moves from rural to urban settlements. The key differences
between them were outlined in Explore Book 1, Chapter 7. These are now
taken further, with more emphasis on function. This geographical term
needs careful explanation; hopefully, the Information Box will help.
Reinforce the topic by asking pupils to identify the main functions of the
settlement in which they live. Although the basic map in Figure 6.14
highlights the distribution of the top ten cities in Pakistan and their
relative sizes, the labels indicate main functions. Notice how the number
and variety of functions are greater in the two largest cities (Karachi and
Lahore) than in the other smaller cities.
The activities relating to this part of the work are on page 73. Question 1
requires pupils to extend Figure 6.13 so that information is now stated
separately for villages as well as towns and cities; at present, most
statements are comparative with an urban bias. Part (b) introduces
another element, lifestyle, which also touches on differences in quality of
life between rural and urban areas. Pupils should start from their own
experiences (most likely urban) in order to appreciate differences in
villages where service provision and work opportunities are more limited.
Question 2 gives pupils the chance to investigate and write more fully
about the big city with which they are likely to be most familiar.

SECTION 4: URBAN SETTLEMENTS—LAND USES AND LAYOUT

(PAGES 73–75)
Land uses in urban settlements are much more varied than in rural
villages and small towns. Headings for the main uses of land in urban
areas are given as an introduction to this section. Questions A–D
encourage pupils to think geographically about their nearest urban area,
i.e. where they live, aiming to make them look at their surroundings
through geographical eyes, in a way that they have not done previously.
Just as geographers use natural regions for the study of world physical
geography, urban zones are used to aid the study of cities. Urban zones
are areas of the city where land uses are similar, and can be used to
distinguish that part of the city from other parts. The best and easiest

36
place to begin any urban study is the city centre, universally referred to
in geographical studies as the CBD—Central Business District. With its
concentration of old and high rise buildings, it is the urban zone which
is always the easiest to identify.
In all urban areas, the land use which covers the greatest area is housing.
Here lies the biggest difference between cities in developed and developing
countries. Housing in developed world cities is mostly formal, even if
some of it is old and in bad condition, whereas a significant percentage
of housing in most developing world cities is informal, of the type
described in the bottom half of page 74. The activities on page 75 test
pupils’ understanding of these key urban ideas with definitions of key
terms in Question 1, focus on the CBD in Question 2, and land uses in
the pupil’s nearest urban area in Question 3.

SECTION 5: CITIES IN PAKISTAN—LAND USES AND LAYOUT

(PAGES 75–78)
The contrast in land uses and layout between Pakistan’s major cities is
the theme of this section. The study begins with Islamabad, unique
because it is a planned ‘new’ city. In the layout of its land uses shown in
Figure 6.17, there are parallels with the layout of rural settlements on
reclaimed land in Sindh and Punjab (Figures 6.3, 6.10, and 6.11), due to
its grid and block-like layout. For pupils who do not live in Islamabad,
and have never visited there, its appearance in Figures 6.1 and 6.18 would
look very different from that of other cities in Pakistan. Figure 6.19 is
included to highlight the differences between the regular geometric road
layout of planned Islamabad and the more common irregular road
pattern, which developed over centuries, in neighbouring Rawalpindi.
Likewise, the layout of Lahore with its 1000-plus years of history, shown
in Figure 6.20, provides another contrast with Islamabad. Over the
centuries it has grown outwards, mainly southwards, from the old walled
city close to the Ravi River in the north. It looks like a ‘normal city’
(compare Figures 6.21 and 6.22 with Figure 6.18); land use arrangement
conforms more closely with that found in cities elsewhere, with wealthier
residential areas away from the old, congested city centre.
Karachi provides a further contrast; it has only 200-plus years of history
and its layout was influenced by settlement from the sea, not from the
land. This is why the commercial centre is close to the coast and port,
with later urban growth towards the north and east (Figure 6.23). Urban

37
zones are easier to identify than in other cities of Pakistan. This is partly
because some of the land uses, such as port and industries, naturally
concentrate in certain zones, and partly because of the outside influences
which affected its growth.
Question 1 in the activities on page 78 is about differences in layout
between a new planned city and an old historical city that has grown
gradually through time. In the UK, as well as in Cairo (look ahead to
pages 89–91), planned new towns tend to be less popular places to live
in than old towns and cities. Is this the view among pupils and people in
Pakistan as well? Karachi is used as the example for studying urban zones
in more detail in Question 2(a) because its CBD and main commercial
areas, as well as the industrial zones, are easier to identify and locate.
Pupils should use Figure 6.23 as the base for drawing their own sketch
map, and be guided by the text on page 78. The photographs in Figures
6.24 and 6.25 help with answers to Question 2(b). Question 3 is more
challenging since the urban zones in Lahore are not as clearly defined
outside the CBD and surrounding low rent residential areas in the north
near the Ravi River.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Rural settlement—site
Activity 2 Rural settlement—shape and layout
Activity 3 Urban settlement—Pakistan’s top 10 cities
Activity 4 Fieldwork investigation of urban zones in Lahore

Workbook Activities 1 and 2 make use of various figures in the

textbook—a mixture of photographs, maps, and diagrams—in order to
develop pupil understanding of key rural settlement terms: site, shape,
and layout. Workbook Activity 3 needs Figure 6.14. The pyramid
hierarchy is: two cities over 10 million (Karachi and Lahore), one over
5 million (Faisalabad), and five over 1 million (Rawalpindi, Gujranwala,
Multan, Hyderabad and Peshawar). Only two of the many cities above
100,000 in Pakistan (Islamabad and Quetta) are named on the map. This
study can be extended by using the atlas to find more cities with
populations over 100,000, in order to add to and confirm the pyramid
shape associated with the hierarchy of city size.
Workbook Activity 4 is the type of investigation which might be
undertaken in the pupils’ home towns and cities. This exercise is based

38
on the map, photographs, and text about Lahore in the textbook on pages
76 and 77. However, it is less satisfactory than doing it through personal
investigation and observation. Certain alternative answers may need to
be accepted depending upon individual pupil interpretation of the
resources. The area marked A is the CBD, the main commercial area
shown in yellow on Figure 6.20; B is the up-market residential area in the
suburb of Gulberg, mixed with modern commercial areas, as referred to
in the text; C is simply residential areas (of varying standards); D is more
industrial and less residential. More space and access to transport routes
are the most likely factors to explain why the industrial area and Lahore
Race Club cover large areas of land in zone D.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: To impart an understanding of rural settlements
including factors for location and village patterns; to provide an
elementary knowledge of the structure and functions of towns and cities,
including settlement hierarchy, with particular reference to Pakistan.
How these have been met:
• Study of patterns of rural settlement and siting factors for villages in
Pakistan
• How villages in Pakistan vary in form and layout, explained with
examples
• Settlement hierarchy and functions of the top ten cities in Pakistan
• Urban land uses and layout in cities of Pakistan, with examples of
Islamabad, Lahore, and Karachi
Learning outcomes: Ability to describe and explain locational factors for
rural settlements and appreciate settlement patterns; recognition of
different types of structure, growth, and functions of towns and cities.
Check that the objectives have been met:
• For rural settlements, look at the quality of responses to questions in
the Activities on pages 68 and 71.
• For urban settlements, look at the quality of pupils’ work in the
Activities on pages 75 and 78.
• Pupils study maps or street plans of cities in Pakistan in the atlas or
from elsewhere to check their ability to recognize land uses, layout
(including urban zones), and functions (i.e. to interpret what they
show in a geographical manner).

39
Chapter 7 World urbanization

National Curriculum
Target study area in the NC World Cities with Functions, Urban
Settlements
Teaching Objectives To impart understanding of city growth
as a worldwide phenomenon, supported
by references to examples of selected
cities; to illustrate a range of different
functions
Learning Outcomes Ability to locate some of the world’s big
cities and explain the growth of selected
examples in terms of their functions and
importance

Geographical skills
Practical skills used are drawing bar and other types of graphs. A wide
variety of source materials is included, requiring interpretation of
different types of graphs, sketches, tables, photographs, maps, flow
diagrams, and speech bubbles

Key geographical terms

* urbanization * secondary sector
* millionaire city * tertiary sector
* megacity * quaternary sector
* primary sector (of employment) * conurbation

SECTION 1: WORLD CITY GROWTH (PAGES 80–83)

One of the most important global changes of the last 50 years has been
urbanization and the growth of big cities. Towards the end of 2008 the
UN pronounced that, for the first time in human history, more people
were now living in urban than in rural areas, and that the world’s
population was predominantly urban. Early in the last century, a city of
a million people—a millionaire city—was something that was truly
exceptional. Now as Figure 7.3 shows, they are almost ‘two a penny’. We
have witnessed the rise of the megacity (Figure 7.4) and the changing
distribution of big cities from developed to developing countries (Figure

40
7.5). The final part of this section shows how, and explains why, urban
growth and economic growth go together.
In the activities on page 83, Question 1 requires pupils to define
urbanization before giving evidence for it from Figure 7.3 (notably the
steepening of the line gradient between 1950 and 1990 showing the
number of millionaire cities). An extension task would be to compare
Figure 7.3 with Figure 4.10 page 49 showing world population growth.
Answering Question 2(a) should reveal eleven cities (more than half) are
in Asia, compared with only one in Europe (Moscow) in 2005. Question 3
requires pupils to use Figure 7.5 and compare 1950 with 2005. Answering
Question E in the text, which is based on Figure 7.6, could be an
additional task. In 1970 more people were still living in towns and cities
in developed countries, but the ratio between developed and developing
was narrowing until, by 1990, a clear majority of urban dwellers was
living in developing countries.

SECTION 2: BIG CITY GROWTH IN ASIA AND ITS PROBLEMS

(PAGES 83–85)
This is a relatively short section outlining the causes and problems of
‘hyperurbanization’. The causes of recent and current urban growth in the
developing world have already been discussed in previous chapters. For
higher rates of natural increase, refer pupils to Chapter 4, pages 50–51;
for rural to urban migration, refer back to Chapter 5, pages 56–57, about
differences and disparities between rural and urban areas; problems such
as poverty, slum housing and pollution have also been mentioned.
Within the activities on page 85, Question 1 is about urban growth. The
percentages stated emphasize the size of the differences in urban growth
between Europe and the continents predominantly made up of developing
countries. Question 2 aims to increase pupils’ awareness of work in the
informal sector, while Question 3 focuses on slum housing.

SECTION 3: WHAT IS GOOD ABOUT BIG CITY GROWTH IN ASIA?

(PAGES 85–86)
The previous section presented a negative picture of urban growth, but
this section attempts to redress the balance and look for positives.
Hopefully, the photographs in Figure 7.13 will trigger pupils into
identifying signs of better quality of life and the possibilities for
improvement in urban areas. The text continues this theme. Question 1

41
in the activities on page 86 gives values which put a figure on the size of
the differences between the capital city Cairo and the countryside where
most Egyptians still live. It involves a practical task followed by written
explanation. Question 2 allows more pupil judgement; quality of
explanation matters more than choices made.

SECTION 4: WHAT CAN BE DONE TO REDUCE URBAN PROBLEMS?

(PAGES 86–89)
The logical next stage is to look at ways of reducing problems in
developing world cities. The section begins with some indication of the
scale of the problem, and why it is not going to go away quickly. The main
focus is then upon slum housing: are they slums of hope or slums of
despair? Both views are elaborated upon, but with more emphasis on
actual examples of achievement and possibilities. Since the text was
written, the Dharavi slum in Mumbai has become known in the West
after it featured in the successful movie ‘Slumdog Millionaire’. Plentiful
further information about Dharavi slum is available on the Internet.
Question 2 in the activities on page 89 suggests a possible local
investigation.

SECTION 5: MEGACITIES (PAGES 89–94)

Cairo and New York are used as contrasting examples of megacities
between developing and developed worlds. Cairo is a typical developing
world megacity in that it has grown a lot, continues to grow fast, and has
the typical urban problems that result. It is also a dynamic city, the
economic powerhouse of Egypt. Egypt itself is one of the leading African
countries and a dominant force in the Muslim and Arab worlds. The
other reason for its choice is that the authorities are making genuine
attempts to solve some of the problems, even if they are facing an uphill
struggle. The questions in the activities on page 91 relate to these
problems and their attempted solutions. An extension activity for housing
is given in the Workbook, Activity 5.
New York is the most international of megacities; people everywhere
know one or more images of New York. Indeed, a quick class survey of
New York images could be a useful introduction to this topic (with or
without the use of Figure 7.22). The port was responsible for the rapid
early growth of New York (as for Karachi), from which most of the city’s
business and industrial functions developed. The working heart of the
city is concentrated on Manhattan Island; here certain well-defined

42
functional zones are easy to identify, notably the Midtown and Downtown
business districts (Figure 7.26). The final part of text confirms the
existence of urban problems, many of them similar to those in developing
world cities, but not as overbearing because the funding and organization
exist to keep them manageable, particularly in times of economic
prosperity. Questions 1 and 2 in the activities on page 94 focus on the
distinctive characteristics of New York, and the reasons for its growth
into a major international centre. Question 3 checks pupils’ understanding
of how and why urban problems in a developed world city are easier to
tackle than those in developing world cities. Remind pupils that the
authorities in Cairo have done more for the disadvantaged in their city
than in most other developing world cities.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Location of the world’s top 10 cities in 1950 and 2005
Activity 2 Urban growth in developing countries
Activity 3 Poverty trap in urban areas
Activity 4 How slums change over time
Activity 5 Are new settlements in the desert the answer to Cairo’s
housing problems?

Workbook Activity 1 is about world urbanization and the recent rapid

growth of cities in the developing world. After plotting the distribution
of the world’s top 10 cities in 2005 in Question 1, pupils are in a stronger
position to answer Question 2 which guides them towards commenting
on changes in distribution since 1950, with the headings continents,
latitude, and developed and developing worlds. In Workbook Activity 2,
pupils are required to plot the ratios that are given below the vertical
divided bar graph in Figure 7.6 in pie graphs. Past experience from
teaching and examining has suggested that pupils find interpretation of
relative sizes easier from pie charts than from divided bar graphs; these
two graphical techniques can always be used interchangeably and it is
often the availability of space which controls which one is used.
Question 2 is about the range and availability of work in cities as
compared with the countryside.
Workbook Activity 3 starts in Question 1 with the completion of flow
diagram for a poverty trap in urban areas, so that it reads: Poverty →
unable to find work → little income → forced to live in slum housing →
diseases common → less energy to seek informal work → poverty.

43
Question 2 focuses, in particular, upon informal work, an important
income source for many (if not the majority) in all developing world
cities. Question 3 rounds off the activity by asking pupils to explain why
it is so difficult for newcomers to the city to break out of the poverty trap.
The main reason is that they are less well educated than the people
already in the city, with a lower range of skills because of the limited
educational opportunities in rural areas (this itself is often one of the
prime causes of rural to urban migration). In Workbook Activity 4 pupils
are asked to describe the changes shown in slum housing as improvements
are made with time, by adding labels to the three sketches. Question 2
asks for an explanation for the main changes. Question 3 is more of an
assessment of the various methods used for tackling slum housing in
developing world cities. Workbook Activity 5 is about a fourth method
for tackling slum housing and overcrowding as done in Cairo—new
settlements outside the city. Questions 1 and 2 are about the background
to this situation while Question 3 is about peoples’ responses to living in
new settlements. Activities 4 and 5 highlight that there is no single
solution to housing which fits all.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Understanding of city growth as a worldwide
phenomenon, with reference to examples of selected cities in terms of
their functions and importance
How these have been met:
• World urbanization, growth in numbers of millionaire cities, and rise
of the megacity
• Why urbanization is now greater in developing world countries
• The bad and good points about big city growth in developing
countries
• Cairo and New York as contrasting examples of megacities

Learning outcomes: Ability to locate some of the world’s big cities and
explain the growth of selected examples, in terms of their functions and
importance
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Look at the accuracy of pupils’ answers to questions related to global
locations of big cities, such as Activities 2 and 3 on page 83 in the
textbook and Activities 1 and 2 in the workbook.

44
• Check pupils’ understanding of wider work opportunities, and
therefore functions, in urban areas from their answers to Activity 2
on page 85 in the textbook.
• Show pupils pictures of some of the world’s big cities and ask them
to identify functions shown and why they are important.

Chapter 8 World development and globalization

National Curriculum
Target area of study in the NC General world geography included in
Natural Regions III and Population
Teaching Objectives To impart an understanding of factors
used to measure differences in levels of
e c onomic de vel opme nt b e t we e n
countries; to appreciate variations in
rates of economic growth between Asian
countries
Learning Outcomes Knowledge and understanding of the
divide between rich and poor countries
of the world; knowledge and
understanding of the factors for some
Asian countries having progressed
higher up the ladder of economic
development than others

Geographical skills
Pupils are required to interpret from a wide variety of geographical source
materials including world maps, several types of graphs, sketches,
diagrams, tables, and photographs. Questions in the student book
activities typically involve description and interpretation from one or
more of these, followed by written explanation. Practical tasks such as
drawing a shading map and divided bar graph are included in the
workbook activities

Key geographical terms

* development * life expectancy
* economic development * literacy rate
* GDP (Gross Domestic Product) * NIC (newly industrializing country)

45
* quality of life * market
* standard of living * globalization
* socio-economic * multinational company

SECTION 1: WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT AND HOW IS IT MEASURED?

(PAGES 96–99)

The terms ‘developed’ and ‘developing’ have been used throughout the
Explore series as general terms in everyday use when examining human
aspects of world geography. An interesting introduction to this chapter
could be to ask each pupil to write down what they understand by
‘developed’ and ‘developing’, and use their responses as a starting point
for this geographical study. The starting point in the book is the North-
South dividing line shown in Figure 8.2, and the shifts of its course which
put some of the Southern hemisphere countries in the North. From
earlier studies, how good and appropriate is the line as a two-fold division
of the world?
The term ‘income per head’ has often been used in this series as a
replacement for GDP in simple terms. GDP per head, the main
international measure used to show variations in wealth between
countries, is explained on page 97. Explain that it is just a ‘best estimate’
of the wealth of a country; often it is more likely to underestimate the
wealth of poor countries than of rich countries. Explain that the
contributing factors to wealth in farming communities do not always have
a monetary value attached to them, and are not included in data collected
by the authorities. Figure 8.4 shows the world distribution of countries
with low, medium, and high GDPs.
As with world maps used earlier, such as Figure 4.12 on page 51, the
advice for identifying the world pattern of wealth is to begin with the
extremes of high and low, and observe intermediate values later. High
GDPs above US$10,000 per head are largely confined to countries in
Europe and North America, plus a few in Asia (oil-rich countries around
the Gulf, Japan, South Korea, and Singapore), as well as Australia and
New Zealand in Oceania. Low GDPs below US$1000 per head are
predominantly associated with countries in Africa and South Asia. The
questions lettered A to E in the text guide pupils’ study of Figure 8.4, and
how well it supports the North-South dividing line in Figure 8.2. Both
maps have been drawn to the same scale, deliberately, to make comparison
easier. How a general economic indicator of development relates to

46
individual standards of living and the quality of life is the theme of the
remaining text. Pupils are introduced to one of the regularly used
international indicators of poverty on page 99, the number of people
living on less than a-dollar-a-day ($US).
Question 1 in the activities on page 99 is all about GDP—what it means,
how it is calculated, how useful and reliable it is. Question 2 makes use
of the guide questions in the text to study Figure 8.4 and assess how well
it supports the two-fold world division in Figure 8.2. Question 3 requires
the study of Figure 8.5 One part of it, for sub-Saharan Africa and South
Asia, supports what Figure 8.4 shows; what is new is the amount of
poverty in Russia and neighbouring republics which is masked by the big
extent of medium GDP in Asia as shown in Figure 8.4.

SECTION 2: DEVELOPMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN ASIA

(PAGES 100–102)
Figure 8.4 shows Asia as being the continent with the greatest range in
wealth between member countries. This is illustrated in a different way
in Figure 8.6, which has the advantage of identifying GDPs of individual
countries. A ladder of economic development can be recognized (Figure
8.7) as countries progress from having overwhelmingly agricultural
economies to ones dominated by industry and services. Figure 8.8 shows
the negative relationship that undoubtedly exists between wealth per head
and percentage of people employed in agriculture. Figure 8.9 is included
to show how little the farmer, as the producer of the raw materials, gets
from the final sale price of manufactured products to consumers. Ten per
cent raw material costs is a typical figure for food products originating
in the developing world and sold in processed form in developed
countries. Notice how much more is gained by operators in the
manufacturing and service sectors. Economic development in the Gulf
States is directly related to their oil wealth, which makes them different
from industry-driven economic growth in the rest of Asia.
To answer Question 1 in the activities on page 102, pupils are expected
to use Figure 8.7 as the basis for answering; based on the evidence given,
the best answers would be Japan in T4, Singapore in T3, Malaysia in T2,
and Nepal in T1. Pakistan could perhaps be placed on the border rung
between T1 and T2. Explanation in part (b) is all important to justify the
positions shown in part (a). In Question 2, the farmer gets 10 per cent
compared with 45 per cent for manufacturing and 45 per cent for

47
services. This essentially means that 90 per cent of the final sale price
goes to companies and organizations based in the developed world, since
most of the world’s international transport and shipping is in the hands
of multinational companies. Question 3 is about oil-rich Middle Eastern
countries, such as the UAE.

SECTION 3: GROWTH OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY IN ASIA

(PAGES 103–105)
Manufacturing growth in East Asia and in China, in particular, has been
nothing short of staggering during the last 20 years. Figure 8.11 shows
how this region has outperformed all other regions of the developing
world. Other regions including South Asia have stagnated in comparison
and have been left behind. The terms Newly Industrializing Countries
was coined in the 1970s to describe more advanced developing countries
in East Asia and Latin America which were industrializing fast. The four
‘East Asian Tigers’ were singled out for the speed with which they
developed. Singapore and Hong Kong have since become more important
as centres of trade and commerce than manufacturing; wage rates here
are no longer competitive with those of their neighbours. The reasons
why East Asia outstripped all other regions for manufacturing growth are
given on pages 104 and 105, essentially in order of importance. With the
full range of manufacturing represented (Figure 8.12) and consumer
demand for manufactured goods increasing (Figure 8.15) there seem few
opportunities for other regions of the developing world, such as South
Asia, to catch up. This is all part of globalization (Section 5).
Question 1 in the activities on page 104 requires pupils to think of
reasons for relative industrial decline in the UK in the face of East Asian
competition. Direct evidence comes from the graph of relative labour
costs in Figure 8.14, with labour rates in many East and South Asian
countries being less than a quarter of those in the UK. International
companies have a big cushion for absorbing the extra transport costs back
to the UK. Question 2 arises from the idea shown in Figure 8.15 and
switches the focus to domestic consumption, in the home, with an
increasing array of consumer goods, many of them electrical and
electronic. To answer Question 3 well, pupils need to look at the
advantages stated for East Asia and to think about the attractiveness of
Pakistan for investment from overseas manufacturing companies. There
will be another chance to come back to this during study of Chapter 9.

48
SECTION 4: INDUSTRIAL GROWTH IN CHINA (PAGES 105–108)
The spectacular rise of manufacturing industry in China to become the
industrial giant of Asia deserves a section of explanation by itself. Once
the government policy changed regarding investment from overseas
companies, multinational companies piled in because all the general
advantages for East Asia were stronger, and had more pulling power, in
China. So dominant has China become that other Asian countries are
feeling the backlash. Figure 8.18 attempts to show why. No Asian country
can be unaffected by the growth of China, but some are more badly
affected than others. You may wish to update pupils in the light of now
prevailing world and Asian economic circumstances; since the text in the
student book was written, the world recession in late 2008 has had a big
effect on commodity prices and the demand for new consumer goods in
the West. Factories in the south of China around Guangzhou, which are
almost entirely export orientated, were reducing output and closing,
leading to job losses. This was the first time for many years that the
bubble of economic growth had been burst.
Question 1 in the activities on page 108 focuses on the vital role of
government in allowing and promoting manufacturing growth. Pupils
can be asked to extend their answers to other factors for a fuller
explanation of growth. Question 2 focuses on the so-called ‘China effect’
on other Asian countries. The questions are given as a guide for the
longer written answer expected.

SECTION 5: GLOBALIZATION (PAGES 108–112)

Globalization is the current buzz word for explaining everything
economic. It always seems to get the blame when things go wrong; but
only sometimes is it given credit for things that are good. Globalization
has always existed in some form: people and countries have always
traded; but what it is different now are the massively improved transport
and communications links between countries, which have made the
world a smaller place. The sketches in Figure 8.19 are an attempt to
illustrate the difference between slow links in the past and fast (sometimes
instant) connections today, about which the pupils are likely to know
more than you! There has been a staggering growth in the global
companies, most frequently referred to as multinationals.
A health warning needs to be added to the company names in Figure
8.20. The 2008 and 2009 lists, when published, will look a lot different

49
due to the effects of the global downturn in the second half of 2008.
However, there is likely to be little change in the locations of company
headquarters—they are going to come from the same world regions and
countries, but perhaps with an increased representation of Chinese
companies. The banking sector has declined, but the other sectors named
there remain strong. The list of big companies in Figure 8.21 is likely to
mean more to pupils because these are providers of products and services
consumed by individuals. To say that multinationals are controversial is
something of an understatement; Figure 8.22 is a collation of comments
made about them, both good and bad.
Question 1 in the activities on page 112 tries to tap into likely pupils’
experiences of multinational companies; this is an attempt to increase
their awareness of these companies by working from the known and
familiar. Part (c) is a follow-up to Question 3 on page 105. Question 2 is
about the modern communications revolution which underpins
globalization and the operation of multinational companies.

WORKBOOK
Activity 1 Developed and developing worlds
Activity 2 Growth of manufacturing industry in East Asia
Activity 3 Advantages and disadvantages of multinational companies
for developing countries

In Workbook Activity 1, pupils are first required to draw a shading

(choropleth) map which should highlight the big gap between North
America, Oceania, and Europe and the other continents. Countries in
Asia are placed on both sides of the world divide between developed and
developing. Although justified for Japan, the line is something of a
‘political’ divide placing all of Russia and the former Soviet Republics in
Asia within the developed world. This cannot be justified on purely
economic grounds, particularly for the recently independent republics.
Workbook Activity 2 is about the growth of manufacturing industry in
East Asia, which mainly explains the big percentage rise in the share of
manufacturing industry in the developing world between 1970 and 2010.
Pupils will show this in the divided bar graph to be drawn in part (a). A
pie chart can always be used as an alternative to a divided bar graph,
although a pictograph is another acceptable answer in part (b). The
answer to part (c) rests on personal opinion; in general, people are more

50
familiar with interpreting pie charts, which give a good visual display.
However, actual values plotted are easier to read off from divided bar
graphs and pictographs. Question 2 requires pupils to read off and rank
values from Figure 8.11, to show the striking differences in speed of
growth between East Asia and the rest of the developing world. In
Question 3, pupils are expected to write about the evidence for this.
Workbook Activity 3 deals separately with multinational companies.
Question 1 requires pupils to organize the contents of Figure 8.22, first
into advantages and disadvantages, and then according to who or what
is affected. In Question 2, pupils are invited to select the two advantages
and two disadvantages considered by them to be strongest. Again,
explanation of choices is more important than actual choices made; good
choices are always easier to justify convincingly.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Understanding of factors used to measure
differences in levels of economic development between countries;
appreciation of variations in rates of economic growth between Asian
countries
How these have been met:
• Study of GDP as the main indicator for measuring differences in
wealth between countries
• Variations in levels of wealth and economic development between
Asian countries of high, medium, and low incomes
• How and why industrial growth in East Asia has been greater than
in other regions of the developing world
• Special studies of industrial growth in China and the role of
multinational companies in promoting economic growth in Asia

Learning outcomes: Knowledge and understanding of the world

economic divide between developed and developing countries, and the
factors for some Asian countries having progressed higher up the ladder
of economic development than others
Check that the objectives have been met:
• For pupil knowledge and understanding of the dividing line between
rich and poor worlds, evaluate the quality of pupil answers to
Activity 2 on page 99 in the textbook and to Workbook Activity 1.

51
• Refer pupils to world maps in atlases showing other development
indicators such as life expectancy and literacy rates, and ask them to
comment on the validity of the north-south dividing line. Figure 4.12
on page 51 can also be used in the same way.
• Look at the worth of pupils’ answers to Activity 1 on page 102 and
Activity 1 on page 112 to assess levels of understanding for the lower
levels of economic development in some Asian countries than in
others.

Chapter 9 Exploring Asia and the rest of the world

National Curriculum
Target area of study in the NC General world geography included in
Natural Regions III and Population
Teaching Objectives To impart an appreciation of the wide
differences in economic geography
between countries, and in levels of
resource development between different
parts of the world
Learning Outcomes Understanding, through regional examples,
of some of the wide variations in economic
development and resource use in different
natural regions of the world

Geographical skills
Mainly use of, and interpretation from, a variety of source materials
including maps, photographs, a time line, tables, and graphs. Practical
skills involve labelling sketches and drawing graphs.

Key geographical terms

* IT (Information Technology)
* wilderness

SECTION 1: JAPAN, THE INDUSTRIAL SUPERPOWER OF ASIA

(PAGES 114–116)
Although its industrial dominance in Asia, in terms of total manufacturing
output, is now under threat from China, Japan showed the way forward—
how a country with few natural resources and limited infrastructure

52
could become one of the world’s industrial giants. The text gives reasons
for growth, examples of Japanese companies and brand names, and brief
details of the industrial and economic core centred on Tokyo. Questions
in the activities on page 116 relate to the themes of industrial growth and
wealth.

SECTION 2: INDIA—THE GIANT BEGINS TO STIR (PAGES 116–119)

Although second in population size to China (and closing the gap), India
did not share in the great industrial growth of Asia between 1970 and
1990. Reasons why are suggested. However, there are signs of change, but
not in the same direction as China for producing consumer goods for the
world market. Instead, economic growth in India has been more IT-led;
the reasons for this are explored, as also are the country’s future prospects.
Obstacles to economic development remain. The section includes
comparisons between India and its South Asian neighbours. These are
followed up in the questions set in the activities on page 119, as also is
the growth of India’s IT sector.

SECTION 3: SAUDI ARABIA, THE OIL-RICH KINGDOM

(PAGES 119–122)
The study of Saudi Arabia, as the most important Middle Eastern/Gulf
State, is based around the three elements that summarize its physical and
human geography—desert, Islam, and oil. Information about the hot
desert extends and exemplifies earlier references to hot deserts in the
natural regions sections (Chapter 1, page 7; Chapter 2, pages 24–26;
Chapter 3, pages 28–30). Saudi Arabia is the guardian of the holy places
for Islam; oil wealth has allowed the country to build an infrastructure
which can accommodate millions of Muslims visiting every year. As for
oil, the table in Figure 9.12 shows the country’s high production and low
consumption, allowing Saudi Arabia to be the world’s major oil exporter,
a situation which is going to persist for some time because of the size of
its proved oil reserves. Questions A–E in the text are used to guide pupils
towards recognizing these significant points. Question 1 focuses on the
importance of Saudi Arabia for world oil supplies. Question 2 is about
changes from traditional to modern ways of life; this was the underlying
theme of the hot desert section in Chapter 3. There is the opportunity,
should you wish to ask a third question about reasons for the country’s
international religious importance.

53
SECTION 4: SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA—THE WORLD’S POOREST
REGION (PAGES 122–125)
A good way to introduce this section would be to get pupils to look at an
atlas map of Africa in order to isolate the five North African countries
which border the Mediterranean Sea and do not form part of the world
region known as sub-Saharan Africa. In effect, outside North Africa, most
Africans live on the southern side of the Sahara desert. Studying poorest
(or richest) regions means that statistics showing differences from other
regions (Figure 9.14) and their causes (Figures 9.15 and 9.16) convey
strong messages. Figure 9.14 shows how sub-Saharan Africa compares
with other developing regions: as shown in 9.14C the situation has not
improved since 1990. Figures 9.15 and 9.16 show the natural and human
factors for poverty in this region. The final sub-section looks at the
possibilities of a better future, considering the natural resources in Africa.
The questions in the activities on page 125 explore evidence from the text
and figures for the low level of development in Africa and the amount of
control African people have in this context.

SECTION 5: SOUTH AMERICA—SLOW PROGRESS ALONG THE

ROAD TO DEVELOPMENT (PAGES 125–128)
South America is possibly the most remote continent, both physically and
psychologically, for pupils in Pakistan. It is a continent of physical
extremes, even if it cannot rival the Himalayas for the extreme height of
ranges and peaks. Economically, it is a continent of middle income
countries, without the poverty of Africa or the impressive economic
growth rates of East Asia. Life is most difficult for people living high in
the Andes of Bolivia and Peru—more people live at extreme heights above
3000 metres in South America than in any other continent. The most
economically advanced region is in the south-east of Brazil, the main
source of manufactured goods throughout the continent. Size (both area
and population) and resources make Brazil one of the developing world’s
major economies. There is more to Brazil than just the Amazon rainforest
(Chapter 3, pages 37–38) which is often the focus of international media
attention. Questions 1 and 2 in the activities on page 128 focus on
differences in wealth and development between the Andean countries
and Brazil, and between South America and other world regions.
Question 3 will help pupils to get to know South America better, should
time and interest allow.

54
SECTION 6: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA—THE WORLD’S
ECONOMIC SUPERPOWER (PAGES 128–131)
People throughout the world know much more about North America
than South America; to most, a mention of America means the USA. This
is because no other country can match the economic dominance of the
USA, as Figure 9.21 tries to show. It is a resource-rich country (Figure
9.22); notice that while many of its mineral resources and most productive
farming areas are in the centre and west, most of its big industries and
cities are in the east. This is partly because it was first settled from across
the Atlantic from Europe and then from Africa, and over the Pacific from
East Asia, mainly China and Japan; only in the last 30 years has
immigration from Central and South America come to dominate. Special
attention is given to the economic core of the North East, based on New
York (see also pages 91–94), and coastal California. Question 1 in the
activities on page 131 is to improve pupils’ awareness with the geography
of the USA. Questions 2 and 3 focus on the role of immigrants, very
important to past and present economic growth; the great variety of
nationalities and their numbers distinguish the USA from the majority
of other countries.

SECTION 7: WILDERNESS AREAS OF THE WORLD—WILL THEY

SURVIVE? (PAGES 131–133)
This brief world survey ends with a section on the world’s remaining
empty areas or wildernesses. As world population increases and
technology improves, more and more of these areas are under the threat
of development. Antarctica is a special case and provides a contrast with
tundra lands in the Arctic (Chapter 3, pages 39–42). It is a polar region
of ice and snow, colder than the tundra. Despite its remoteness and the
impossibility of permanent human settlement, not all of Antarctica is
untouched wilderness, especially the more accessible north coast (Figure
9.28). Immediate pressures come from increasing tourist numbers; longer
term pressures may be for mineral exploitation since fossil fuels are
known to be present. Question 1 in the activities on page 133 focuses on
Antarctica as the only wilderness without permanent human settlement.
Question 2 is about human pressures. Question 3 broadens out the study
area to the whole Earth. Two views at opposite extremes are given about
the future of the Earth and its natural resources, for pupils to decide
which, in their opinion, is the more credible one.

55
WORKBOOK
Activity 1 The Asian giants (China, India, and Japan)
Activity 2 What holds back and what helps economic development
Activity 3 Will tourism save or ruin Antarctica?

Workbook Activity 1 takes the three Asian giants and compares them
for population size, wealth, employment structure, and industrial output.
Related questions are set requiring pupils to identify and explain the key
differences between them. In Workbook Activity 2, twenty factors, both
favourable and unfavourable, are given for pupils to sort out as holding
back or helping economic development. Next, they are required to
identify which factors are physical (largely out of human control) and
which are human. Following this in Question 2, they need to isolate those
factors that apply in sub-Saharan Africa, with the help of what is included
in the textbook on pages 122–125. Finally pupils are expected to make
an assessment of how strong these factors are for restricting or
encouraging new economic growth. Workbook Activity 3 is about
Antarctica. Practical skills of labelling a photograph and drawing a graph
are included in Questions 1 and 2, before pupils are required to describe
the trend and state possible consequences. Questions 3 and 4 encourage
pupil comment about the effects of human activities in wilderness areas
like this.

SUMMARY CHECK
Teaching objectives: Appreciation of the wide differences in economic
geography between countries, and in levels of resource development
between different parts of the world
How these have been met:
• Special studies of countries: Japan (for a long time the industrial
superpower of Asia), Saudi Arabia (the oil-rich Gulf kingdom), and
the USA (the world’s economic superpower)
• Special studies of world regions: South America as middle income
and sub-Saharan Africa as low income regions, stressing contrasting
economic geographies and levels of resource development between
them
Learning outcomes: Understanding of some of the wide variations in
economic development and resource use in different natural regions of
the world, through regional examples

56
Check that the objectives have been met:
• Check pupils’ comprehension of high levels of development and
reasons for it from their answers to Activities 1 and 2 on page 116
and Activity 1 on page 122.
• Likewise, check pupil understanding of low levels of development and
the causes from their answers to Activities 1 and 2 on page 125 and
Activity 1 on page 128.
• Assess pupils’ understanding about differences in levels of resource
development from their responses to Workbook Activities 2 and 3.

57