The Cell 1

Bui Hong Thuy, Ph.D.

School of Biotechnology,
International University
Email: [email protected]
 OUTLINES

1.
A Tour of the Cell

2. Membrane Structure
and Function

2
 OUTLINES
1. A Tour of the Cell

1.1. To study cells, biologists use microscopes

and the tools of biochemistry
1.2. Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes
that compartmentalize their functions
1.3. The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions
are housed in the nucleus and carried
out by the ribosomes

3
1.4. The endomembrane system regulates
protein traffic and performs metabolic
functions in the cell
1.5. Mitochondria and chloroplasts change
energy from one form to another

1.6. The cytoskeleton is a network of f i b e r s

that organizes structures and activities
in the cell
1.7. Extracellular components and connections
between cells help coordinate cellular
activities

4
1.1. To study cells, biologists use microscopes
and the tools of biochemistry kính hiển vi

10 m
Human height
1m Length of some

Unaided eye
nerve and
muscle cells
0.1 m
Chicken egg

1 cm
Frog egg
1 mm

Light microscope
100 µm
Most plant and
animal cells
10 µm Nucleus

Electron microscope
Most bacteria
Mitochondrion
1 µm

Smallest bacteria
100 nm
Viruses

Ribosomes
10 nm
Proteins
Lipids
1 nm
Small molecules

0.1 nm Atoms 5
Cell Fractionation
Tissue Homogenization
cells
 Takes cells apart and Homogenate
separates the major 1,000 g
(1,000 times the
organelles from one force of gravity) Differential centrifugation
10 min
another Supernatant poured
into next tube
 Enables scientists 20,000 g
to determine the 20 min

functions of
organelles Pellet rich in
80,000 g
60 min
nuclei and
cellular debris
150,000 g
3 hr
Pellet rich in
mitochondria
(and chloro-
plasts if cells
are from a plant) Pellet rich in
“microsomes”
(pieces of plasma
membranes and
cells’ internal Pellet rich in
membranes) ribosomes
1.2. Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes
that compartmentalize their functions

Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

 Basic features of all cells:

– Plasma membrane
– Semifluid substance called cytosol
– Chromosomes (carry genes)
– Ribosomes (make proteins)

7
 Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having
– No nucleus
– DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
– No membrane-bound organelles
– Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane
– Include: Bacteria
Fimbriae
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Bacterial Cell wall
chromosome Capsule
0.5 µm
(a) A typical Flagella (b) A thin section
rod-shaped through the
bacterium bacterium
Bacillus 8
coagulans (TEM)
 Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having
– DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a
membranous nuclear envelope
– Membrane-bound organelles
– Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma
membrane and nucleus
– Include: Protists, fungi, animals, and plants
A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell
• A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that
partition the cell into organelles
• Plant and animal cells have most of the same
organelles

9
 Nuclear
envelope
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) nhân con
Nucleolus NUCLEUS
Rough ER Smooth ER
Flagellum Chromatin

Centrosome
Plasma
membrane

CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes

Microvilli

Golgi
Peroxisome apparatus
Mitochondrion
Lysosome
10
 Nuclear envelope Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
NUCLEUS Nucleolus
Chromatin
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes

Central vacuole
Golgi
apparatus
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments CYTO-
SKELETON
Microtubules

Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Chloroplast
Plasma where ATP from
membrane

Cell wall
Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell

11
Secretion process for proteins synthesized by ER

3
Rough ER
Secretory
2 4 vesicles
Rough ER
lumen 6
Golgi complex
5
Lysosome
7
Cytoplasm

12
1.3. The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions
are housed in the nucleus and carried out by
the ribosomes

The Nucleus: Information Central

 The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes

and is usually the most conspicuous organelle
include cytoplasm and nucleus

 The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus,

separating it from the cytoplasm
 The nuclear membrane is a double membrane;
each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer

13
taken photo by light microscope
Nucleus
1 µm Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane

Nuclear pore

Pore
complex

Rough ER
Surface of
nuclear envelope
Ribosome 1 µm

0.25 µm

Close-up of nuclear
envelope

Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM)

14
 Ribosomes: Protein Factories

 Ribosomes are particles made of

ribosomal RNA and protein
 Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in
two locations:
– In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
– On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or
the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

15
1.4. The endomembrane system regulates
protein traffic and performs metabolic
functions in the cell

 Components of the endomembrane system:

– Nuclear envelope
– Endoplasmic reticulum
– Golgi apparatus
– Lysosomes
– Vacuoles
– Plasma membrane
 These components are either continuous or
connected via transfer by vesicles

16
 The Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Biosynthetic Factory

 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for

more than half of the total membrane in many
eukaryotic cells
 The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear
envelope
 There are two distinct regions of ER:
– Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
– Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface

17
 Smooth ER

Rough ER Nuclear
envelope

ER lumen
Cisternae
Ribosomes Transitional ER
Transport vesicle 200 nm
Smooth ER Rough ER

18
Functions of Smooth ER
– Synthesizes lipids
– Metabolizes carbohydrates
– Detoxifies poison
– Stores calcium
Functions of Rough ER
– Has bound ribosomes, which secrete
glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to
carbohydrates)
– Distributes transport vesicles, proteins
surrounded by membranes
– Is a membrane factory for the cell
19
 The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping
and Receiving Center

 The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened

membranous sacs called cisternae
 Functions of the Golgi apparatus:
– Modifies products of the ER
– Manufactures certain macromolecules
– Sorts and packages materials into transport
vesicles

20
cis face
(“receiving” side of 0.1 µm
Golgi apparatus) Cisternae

trans face
(“shipping” side of TEM of Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus)

21
 Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

 A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic

enzymes that can digest macromolecules
đề hidro: cắt thành cái nhỏ hơn
 Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats,
polysaccharides, and nucleic acids

22
 (a) Phagocytosis (b) Autophagy
Nucleus 1 µm Vesicle containing 1 µm
two damaged organelles

Mitochondrion
fragment

Peroxisome
fragment
Lysosome
Digestive
enzymes Lysosome
Lysosome

Plasma Peroxisome
membrane
Digestion

Food vacuole Mitochondrion Digestion

Vesicle

Some types of cell can engulf Lysosomes also use enzymes

another cell by phagocytosis; this to recycle the cell’s own
forms a food vacuole organelles and macromolecules,
Why we need digest macromolecules:
a process called autophagy
- this cell stop working 23
- limit waste energy unnecessary
 Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance
Compartments
• A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several
vacuoles

Central vacuole: found in many

mature plant cells, hold organic
compounds and water
Cytosol

Nucleus Central
vacuole
Cell wall
Chloroplast
5 µm 24
 Nucleus

Rough ER

Smooth ER
cis Golgi

Plasma
trans Golgi membrane

Relationships among organelles of the endomembrane system

25
1.5. Mitochondria and chloroplasts
change energy from one form to another

• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration,

a metabolic process that generates ATP
• Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the
sites of photosynthesis

Mitochondria and chloroplasts

– Are not part of the endomembrane system
– Have a double membrane
– Have proteins made by free ribosomes
– Contain their own DNA

26
 Mitochondria: Chemical Energy
Conversion
 Outer and inner membrane folded into cristae
 Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes
that synthesize ATP
 The inner membrane creates two compartments:
intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix
Intermembrane
space Outer
membrane
Free ribosomes
in the mitochondrial
matrix Inner
membrane
Cristae

Matrix
27
0.1 µm
Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
Is a member of a family of organelles called plastids
Contains enzymes & green pigments for Photosynthesis
Are found in leaves and other green organs of plants
Chloroplast structure includes:
•Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a
granum
•Stroma, the internal fluid

Ribosomes
Stroma
Inner and outer
membranes

Granum

1 µm
Thylakoid 28
 Peroxisomes: Oxidation
Are specialized metabolic compartments bounded
by a single membrane
Produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water
Oxygen is used to break down different types of
molecules
Chloroplast
Lysosome and peroxisome
work togerther: Peroxisome
- Lysosome use enzim to work
- Peroxisome use oxygen
Mitochondrion

1 µm 29
1.6. The cytoskeleton is a network of
fibers that organizes structures and
activities in the cell
moving

Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support,

Motility, and Regulation
 Helps to support the cell and maintain its shape
 It is composed of three types of molecular
structures:
– Microtubules
– Microfilaments
– Intermediate filaments

30
Components of the Cytoskeleton
 Microtubules are the thickest of the three components
of the cytoskeleton
 Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the
thinnest components
 Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a
middle range
Microtubules Microfilaments Intermediate filaments
10 µm 10 µm 10 µm

Column of tubulin dimers Keratin proteins

Actin subunit Fibrous subunit (keratins
25 nm coiled together)
7 nm 8–12 nm
31
  Tubulin dimer
Microtubules Mplate = Metaplase: mặt phẳng xích đạo

Functions of microtubules:
• Shaping the cell
• Guiding movement of organelles
• Separating chromosomes during cell division
 Centrosomes and Centrioles
• The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing
center”
• In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of
centrioles, each with nine triplets of microtubules
arranged in a ring

32
 Centrosome

Microtubule

Centrioles
0.25 µm

Longitudinal section Microtubules Cross section

of one centriole of the other centriole 33
Cilia and Flagella
• Microtubules control the beating of cilia and
flagella, locomotor appendages of some cells
• Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns
Direction of swimming

(a) Motion of flagella 5 µm

Direction of organism’s movement

Power
Recovery
stroke
stroke

(b) Motion of cilia 15 µm 34

Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
 Are solid rods about 7 nm in diameter, built as a
twisted double chain of actin subunits
 Function in cellular motility contain the protein
myosin in addition to actin
 In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are
arranged parallel to one another

Muscle cell
Actin filament

Myosin filament
Myosin arm
35
Intermediate Filaments
• Support cell shape and fix organelles in place
• Are more permanent cytoskeleton fixtures than the
other two classes
Microvillus

Plasma membrane

Microfilaments
(actin filaments)

Intermediate filaments
0.25 µm 36
 1.7. Extracellular components and
connections between cells help
coordinate cellular activities

 Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that

are external to the plasma membrane
 These extracellular structures include:
– Cell walls of plants
– The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
– Intercellular junctions

37
 Cell Walls of Plants
• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have cell
walls
• The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its
shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water

• Plant cell walls may have multiple layers:

– Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible
– Middle lamella: thin layer between primary
walls of adjacent cells
– Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added
between the plasma membrane and the primary
cell wall
38
 Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall

Middle
lamella

1 µm
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Plasma membrane

Plant cell walls

Plasmodesmata 39
 The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of
Animal Cells
• The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as collagen,
proteoglycans, and fibronectin
• ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma
membrane called integrins
Polysaccharide molecule
Proteoglycan
Collagen complex Carbo-
EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID hydrates

Core
Fibronectin protein

Integrins

Plasma
membrane Proteoglycan
molecule

CYTOPLASM Microfilaments
Proteoglycan complex
40
Intercellular Junctions
Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells
 Are channels that perforate plant cell walls
 Water and small solutes (and sometimes proteins
and RNA) can pass from cell to cell

Cell walls

Interior
of cell

Interior
of cell
0.5 µm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
41
Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap
Junctions in Animal Cells

 Tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells

are pressed together, preventing leakage of
extracellular fluid
 Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells
together into strong sheets
 Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide
cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

42
 Intercellular junctions in animal tissues
Tight junctions prevent Tight
fluid from moving junction
across a layer of cells

cell 1

cell 2
0.5 µm

tight junc: prevent blood

moving across together
gap junc: blood can move
Tight junction
between 2 cell Desmosome
Intermediate
Desmosome
filaments

Gap 1 µm
junctions

Space
between Extracellular
cells Gap
matrix junction
Plasma membranes
of adjacent cells 43
0.1 µm
 Similarities between plant cells
and animal cells

 Both have a cell membrane surrounding

the cytoplasm

 Both have a nucleus

 Both contain mitochondria

44
 Differences between plant cells
and animal cells

Animal cells Plant cells

Relatively smaller in size Relatively larger in size

Irregular shape Regular shape

No cell wall Cell wall present

Vacuole small or absent Large central vacuole

Glycogen as food storage Starch as food storage

Nucleus at the center Nucleus near cell wall

45
 OUTLINES

2. Membrane Structure
and Function
2.1. Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of
lipids and proteins
2.2. Membrane structure results in selective
permeability

46
 2.1. Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of
lipids and proteins

Membrane Models: Scientific Inquiry

Are the most abundant lipid in the plasma

membrane
Are amphipathic, containing both hydrophilic
(head) and hydrophobic regions (tails)

47
The fluid mosaic model for membranes

Phospholipid
bilayer

Hydrophobic regions Hydrophilic regions

of protein of protein

WATER
Hydrophilic
head

Hydrophobic
tail

WATER 48
• Freeze-fracture studies of the plasma membrane
supported the fluid mosaic model
• Freeze-fracture is a specialized preparation
technique that splits a membrane along the middle
of the phospholipid bilayer
TECHNIQUE RESULTS
Extracellular
layer

Proteins Inside of extracellular layer

Knife

Plasma membrane Cytoplasmic layer

Inside of cytoplasmic layer

49
 The Fluidity of Membranes
Phospholipids in the plasma membrane can move
within the bilayer two ways

Lateral movement Flip-flop

(107 times per second) ( once per month)

(a) Movement of phospholipids

50
  The type of hydrocarbon tails in phospholipids
affects the fluidity of the plasma membrane

Fluid Viscous

Unsaturated hydrocarbon Saturated hydro-

tails with kinks carbon tails

(b) Membrane fluidity

51
 The steroid cholesterol has different effects on
membrane fluidity at different temperatures:
- Reduce fluidity at moderate temp
- Enhance fluidity at low temp

Cholesterol

(c) Cholesterol within the animal cell membrane

52
Membrane Proteins and Their Functions
 A membrane is a collage of different proteins embedded
in the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer
 Proteins determine most of the membrane’s specific
functions
Fibers of extracellular
matrix (ECM)

Glyco- Carbohydrate
protein Glycolipid
EXTRACELLULAR
SIDE OF MEMBRANE

Cholesterol
Microfilaments Peripheral
of cytoskeleton proteins Integral
protein CYTOPLASMIC
SIDE OF MEMBRANE 53
Six major functions of membrane proteins:
– Transport
– Enzymatic activity
– Signal transduction
– Cell-cell recognition
– Intercellular joining
– Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular
matrix (ECM)

54
a) Transport. (left) Provide a hydrophilic channel
across the membrane that is selective for a
particular solute.
(right) Shuttle a substance from one side to the
other by changing shape. ATP: an energy source ATP

Enzymes
b) Enzymatic activity. Active site exposed to
substances in the adjacent solution. In some
cases, several enzymes in a membrane are
organized as a team that carries out sequential
steps of a metabolic pathway.
Signaling molecule
c) Signal transduction. A binding site with a
Receptor
specific shape that fits the shape of a
chemical messenger. => conformational
change in the protein (receptor) => relays the
message to the inside of the cell.
Signal transduction 55
d) Cell-cell recognition. Some glyco-proteins
serve as identification tags that are specifically
recognized by other cells. Glyco-
Membrane carbohydrates: Interact with the protein
surface molecules of other cells, facilitating cell-
cell recognition

e) Intercellular joining. Membrane proteins of

adjacent cells may hook together in various
kinds of junctions, such as gap junctions or tight
junctions

f) Attachment to the cytoskeleton and

extracellular matrix (ECM). A function that
helps maintain cell shape and stabilizes
the location of certain membrane proteins.
Proteins that adhere to the ECM can coordinate
extracellular and intracellular changes 56
The Role of Membrane Carbohydrates
in Cell-Cell Recognition

• Cells recognize each other by binding to

carbohydrates on the plasma membrane
• Membrane carbohydrates may be bonded to lipids
(forming glycolipids) or to proteins (forming
glycoproteins)
• Carbohydrates on the external side of the
membrane vary among species, individuals, and
even cell types in an individual

57
 Synthesis and Sidedness of Membranes
ER
1
 Membranes have Transmembrane
distinct inside and glycoproteins
Secretory
outside faces protein
 This affects the Glycolipid

movement of proteins Golgi 2

apparatus
synthesized in the
Vesicle
endomembrane
system (Golgi and ER)
3
Plasma membrane:
Cytoplasmic face
4 Extracellular face
Secreted Transmembrane
protein glycoprotein

Membrane glycolipid
58
2.2. Membrane structure results in selective
permeability tính thấm chọn lọc

• A cell must exchange materials with its

surroundings, a process controlled by the
plasma membrane
• Plasma membranes are selectively permeable,
regulating the cell’s molecular traffic

59
 The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer

• Hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecules, such as

hydrocarbons, can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and
pass through the membrane rapidly
• Polar molecules, such as sugars, do not cross the
membrane easily

60
 Transport Proteins
 Transport proteins allow passage of hydrophilic
substances across the membrane
• Some transport proteins, called channel proteins,
have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules
or ions can use as a tunnel
• Other transport proteins, called carrier proteins,
bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle
them across the membrane
• A transport protein is specific for the substance it
moves

61
 2.3. Passive transport is diffusion of a
substance across a membrane with no
energy investment

Diffusion

 for molecules to spread out evenly into the

available space
 At dynamic equilibrium, as many molecules
cross one way as cross in the other direction

62
Molecules of dye Membrane (cross section)

WATER

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

(a) Diffusion of one solute

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

(b) Diffusion of two solutes 63

Effects of Osmosis on Water Balance
Lower Higher Same concentration
concentration concentration of sugar
of solute (sugar) of sugar

H 2O

Selectively
permeable
membrane

Osmosis 64
 Water Balance of Cells Without Walls

Tonicity is the ability of a solution to cause

a cell to gain or lose water
 Isotonic solution: Solute concentration is the
same as that inside the cell; no net water
movement across the plasma membrane
 Hypertonic solution: Solute concentration is
greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water
 Hypotonic solution: Solute concentration is less
than that inside the cell; cell gains water

65
 water go out water go in
Hypotonic solution Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution

H2O H2O H2O H2O

(a) Animal
cell

Lysed Normal Shriveled

H2O H2O H2O H2O

(b) Plant
cell

Turgid (normal) Flaccid Plasmolyzed

66
Water Balance of Cells with Walls

Isotonic Solution Hypotonic Hypertonic

Solution Solution
NO NET
MOVEMENT OF
H2O (equal amounts CYTOLYSIS PLASMOLYSIS
entering & leaving)

67
 Facilitated Diffusion:
Passive Transport Aided by Proteins
A channel protein
Provide corridors that allow a specific molecule or
ion to cross the membrane

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID

Channel protein Solute

CYTOPLASM

A channel protein (purple) has a channel through which water

molecules or a specific solute can pass. 68
Carrier proteins
Undergo a subtle change in shape that translocates
the solute-binding site across the membrane

Carrier protein Solute

A carrier protein alternates between two conformations, moving a

solute across the membrane as the shape of the protein changes.
The protein can transport the solute in either direction, with the net
movement being down the concentration gradient of the solute.
69
Active transport uses energy to move
solutes against their gradients

The Need for Energy in Active Transport

 Active transport requires energy, usually in the

form of ATP
 Active transport is performed by specific proteins
embedded in the membranes

The sodium-potassium pump is one type

of active transport system

70
EXTRACELLULAR
[Na+] high Na+
FLUID [K+] low Na+

Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+ Na+
Na+
[Na+] low ATP
Na+ P P
[K+] high
CYTOPLASM ADP
1 2 3 Phosphorylation
Cytoplasmic Na+ Na+ binding stimulates
binds to the sodium- phosphorylation by ATP. causes the protein to+
potassium pump. change its shape. Na is
expelled to the outside.

P
P
6 5 Loss of the 4 K+ binds on the
K+ is released, and phosphate restores extracellular side and
the cycle repeats. the protein’s triggers release of the
original shape. phosphate group. 71
Passive transport. Substances diffuse Active transport. Some transport
spontaneously down their concentration proteins act as pumps, moving
gradients, crossing a membrane with no substances across a membrane
expenditure of energy by the cell. against their concentration
The rate of diffusion can be greatly increased gradients. Energy for this work is
by transport proteins in the membrane. usually supplied by ATP

Diffusion. ATP
Hydrophobic Facilitated diffusion.
molecules and very Many hydrophilic substances
small uncharged diffuse through membranes
polar molecules can with the assistance of
diffuse through the transport proteins, either
lipid bilayer. channel or carrier proteins.
72
 How Ion Pumps Maintain
Membrane Potential

 Membrane potential is the voltage difference

across a membrane
 Electrochemical gradient, drive the diffusion of
ions across a membrane by:
– A chemical force (the ion’s concentration
gradient)
– An electrical force (the effect of the membrane
potential on the ion’s movement)
 Electrogenic pump is a transport protein that
generates voltage across a membrane
73
 ACTIVE: Use ATP

 The main electrogenic pump of:

• Animal cell: sodium-potassium pump
• Plants, fungi, and bacteria is a proton pump

– + EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
ATP – + H+

Proton pump H+
H+
– + H+
H+
– +
CYTOPLASM
H+
– +
74
Cotransport: Coupled Transport by
a Membrane Protein
Cotransport occurs when active transport of a
solute indirectly drives transport of another solute
– +
ATP H+
H+
– +
Proton pump H+
H+
– +
H+ – H+
+
H+ Diffusion
Sucrose-H+ of H+
cotransporter
Sucrose H+
– +
Cotransport: Active transport driven by
a concentration–gradient + Sucrose 75
Bulk transport across the plasma
membrane occurs by exocytosis
and endocytosis

 Large molecules, such as polysaccharides and

proteins, cross the membrane in bulk via vesicles
 Bulk transport requires energy

76
 Exocytosis
• Transport vesicles migrate to the membrane, fuse
with it, and release their contents
• Many secretory cells use exocytosis to export their
products

77
 Endocytosis
• In endocytosis, the cell takes in macromolecules
by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane
• Endocytosis is a reversal of exocytosis, involving
different proteins
There are three types of endocytosis:
– Phagocytosis (“cellular eating”)
– Pinocytosis (“cellular drinking”)
– Receptor-mediated endocytosis

78
 Phagocytosis
• a cell engulfs a particle in a vacuole
• The vacuole fuses with a lysosome to digest the
particle
PHAGOCYTOSIS
EXTRACELLULAR CYTOPLASM 1 µm
FLUID
Pseudopodium
Pseudopodium
of amoeba

“Food” or
other particle Bacterium
Food
vacuole Food vacuole
An amoeba engulfing a bacterium
via phagocytosis (TEM)
79
 Pinocytosis

Molecules are taken up when extracellular fluid is

“gulped” into tiny vesicles
PINOCYTOSIS
0.5
Plasma µm
membra Pinocytosis
ne vesicles
forming
(arrows) in
a cell lining a
small
Vesic blood vessel
le (TEM)

80
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Some integral proteins have receptors on their

surface to recognize & take in hormones,
cholesterol, etc.
81
 Knowledge Testing 1
1. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
magnification and resolution; prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cell; free and bound ribosomes;
smooth and rough ER
2. Describe the structure and function of the
components of the endomembrane system
3. Briefly explain the role of mitochondria,
chloroplasts, and peroxisomes
4. Describe the functions of the cytoskeleton

82
 Knowledge Testing 1 (Cont.)
5. Compare the structure and functions of
microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate
filaments
6. Describe the structure and roles of the
extracellular matrix in animal cells
7. Describe four different intercellular junctions

83
 Knowledge Testing 2
1. Explain how membrane fluidity is influenced by
temperature and membrane composition
2. Distinguish between the following pairs or sets of
terms: peripheral and integral membrane
proteins; channel and carrier proteins; osmosis,
facilitated diffusion, and active transport;
hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions.
3. Explain how an electrogenic pump creates
voltage across a membrane, and name two
electrogenic pumps. Explain how large
molecules are transported across a cell
membrane
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