energies

Review
A Review on Popular Control Applications in Wind Energy
Conversion System Based on Permanent Magnet
Generator PMSG
Btissam Majout 1 , Houda El Alami 1 , Hassna Salime 1 , Nada Zine Laabidine 1 , Youness El Mourabit 2 ,
Saad Motahhir 3 , Manale Bouderbala 1 , Mohammed Karim 1 and Badre Bossoufi 1, *

1 LIMAS Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Dhar El Mahraz, Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University Fez,
Fez 30050, Morocco
2 National School of Applied Sciences, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan 93000, Morocco
3 Engineering, Systems and Applications Laboratory, ENSA, SMBA University, Fez 30050, Morocco
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: There has always been a high expectation that wind generation systems would capture
maximum power and integrate properly with the grid. Utilizing a wind generation system with
increased management to meet the growing electricity demand is a clever way of accomplishing
this. However, wind power generation systems require a sophisticated, unique, and dependable
control mechanism in order to achieve stability and efficiency. To improve the operation of the wind
energy conversion method, researchers are continually addressing the obstacles that presently exist.
Therefore, it is necessary to know which control can improve the whole system’s performance and
ensure its successful integration into the network, despite the variable conductions. This article
examines wind turbine control system techniques and controller trends related to the permanent
Citation: Majout, B.; El Alami, H.;
magnet synchronous generator. It presents an overview of the most popular control strategies
Salime, H.; Zine Laabidine, N.; El
that have been used to control the PMSG wind power conversion system. Among others, we
Mourabit, Y.; Motahhir, S.;
mention nonlinear sliding mode, direct power, backstepping and predictive currents control. First, a
Bouderbala, M.; Karim, M.; Bossoufi,
B. A Review on Popular Control
description of each control is presented, followed by a simulation performed in the Matlab/Simulink
Applications in Wind Energy environment to evaluate the performance of each control in terms of reference tracking, response
Conversion System Based on time, stability and the quality of the signal delivered to the network under variable wind conditions.
Permanent Magnet Generator PMSG. Finally, to get a clear idea of the effect of each control, this work was concluded with a comparative
Energies 2022, 15, 6238. https:// study of the four controls.
doi.org/10.3390/en15176238
Keywords: wind energy conversion system; sliding mode control; direct power control; backstepping
Academic Editor: Konstantin Suslov
control; predictive currents control; permanent magnet synchronous generator; mppt control
Received: 26 July 2022
Accepted: 23 August 2022
Published: 26 August 2022

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Energies 2022, 15, 6238. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15176238 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

 gases (GHG) [2–4]. The presently observed increase in concentrations of these green-
house gases (GHGs) leads to global warming (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), 2007). Many environmental issues result from these climate changes,
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 such as cyclones of unprecedented strength, heat waves, snowstorms, floods, etc. There- 2 of 41
fore, preventing the catastrophic consequences of climate change requires the stabiliza-
tion of the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) (IPCC 2007) [4–7].
To deal with this situation, leaders of nations are increasingly turning to renewable
To deal with this situation, leaders of nations are increasingly turning to renewable
energy sources as a solution to meet human needs while preserving the environment [8].
energy sources as a solution to meet human needs while preserving the environment [8].
Among renewable energy sources, wind energy has received a significant amount of at-
Among renewable energy sources, wind energy has received a significant amount of
tention. It is widely used, and has become competitive with conventional energy sources
attention. It is widely used, and has become competitive with conventional energy sources
over the last few decades. As a result, the capacity of wind turbines installed worldwide
over the last few decades. As a result, the capacity of wind turbines installed worldwide
is rising speedily. The World Wind Association forecasts that wind installed capacity
is rising speedily. The World Wind Association forecasts that wind installed capacity
can reach 1600 GW by the end of 2030 [9]. Several facts justify the importance given to
can reach 1600 GW by the end of 2030 [9]. Several facts justify the importance given to
wind energy, among other renewable energies: it is cost-effective, faster to install, easier
wind energy, among other renewable energies: it is cost-effective, faster to install, easier
to
to maintain,
maintain, more
more reliable,
reliable, and
and more efficient. Also,
more efficient. Also, wind
wind farms
farms cancan be
be either
either onshore
onshore or or
offshore [10].
offshore [10].
Many
Many structures
structures have
have been
been designed
designed in in order
order to
to implement
implement aa wind wind energy
energy system;
system;
for example, there are some equipped with doubly fed induction
for example, there are some equipped with doubly fed induction generators (DFIG’s) generators (DFIG’s)
and
and squirrel
squirrel cage cage induction
induction generators
generators (SCIG’s).
(SCIG’s). The The
onlyonly
issueissue
withwith
thesethese machines
machines is thatis
that
they they require
require a multistage
a multistage gearbox
gearbox as well
as well as anasexcitation.
an excitation. For this
For this reason,
reason, PMSG PMSGhas
has been attracting researchers in recent years due to its higher efficiency
been attracting researchers in recent years due to its higher efficiency and reliability, betterand reliability,
better performance
performance and itsand its capability
capability to operate
to operate at lowatspeed,
low speed,
whichwhich eliminates
eliminates the need
the need for a
for a gearbox; also, this method of control is suitable for low maintenance
gearbox; also, this method of control is suitable for low maintenance usage [10,11]. usage [10,11].
As
As shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 1, the
1, the machine
machine is mechanically
is mechanically coupled
coupled totothe
theblades,
blades,andandelectrically
electrical-
ly connected
connected to the
to the constant
constant frequency
frequency three-phase
three-phase grid grid network
network via avia a power
power electronic
electronic inter-
interface (back-to-back
face (back-to-back converter).
converter). The latter
The latter consistsconsists of a machine-side
of a machine-side converter
converter (MSC)(MSC)
and a
and a grid-side
grid-side converterconverter (GSC) interconnected
(GSC) interconnected throughthrough
a common a common DC link
DC link with with an in-
an intermediate
termediate
capacitor. This structure allows the generator’s power to be controlled and adapted toand
capacitor. This structure allows the generator’s power to be controlled the
adapted
grid codetowhile
the grid code while
operating operatingwind
in fluctuating in fluctuating
conditionswind conditions [12,13].
[12,13].

Figure 1.
Figure WECS configurations.
1. WECS configurations.

In general, the operating region of a wind energy conversion system can be classified
into four distinct zones according to the wind speed, as illustrated in Figure 2 [14]. In
Zone 1, the system is idle, since the wind speed is too low to start spinning the WT rotor;
hence, no power is generated. In Zone 2, the wind speed exceeds the WT’s cut-in speed
(Vcut-in ). As a result, the system starts generating power within a range of wind speeds. In
this zone, the system is controlled to maximize the produced power given the wind speed
variation using the MPPT algorithm, and to reduce the system’s oscillation by setting the
 In general, the operating region of a wind energy conversion system can be classi-
fied into four distinct zones according to the wind speed, as illustrated in Figure 2 [14].
In Zone 1, the system is idle, since the wind speed is too low to start spinning the WT ro-
tor; hence, no power is generated. In Zone 2, the wind speed exceeds the WT’s cut-in
speed (Vcut-in). As a result, the system starts generating power within a range of wind
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 3 of 41
speeds. In this zone, the system is controlled to maximize the produced power given the
wind speed variation using the MPPT algorithm, and to reduce the system’s oscillation
by setting the pitch angle reference at its optimal value. In Zone 3, the wind speed ex-
pitch angle
ceeds reference
the rated speed (Vat nits optimal
). In value.
this case, In Zone
the WT 3, the wind
is controlled by a speed exceeds
pitch angle the rated
controller to
speed (Vnrated
maintain ). In this case,generation
power the WT is during
controlled
gustyby wind
a pitchspeeds.
angle controller
Finally, the to maintain
wind speedrated
in
power4 generation
Zone is more than during gusty speed
the cut-out wind speeds. Finally,
(Vcut-out) of the WTthewhich
wind can
speed
causein Zone 4 isto
damage more
the
than the
wind cut-out
turbine. Inspeed (Vcut-out ) an
this situation, of the WT which
emergency can cause
device stopsdamage
the windto turbine
the windtoturbine.
protect Init
this situation,
from damage [15].an emergency device stops the wind turbine to protect it from damage [15].

Different operation zones of a wind turbine.

Figure 2. Different

However, ensuring
However, ensuring optimal
optimal operation
operation and and improving
improving the the quality
quality ofof the
the power
power pro-
pro-
duced by
duced by WECS
WECSdepends
dependsnot notonly
onlyononthe the speed
speed control
control of the
of the PMSGPMSG butbutalsoalso on how
on how the
the back-to-back converters are controlled. Among the control strategies
back-to-back converters are controlled. Among the control strategies proposed in the lit- proposed in
the literature, vector control (VC) has been one of the control strategies
erature, vector control (VC) has been one of the control strategies used on a large scale to used on a large
scale to control
achieve achieveobjectives.
control objectives. Thisincludes
This control control includes flux-oriented
flux-oriented control
control (FOC) (FOC)
and and
voltage-
voltage-oriented control (VOC) methods. Its principle is to make
oriented control (VOC) methods. Its principle is to make PMSG similar to a direct cur-PMSG similar to a direct
current
rent machine
machine using
using thethe proportional
proportional integratorregulator
integrator regulator(PI) (PI)[16–18].
[16–18]. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the the
determination of
determination of PIPIgains
gains requires
requiresa knowledge
a knowledge of theofmachine
the machineparameters, which makes
parameters, which
makes the control sensitive to the variation of the parameters and thus leadsdeterioration
the control sensitive to the variation of the parameters and thus leads to the to the dete-
of the system’s
rioration of the performance. To eliminate
system’s performance. the reliance
To eliminate theonreliance
machine onparameters, Takahashi
machine parameters,
and Depenbrock proposed the direct power control (DPC), a robust technique that does not
Takahashi and Depenbrock proposed the direct power control (DPC), a robust technique
require the mathematical model of the system [19]. Unlike other methods, the converter
that does not require the mathematical model of the system [19]. Unlike other methods,
switching states in this control are selected directly from a switching table based on the
the converter switching states in this control are selected directly from a switching table
digital errors between the commanded and estimated values of active and reactive power
based on the digital errors between the commanded and estimated values of active and
generated by the hysteresis controllers, without the need for PWM modulation blocks and
reactive power generated by the hysteresis controllers, without the need for PWM mod-
internal regulation loops. However, despite the numerous benefits of this control, it suffers
ulation blocks and internal regulation loops. However, despite the numerous benefits of
from variable switching frequency and active and reactive power ripples, which limit the
this control, it suffers from variable switching frequency and active and reactive power
DPC’s robustness [20,21].
ripples, which limit the DPC’s robustness [20,21].
Other alternatives have been proposed in the literature. As reviewed in [22], SMC
Other alternatives have been proposed in the literature. As reviewed in [22], SMC is
is a nonlinear control based on the Lyapunov function. This control is attractive and
a nonlinear control based on the Lyapunov function. This control is attractive and rec-
recommended for many applications. It reduces the complexity of high-order systems to
ommended
lower-order for statemany applications.
variables by forcingIt the
reduces
systemthestate
complexity
trajectory of tohigh-order systems to
attain a predesigned
lower-order
sliding surface state variables
in finite timebyandforcing the system
then remain there.state trajectory
However, this to attainsuffers
control a predesigned
from the
sliding surface in finite time and then remain there. However,
chattering phenomena caused by the discontinued term used in the SMC control this control suffers
law.from
the chattering phenomena caused by the discontinued term used
Meanwhile, Backstepping has piqued the researchers’ interest due to its capacity in the SMC control
law.
to stabilize the system despite substantial wind variance, which is due to the use of the
Lyapunov function in each design step [23]. The principle of this control is to decompose a
complex nonlinear system into a sequence of cascaded first-order subsystems where each
subsystem acts as a virtual control for the next, which guarantees a good equilibrium state
convergence. However, like any other method, this control has its drawbacks. The major
one is the “explosion of terms”, a flaw created by the repetition of the differentiation of
virtual inputs [24].
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 4 of 41

To address all of these issues, the researchers tried to improve the classical controls
by modifying the controllers’ designs. These modifications are made by either adding
observers, using an adaption mechanism or intelligent techniques (fuzzy logic and neuron
network), increasing the controller order, or combining two or more different controllers.
However, there is a difficulty with these methodologies in terms of calculation time and
practical implementation [25–28]. For this reason, the model predictive control (MPC) has
become the most common solution referenced in the past few years due to its simplicity,
rapid dynamic response, multivariable control, immediate consideration of non-linear
constraints, and ability to be implemented in the electronic boards such as DSpace and
FPGA [29,30].
The main contribution of this work is to present a careful overview of the most
important techniques that are used to control the PMSG wind power conversion system,
varying from classical to modern control design. Therefore, a review of SMC, DPC, BSC,
and MPC is given first, followed by the description of the design of these techniques, and
finally, the application of the technique on both the machine side and the grid side. Due
to the importance of MPPT control in WECS, this study also includes a synthesis of this
control. In addition, a simulation test in Matlab/Simulink was performed under a real
wind profile to display the effects of each control on the PMSG wind energy conversion
system. As a result, this paper can be considered a useful reference that can help new
researchers better understand WECS, especially those equipped with permanent magnet
synchronous generators, in terms of conception, issues, and control, as well as provoking
further research in the wind energy field.

2. Sliding Mode Control

2.1. Review of the Sliding Mode Control
In the late 1950s, Prof. V. I. Utkin and Prof. S. V. Emelyanov described a new sort
of nonlinear control based on the Lyapunov function, called sliding mode control (SMC).
This control is well-known for its robustness, high accuracy, and simplicity. It can ensure
excellent tracking even when the system is subjected to internal parameter fluctuations
and external disturbances [31,32]. Other than PMSG-based wind power systems, SMC has
been successfully applied in many different wind power system structures [33–38]. This
control is considered an effective way to transform a relatively high-order system into a
lower-order system, which facilitates the controller design, since there is much knowledge
in the literature on designing control and analyzing stability for low-order systems. Its
principle is to alter the dynamics of the nonlinear system by applying a discontinuous
control signal that forces the system to lie on the prescribed sliding surface of the system’s
normal behavior [39]. However, the basic SMC configuration suffers from the steady
chattering phenomenon induced at the steady state [40] due to the discontinuous term used
in the SMC structure. This phenomenon causes the system response to chatter, leading to
high degradation in the system performance and affecting the quality of the injected current
(high THD) [41–43]. Therefore, there was a need to develop the conventional SMC design
to overcome this issue. Many researchers attempted to overcome the chattering problem
by proposing several new SMC configurations [44,45]. The following figure shows the
improved control structures of SMC that have been proposed to improve the conventional
SMC (Figure 3).
Energies 2022,
Energies 15,
2022, 15,6238
6238 5 of 41
5 of 41

Figure 3. Summary of SMC enhancement techniques.

Figure 3. Summary of SMC enhancement techniques.
Among all sorts of suggested methods that have attempted to improve the first-order
SMC, Among all sorts SMC
the high-order of suggested
control has methods
received that
muchhave attempted
attention to improve
in recent years duethe tofirst-
order
its prominent advantages [38]. The main idea of this control is to reduce the chatteringdue
SMC, the high-order SMC control has received much attention in recent years
to its prominent
phenomenon andadvantages
at the same [38].
time The main idea
to preserve of this control
the advantages is to
of the reduce
original the chattering
approach; by
phenomenon and at the same
acting on the higher-order time time to preserve
derivatives of thethe advantages
system’s deviationof the
from original approach;
the constraint
by acting
instead of on the higher-order
influencing time derivatives
the first derivative of the system’s
of the deviation deviation
as it happens in the from the con-
standard
straint
sliding instead of influencing
modes. Based the references,
on the several first derivative of the
the most deviation
successful versionas it
of happens
the HOSMC in the
is the super-twist algorithm. Its high performance was shown in
standard sliding modes. Based on the several references, the most successful version ofa variety of industrial
applications
the HOSMC [44,46,47].
is the super-twist algorithm. Its high performance was shown in a variety of
The terminal
industrial SMC[44,46,47].
applications (TSMC) scheme is also a class of SMC [48–54]. Unlike HOSMC,
the basic idea of this control
The terminal SMC (TSMC) is to achieve
schemefinite-time system
is also a class ofconvergence
SMC [48–54]. with a minimum
Unlike HOSMC,
output control level by using fractional order terms [51]. However, the fractional-order
the basic idea of this control is to achieve finite-time system convergence with a mini-
terms in the sliding manifold cause a singularity problem in this method, affecting the
mum output control level by using fractional order terms [51]. However, the fractional-
system’s stability. More advanced versions of this control are proposed to address the
order terms in the sliding manifold cause a singularity problem in this method, affecting
singularity problem and accelerate the convergence of the basic TSMC, such as the nonsin-
the
gularsystem’s stability.
TSMC [49–51] andMore advanced
the fast versions
TSMC [52–55]. of this control
Meanwhile, are proposed
the authors to address
in [56] attempted
the singularity
to extend SMC by problem
adding and accelerate
an integral the
action to convergence of theThis
the sliding surface. basic TSMC,
integral such
term as the
forces
nonsingular
the system to start on the manifold at the initial condition and constrains it during the entire at-
TSMC [49–51] and the fast TSMC [52–55]. Meanwhile, the authors in [56]
tempted
closed-loop to extend
response SMC by system.
of the adding an As integral
a result, action to the sliding
the chattering phenomenasurface. areThis integral
reduced.
term forcestothe
However, system
ensure to start
a good balanceon the manifold
between at the and
robustness initial condition
chattering and constrains
phenomena, this it
during
control the entire
requires closed-loop
sufficient skill toresponse
adjust theofcontroller
the system.gain As a result,[57,58].
parameters the chattering phe-
nomena Other
aretechniques
reduced. have been used
However, to suppress
to ensure a good thebalance
chattering problem,
between such as adapta-
robustness and chat-
tive SMC [59–62], perturbation observer-based sliding-mode control [63,64],
tering phenomena, this control requires sufficient skill to adjust the controller gain pa- and predictive
sliding mode
rameters control [65] and reaching law SMC [66,67]. This last technique consists in
[57,58].
Other techniques have been used to suppress the chattering problem, such as adap-
tative SMC [59–62], perturbation observer-based sliding-mode control [63,64], and pre-
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 6 of 41

replacing the discontinuous function “Sign” used on the sliding mode control design with
other mathematical functions such as the saturation function, hyperbolic tangent function,
and exponential function [68–71].
Besides all the previous proposed techniques and for the same purpose, another
method for designing the SMC controller, called “hybridization”, has been proposed in
the literature. This method consists of combining the SMC with other techniques [59,72].
In [59], Lin & Chen used genetic algorithms to optimize the SMC and FLC combination and
thus reduce the “chattering” phenomenon in the system. In [73,74], the authors combined
the sliding mode control and the H∞. This technique was used to define the sliding mode
attractive control part, which is the primary cause of the chattering phenomena.
On the other hand, literature [75] proposes a combination of SMC with other nonlinear
control called “backstepping” to optimize a linear induction machine performance. As
described, this suggestion was validated through field-programmable gate array (FPGA).
This approach was later successfully applied in a variable-speed wind turbine power sys-
tem [63], providing good results under fluctuating wind speeds. Elsewhere, literature [64]
presented sliding mode-based direct power control to control wind power systems under
unbalanced grid voltage conditions, and literature [70–76] wisely chose to integrate SMC
with artificial neural networks.
Table 1 summarizes the different techniques used for SMC control that are found in
the literature.

Table 1. Various techniques used for SMC control.

Techniques Researchers
Hight order Valenciaga F et al. [38]
Matraji I et al. [39]; Benbouzid M et al. [40];
Second order
Xiaoning S et al. [41]; Benelghali S et al. [42]
Super twisting Phan D et al. [43]; Zholtayev D et al. [44]; Yaichi I et al. [45];
Terminal Shihua L et al. [48];
Integral Saravanakumar R et al. [56]; Jun Liu et al. [57]; Muhammad M et al. [58];

Sliding Mode Control H∞ technique Kharabian B et al. [60]; Lian J et al. [61];
Backstepping-SMC Faa-Jeng L et al. [62]; Rajendran S et al. [63];
Direct power control Shang L et al. [64]; Benbouhenni H et al. [65];
Diab A. A. Z et al. [66]; Yin, X.-X et al. [67];
Fuzzy logic
El Karaoui I et al. [68]; Saghafinia A et al. [69];
Artificial neural network Hong C-M et al. [70]; Mohammad B et al. [71];
Adaptive model Baek S et al. [72]; Ton Hoang Nguyen et al. [73];
Observer Kim H et al. [77]; Mi Y et al. [78–80];
Reaching law Mozayan S. M et al. [81]; Fallaha, C.J. et al. [82]; El Makrini I et al. [83]

2.2. Application of Sliding Mode Control on the PMSG Wind Power System
The sliding surface used in this study is as follows [31]:
  n −1
d
S( x ) = +δ × e( x ) (1)
dt

S( x ) represents the sliding surface proposed by J. SLOTINE. Variable n is the order of

the system, δ is a positive constant, and e( x ) is the error between the desired signal xre f and
the state variable x [32]. With n = 1, the tracking error dynamics of the proposed sliding
surface become:
S( x ) = e( x ) = xre f − x (2)
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 7 of 41

Energies 2022, 15, 6238 7 of 41

𝑆(𝑥) = 𝑒(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 (2)
To attain a commutation around the surface, the equivalent SMC formula u(t) is de-
veloped as theaaddition
To attain of two
commutation expressions
around (see Figure
the surface, the equivalent 𝑢 isformula
4). TermSMC an equivalent con-
u(t) is devel-
trol that characterizes the system’s behavior on the sliding surface, while 𝑢
oped as the addition of two expressions (see Figure 4). Term ueq is an equivalent control is a switch-
ing
thatcontrol based on
characterizes thea system’s
discontinuous function.
behavior on theThis lattersurface,
sliding is employed
whiletounsatisfy the con-
is a switching
ditions
control of attractiveness
based and stabilization
on a discontinuous [37]. latter
function. This Therefore, the sliding
is employed mode
to satisfy thecontrol law
conditions
can be presented as:
of attractiveness and stabilization [37]. Therefore, the sliding mode control law can be
presented as:
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑢(𝑡) (3)
u(t) = u(t)eq + u(t)n (3)
With,
With,
u𝑢n ==K𝐾 ( Sn ) )
𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑆
n sgn (4)
(4)
𝐾
Kn is
is aa switching
switching gain,
gain, and sgn(Sn)) is
and 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑆 is aa discontinuous
discontinuous mathematical
mathematical function.

Figure 4.
Figure SMCcontroller
4. SMC controller structure.
structure.

This section
This section aims
aims to
to determine
determine the
the switching
switchingcontrol
controlinputs
inputsfor
forthe
theMSC
MSCand
andGSC.
GSC.
During this process, the controller design of each side will be built systematically, as
During this process, the controller design of each side will be built systematically, as ex-
explained
plained below.
below.
2.2.1. Machine-Side Control
2.2.1. Machine-Side Control
The chosen surfaces that were used to control the machine-side converter MSC are as
The chosen surfaces that were used to control the machine-side converter MSC are
follows:
as follows: 
S(isd
) = e(isd )
= isd_re f − isd
(5)
S isq = e isq = isq_re f − isq
S(𝑖 ) = e(𝑖 ) = 𝑖 _ − 𝑖
(5)
The chosen surfaces’ derivatives S 𝑖 are = eas𝑖 follows:
=𝑖 _ −𝑖
(. disd_re f
The chosen surfaces’ derivatives S(iare as follows:
sd ) = dt − didtsd
. di disq (6)
S isq = d𝑖sq_re _ − d𝑖
f


𝑆(𝑖 ) = dt − dt
dt dt (6)
di
Replacing didtsd and dtsq with their expression d𝑖 _ given d𝑖 by Equation (A6) in Appendix A,
𝑆 𝑖 = −
respectively, in Equation (6) gives: dt dt
Replacing  and . with their di expression given by Lsq Equation (A6) in Appendix A,
 S(isd ) = sd_re dt
f
+ LRsds ·isd − p·Ω· Lsd ·isq − VLsd sd
respectively, in Equation
.
(6) gives: (7)
S isq = disq_re f + Rs ·isq + p·Ω· Lsd ·isd + p·Ω· ∅ f − Vsq
dt d𝑖 Lq 𝑅 Lsq 𝐿 L sq 𝑉 L sq
⎧ 𝑆(𝑖 ) =
_
+ . 𝑖 − 𝑝. Ω. .𝑖 −
⎪ dt 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
Replacing vsdq with vsdq_eq d𝑖 + vsdq_n in Equation (7) gives: ∅ 𝑉 (7)
⎨𝑆 𝑖 _ 𝑅 𝐿
= + . 𝑖 + 𝑝. Ω. . 𝑖 + 𝑝. Ω. −
 ⎪ ⎩. dt 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
di R L ( v + v )
 S(isd ) = dt + L s ·isd − p·Ω· L ·isq −
sd_re f sq sd_eq sd_n

Replacing .𝑣
withdi 𝑣 _ + 𝑣 sd_ in Equation sd (7) gives: Lsd

(8)
Rs Lsd ∅f (vsq_eq +vsq_n )
S i
sq =
sq_re f
dt + Lsq · i sq + p · Ω · ·
Lsq sd i + p · Ω · Lsq − Lsq

The control principles are clearly shown in the Equation (8).

 ⎨ d𝑖 _ 𝑅 𝐿 ∅ 𝑣 _ +𝑣 _
⎪𝑆 𝑖 = + .𝑖 + 𝑝. Ω. .𝑖 + 𝑝. Ω. −
⎩ dt 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
The control principles are clearly shown in the Equation (8).
During the sliding mode and in the steady-state, S(𝑥) = 0 and 𝑣 _ = 0. Therefore,
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 8 of 41
the expression of the equivalent control components 𝑣 _ can be deduced from Equa-
tion (8) as follows:

During the ⎧ d𝑖 _ 𝑅 .
𝐿
sliding 𝑣mode =
⎪ _
and𝐿 in the steady-state,
+ . 𝑖 S− ( x𝑝. ) =
Ω. 0 and . 𝑖 vsdq_n = 0. There-
fore, the expression of the equivalent control dt 𝐿
components vsdq_eq 𝐿 can be deduced from
(9)
Equation (8) as follows:
⎨𝑣 d𝑖 _ 𝑅 𝐿 ∅
⎪ _ = 𝐿 +
dth di f 𝐿 R
. 𝑖 + 𝑝. Ω. . 𝑖 + 𝑝. Ω.
𝐿 Lsq i 𝐿
⎩ vsd_eq = Lsd sd_re + s
· i − p · Ω · · i
dt Lsd sd Ld sq
Whereas 𝑣 _is given byhthe di following equations: Lsd ∅f
i (9)
Rs
vsq_eq = Lsq sq_re
dt
f
+ · i
Lsq sq + p · Ω · Lsq sd + p · Ω · Lsq
· i
𝑣 _ = 𝐾 . 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆(𝑖 )
Whereas vsdq_n is given by the following equations: (10)
𝑣 _ = 𝐾 . 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆 𝑖

vsd_n = Kd ·sign(S(isd ))
As explained previously, each control (10)
= Kq ·approach
sign S isq component should be calculated by



vsq_n
adding two terms 𝑣 _ + 𝑣 _ . Therefore, the MSC controller becomes as follows:
As explained previously, eachcontrol approach component should be calculated by
d𝑖 _ 𝑅 𝐿
⎧ terms
adding two 𝑣 v𝐿sdq_eq + vsdq_n+ . Therefore,
. 𝑖 − 𝑝.the
Ω. MSC. 𝑖 controller 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆(𝑖as )follows:
+ 𝐾 . becomes
⎪ dt 𝐿 𝐿
(11)
⎨𝑣
 d𝑖_
h di 𝑅 𝐿 L ∅i
⎪ 𝐿 vsd = Lsd +dt + . 𝑖 LRsds+·isd
sd_re f
𝑝.−Ω.p·Ω·.L𝑖sdsq ·i+
sq 𝑝.
+Ω. +(𝐾
Ksd ·sign S(isd. 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
)) 𝑆 𝑖
⎩ dt
h di 𝐿 𝐿
Lsd ∅f 𝐿
i (11)
Rs
sq_re f
+ Lsq ·isq + p·Ω· Lsq ·isd + p·Ω· Lsq + Ksq ·sign S isq



vsq = Lsq dt
In this study, the direct current reference 𝑖 is set to zero to maximize the elec-
tromagnetic study, 𝑇
In thistorque the ,direct
whilecurrent
the quadrature current
reference isd_re to zero to𝑖 maximize
f is setreference is derived
the elec-from
the speed controller. Hence, the 𝑖
tromagnetic torque Tem , while the quadrature current reference i
expression can be presented as:
sq_re f is derived from the
speed controller. Hence, the isq_re f expression can be presented as:
𝑖 =𝑖 _ +𝑖 _ (12)
isq_re f = isq_re f _eq + isq_re f _n (12)
2 𝐽  𝑓 1 
𝑖 =−2 J. tot . Ω +f .Ω −
1 .𝑇 + 𝐾Ω . 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆(Ω) (13)
isq_re f = − ·3 𝑝. ∅ Ωre f + 𝐽·Ω − 𝐽· Tturb + KΩ ·sign (S(Ω)) (13)
3 p·∅ f Jtot Jtot
where Ω Ω is isdeduced
where deducedfrom
from the MPPTcontrol
the MPPT controlstrategy
strategy (Figure
(Figure 5). 5).
re f

Figure 5. SMC
Figure applied
5. SMC appliedtotothe
thePMSG-WECS.
PMSG-WECS.

2.2.2. Grid-Side Control

The grid-side converter maintains a constant capacitor voltage and adjusts the d-axis
and q-axis currents frequency, thus ensuring good power transmission into the grid [36].
Therefore, two sliding mode controllers have been designed to control GSC’s components
(i gd , i gq ) (Figure 5).
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 9 of 41

The following equations present the sliding surfaces chosen to control this side:
(    
S i gd = e i gd = i gd_re f − i gd


(14)
S i gq = e i gq = i gq_re f − i gq

Terms ig_ref and igd_ref are the direct and the quadrature grid currents references, re-
spectively.
The grid side converter controller (GSC) can be designed using a mechanism similar
to that used to control the machine side converter (MSC).

v f d = v f d_eq + v f d_n (15)

v f q = v f q_eq + v f q_n (16)

With,
v f q_eq = L f di gd_re f + Rf Vgd
 h i
dt Lf ·i gd − w g ·i gq + Lf
   (17)
 v f q_n = K f d ·sign S i gd
h di Rf
i
Vgq
(
v f q_eq = L f gq_re dt
f
+ Lf ·i gq + w g ·i gd + Lf


(18)
v f q_n = K f q ·sign S i gq
Hence, the GSC controller becomes as follows:

v f d = L f di gd_re f + R f ·i gd − w g ·i gq + Vgd + K f d ·sign S i gd

 h i   
Lf Lf
h dt (19)
 v = L di gq_re f + R f ·i gq + w g ·i + Vgq + K ·sign S i gq
i


fq f dt L f
gd L fq f

where i gq_re f is deduced from the reactive power Q g_re f the expression which is fixed to
zero to achieve a unity power factor control, while i gd_re f is generated by the dc-link voltage
regulator, as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 illustrates the general structure of SMC within the
PMSG-wind energy conversion system.
The SMC controllers’ stability in both MSC and GSC was examined using a Lyapunov
stability analysis. Therefore, two Lyapunov functions (VMSC , VGSC ) were chosen for this
study.
VMSC = 21 (Si2 + Si2sq + SΩ 2 )
(
sd
(20)
VGSC = 12 (Si2 + Si2gq )
gd

where VMSC was used for the MSC, whereases VGSC was used for the GSC.
To achieve stability with Lyapunov function, the switching gains (KΩ , Ksd , Ksq , K f d
and K f q ) that are used in the switching control must be set to positive values while the
. .
derivative function should be negative (VMSC < 0 VGSC < 0). Functions VMSC and VGSC ’s
time derivatives are as follows:
( . . . .
VMSC = Sisd ·Sisd + Sisq ·Sisq + SΩ ·SΩ < 0
. . . (21)
VGSC = Si gd ·Si gd + Si gq ·Si gq < 0
.
Replacing each surface S( x ) with its expression in Equation (21) gives:
 .
VMSC = −K ·Si ·sign(S(i )) − Kq ·Si ·sign S isq − KΩ ·SΩ ·sign(S(Ω))



d sd sd   sq
.

(22)
 VGSC = −K f d ·Si ·sign S i gd
gd
− K f q ·Sigq ·sign S i gq

Replacing sign(S( x )) with its expression in Equation (22) gives:

 𝑉 = −𝐾 . 𝑆 . 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆(𝑖 ) − 𝐾 . 𝑆 . 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆 𝑖 − 𝐾Ω . 𝑆Ω . 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆(Ω)
(22
𝑉 = −𝐾 . 𝑆 . 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆 𝑖 − 𝐾 .𝑆 . 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆 𝑖

Replacing 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛(𝑆(𝑥))with its expression in Equation (22) gives:

Energies 2022, 15, 6238 10 of 41
𝑉 = −𝐾Ω . |𝑆Ω | − 𝐾 . |𝑆 |−𝐾 . 𝑆
(23
𝑉 = −𝐾 . 𝑆 −𝐾 . 𝑆
When 𝐾Ω , 𝐾 , 𝐾 ,
𝐾VMSC
.
=𝐾 − Kq · Sisq the 𝑉 and 𝑉

and −KΩare
·|SΩpositive
| − Kd · Sisdconstants, are nega
tive. Hence, the Lyapunov (23)
 condition is satisfied, and the proposed control’s objective
.
VGSC = −K f d · Si gd − K f q · Si gq
are achieved.
. .
When KΩ , Ksd , Ksq , K f d and K f q are positive constants, the VMSC and VGSC are negative.
3. Direct
Hence,Power Controlcondition is satisfied, and the proposed control’s objectives are
the Lyapunov
achieved.
3.1. Review of Direct Power Control
3.The
Direct Power Control
principle of direct power control (DPC) was first developed by “T.Ohnishi”
[84].3.1.
A Review of Direct
few years Power
later, Control
the DPC control was advanced by researchers “Noguchi” and
The principle
“I.Takahachi” [85]. of direct
The power
active control
and (DPC)power
reactive was first developed
control by “T.Ohnishi”
is guaranteed [84]. an
using A instan
few years later, the DPC control was advanced by researchers “Noguchi”
taneous power control loop to ensure the decoupling between the two powers while and “I.Takahachi” [85].
The active and reactive power control is guaranteed using an instantaneous power control
providing a unity power factor [86].
loop to ensure the decoupling between the two powers while providing a unity power
Over[86].
factor the years, researchers have used DPC in different modes where control algo
rithms can
Overbetheclassified under two
years, researchers havebroad
usedcategories: virtual
DPC in different flux-based
modes DPC and
where control algo-voltage
based DPC.
rithms canEarly DPC commands
be classified under two broadwere based onvirtual
categories: predefined
flux-basedswitching
DPC andtables
voltage- and hys
based
teresis DPC. Early DPC
controllers. commands
Depending onwere
the based
outputson predefined switching tables
of these controllers, theand hysteresisstates o
switching
controllers. Depending on the outputs of these controllers,
the different power converters can be realized, which leads to the desired the switching states of the dif- and re
active
ferent power converters can be realized, which leads to the desired active and reactive
active power generation. In addition, the determination of the flux vectors [87–90] and
power generation. In addition, the determination of the flux vectors [87–90] and the syn-
the chronization
synchronizationwith the with
gridthe grid [91–96]
voltage voltagehave[91–96]
been have beenthrough
elaborated elaborated through the pre
the predefined
defined switching
switching tables.
tables. The majorThe major disadvantage
disadvantage of DPC basedof onDPC based
switching on lies
tables switching
in the hightables lie
in the high sampling frequency required in order to obtain relatively satisfactory per
sampling frequency required in order to obtain relatively satisfactory performance. We can
also addWe
formance. the can
undesirable
also add effect
theofundesirable
the variable switching frequency
effect of the variableon the total harmonic
switching frequency on
distortion (THD). Indeed, the THD in this kind of control using hysteresis controllers
the total harmonic distortion (THD). Indeed, the THD in this kind of control using hyste
remains considerably high compared to other control algorithms.
resis controllers
The diagram remains considerably
in the following figurehigh compared
illustrates to other
the different control
control algorithms.
algorithms based
on the DPC principle, either for the voltage-based DPC or the virtual flux-based DPCbased on
The diagram in the following figure illustrates the different control algorithms
the (Figure
DPC principle,
6). either for the voltage-based DPC or the virtual flux-based DPC (Figure 6)

Figure
Figure 6. Differentcontrol
6. Different control strategies
strategies based
basedonon
thethe
DPC principle.
DPC principle.
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 11 of 41

As discussed previously, the predictive control of the model became the most em-
ployed algorithm in the DPC strategy, based on either the voltage or the virtual flow [84–89].
The precision and efficiency of the DPC control that adapts the predictive model remains
superior compared to the DPC that uses predefined vector selection tables. The major
problem of the DPC control based on the predictive model resides in the variable switching
frequency of the power converters. Nevertheless, studies have been performed incorporat-
ing modulation blocks into the design of control algorithms to achieve symmetrical and
constant switching frequencies to minimize the undesirable effects of variable switching
frequencies. These solutions employ sequences of vectors synchronized via well-defined
sampling periods. However, the algorithms employed in these solutions require a more
complex calculation than do the traditional algorithms.
Predictive DPC can be subdivided into two broad categories, namely, predictive DPC
based on vector duty cycle control [97–99] and predictive DPC based on spatial vector
modulation (SVM) [100]. The SVM technique requires a referential transformation to
present the virtual flux and the grid voltage to offer the sequence and the duration of the
vectors applied to the converter. In addition, it requires a powerful calculator that makes it
possible to put the various complex operations in force [101–112].
It should be noted that there are also other techniques used for voltage-based DPC con-
trol, such as sliding mode [113–116], fuzzy logic [117,118], and adaptive technique [119,120].
However, these latter techniques require sophisticated computational resources for their im-
plementation. A technique that does not require this kind of robust computation is the DPC
technique based on the proportional-integral (PI) regulator with the SVM technique pro-
posed by Malinowski et al. [121]. However, the design requires additional parameterization
to calculate the PI controller gains.
In addition, the various techniques employed for DPC control tend to minimize
undesirable defects, improving the performance demonstrated by DPC control. The key
points required for these control techniques are minimization of ripples due to the use of
electronic switches and the reduction of the total harmonic distortion (THD) of electric
currents. However, the techniques discussed above consider that the supply voltage is
purely balanced and sinusoidal, which is unrealistic in the presence of static converters.
Therefore, authors in [122,123] have attempted to study the behavior of the DPC control
under unfavorable conditions regarding wave distortion and supply voltage imbalance.
The techniques “output regulation subspaces” (ORS) [122] and “vector duty cycle control”
(VDC) [123] are used starting from the control based on predefined tables and using the
technique of the voltage-based DPC.
The DPC technique used under unfavorable conditions is significantly less present in
the literature. For example, the operation under an unbalanced supply voltage is presented
in the studies [124–127], where the extraction of the virtual flux and grid current parameters
becomes complicated. On the other hand, authors in [94,119] attempted to extend DPC by
employing the p-q extension theory mentioned in [128].
Table 2 summarizes the different techniques used for the DPC control found in the
literature.

Table 2. Various techniques used for DPC control.

Techniques Researchers
Proportional-Integral PI Malinowski M et al. [121]
Vector Duty Cycle Control Predictive Antoniewicz P et al. [100]
Virtual flux
SVM Predictive Tao YK et al. [115]; Cho Y et al. [110]
Baktash A et al. [87]; Razali A et al. [88]; Zhi D et al. [89];
Table
Malinowski M et al. [90]
 Energies 2022, 15, 6238 12 of 41
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 12 of 41

Table 2. Cont.
Vector Duty Cycle Control Pre- Zhang Y et al. [111]; Fischer JR et al. [112]; Bouafia A et al.
Techniques Researchers
dictive [113]; Restrepo JA et al. [114]
Model Predictive
Hu J etKwak S et al. [97,99]; Cortes P et al. [98]
al. [103,106]; Choi D et al. [104]; Aurtenechea S et al.
SVMVector
Predictive [105]; Song Z et al. [107];Fischer
Duty Cycle Control Predictive
Zhang Y et al. [111]; JR et al.
Vazquez [112];
S et BouafiaZhang
al. [108]; A et al. [113];
Y et
Restrepo JA et al. [114]
al. [109]
Hu J et al. [103,106]; Choi D et al. [104]; Aurtenechea S et al. [105];
SVM Predictive
Model Adaptive PortilloSong
R etZ al. [119];
et al. [107];Vazquez
Vazquez S Setet
al.al. [120]
[108]; Zhang Y et al. [109]
Voltage Vector Duty Cycle
Model Adaptive Control Table- Portillo R et al. [119]; Vazquez S et al. [120]
Zhang Y et al. [123]
basedVector Duty Cycle Control Table-based Zhang Y et al. [123]
Output Regulation Subspaces
Output Regulation Subspaces Escobar G et al.
Escobar G et[122]
al. [122]
Table-based
Table-based
Sliding Mode
Sliding Mode Hu J etHual.J [116]
et al. [116]
Fuzzy Logic
Fuzzy Logic Bouafia Bouafia al.
A et A et[117,118]
al. [117,118]

3.2. Application of Direct Power Control on the PMSG Wind Power System
3.2. Application of Direct Power Control on the PMSG Wind Power System
Grid
GridSide
SideConverter
Converter
From
Fromthe the block
blockdiagram
diagramin inFigure
Figure 7,7, thethe grid-side
grid-sidestatic
staticconverter
converterisisaa three-phase
three-phase
inverter connected to the grid through a filter.
inverter connected to the grid through a filter. The DC voltage The DC voltage at theat the terminals of the
terminals of ca-
the
pacitor and the current 𝑖
capacitor and the current iond represent the electrical input quantities of the inverter. At
represent the electrical input quantities of the inverter. At
the
the output,
output, thethe inverter
invertergenerates
generates three-phase
three-phase currents
currents i f ,abc𝑖 and
denoted
denoted , and alternating
alternating three-
three-phase
phase voltages voltages
denoted Vf ,abc .𝑉The
denoted , .output
The output
of the of the inverter
inverter is connected
is connected to the
to the grid grid
through
through a filter
a filter of resistor R f and𝑅inductance
of resistor and inductance L f . On𝐿 . the
On other
the other
side,side,
the the gridgrid voltages
voltages will
will be
be represented by 𝑉 . Terms ( 𝑆 ; 𝑆 ) represent the switching
represented by Vg,abc, . Terms (So,abc ;, So,a0 b0 c,0 ) represent the switching functions of the armsfunctions of the
arms
of theofthree-phase
the three-phase inverter.
inverter.

Grid-sideconverter.
Figure7.7.Grid-side
Figure converter.

In order
In order to
to model
modelthe theelectronic
electronicswitches,
switches, wewe
consider thatthat
consider IGBT transistors
IGBT formform
transistors them
antiparallel
them to diodes.
antiparallel As a As
to diodes. hypothesis, they they
a hypothesis, are all
areconsidered ideal,ideal,
all considered meaning they they
meaning have
have an instantaneous response to control signals. The closed position is equivalentzero
an instantaneous response to control signals. The closed position is equivalent to to
resistance, and the open position is equal to infinite resistance.
zero resistance, and the open position is equal to infinite resistance.
The mathematical model of the switching functions of the arms of the converters
The mathematical model of the switching functions of the arms of the converters
(inverter) is defined by:
(inverter) is defined by: 
1, → Si0 = 0
Si = 1, → 𝑆 = 0 (24)
𝑆 = 0, → Si0 = 1 (24)
0, → 𝑆 = 1
With: i = oa, ob, oc.
With: i = oa, ob, oc.
The capacitor “C” is crossed by a current “ 𝑖 ” which will be defined by:
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 13 of 41

The capacitor “C” is crossed by a current “iC ” which will be defined by:

dUC
iC = ired − iond = C · (25)
dt
Moreover,
ired = Sra isa + Srb isb + Src isc (26)
The expression of the voltage Uc will then be:

dUC
C· = Sra isa + Srb isb + Src isc − iond (27)
dt
The system of equations will represent the output voltages:
2Soa −Sob −Soc

 Vf a =
 3 UC
2Sob −Soa −Soc
Vf b = 3 UC (28)
 2Soc −Sob −Soa
Vf c = UC

3

The current iond will be defined by:

iond = Soa i f a + Sob i f b + Soc i f c (29)

The three-phase output currents of the inverter i f ,abc are determined by the system of
equations: 
di f a 2Soa −Sob −Soc
 R f i f a + L f dt = Vf a − Vga = UC − Vga

 3
di f b 2Sob −Soa −Soc
R f i f b + L f dt = Vf b − Vgb = 3 UC − Vgb (30)
di f c

 2Soc −Sob −Soa
R f i f c + L f dt = Vf c − Vgc = UC − Vgc

3

The DPC control algorithm is generally based on the voltages represented in the
reference plane (α-β). The space vector converter voltage is described in terms of switching
states and voltage UC by:
r 
2 2π 4π

Vαβ = Soa + Sob e j( 3 ) + Soc e j( 3 ) UC (31)
3
According to this last equation (Equation (31)), the spatial voltage vectors Vk generated
by a two-level inverter can be represented in Table 3, where two vectors of the eight possible
combinations are inactive and equal to zero.
The relation which links the voltage vector Vg,αβ and the current transit vector to the
grid i g,αβ can be represented by:

di f ,αβ
Vg,αβ = L f + R f i f ,αβ + Vαβ (32)
dt

a. Switching table-based direct power control

The principle of table-based DPC control needs the output variables of the hysteresis
comparators and the voltage sector θ R−i as shown in Figure 8.
Energies 2022, 15, 6238
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 14 of 41

Figure 8.8.6-sector
Figure 6-sectortension planeplane
tension in the in
frame
the(α-β).
frame (α-β).
The position of the voltage vector is obtained by using the following formula:
The position of the voltage vector is obtained by using the following formula
Vgβ

∠θ R = tan−1 V (33)
Vgα
∠𝜃 = tan
V
The role of hysteresis comparators is decisive in arriving at active and reactive power
control signals.
The role The switching table
of hysteresis is built according
comparators to severalincriteria:
is decisive arrivingthe number of and r
at active
sectors chosen, the dynamic performance, and the type of hysteresis controller used (two
power control signals. The switching table is built according to several criteria: th
or three levels).
ber of sectors
Usually, chosen,
the vector theis divided
plane dynamic intoperformance, and
6 sectors. They are the type
defined by: of hysteresis co
used (two or three levels).
π π
Usually, the vector plane (2n − 3is
) divided
6
≤ θ Rn <into
(2n −61sectors.
)
6
They are defined(34)
by:
𝜋 𝜋
With: n = 1, 2, . . . , 6. (2𝑛 − 3) 𝜃 (2𝑛 − 1)
6 6
Table 3. Voltage vectors and switching states.
With: 𝑛 = 1, 2, … . , 6.
Soa , Sob , Soc VK vα vβ
Table 3. 1,Voltage
0, 0
vectors and switching
q
2 j0 states.
q
2 0
V1 = 3 UC e 3 UC

𝑺𝒐𝒂 , 𝑺1,𝒐𝒃
1, ,0𝑺𝒐𝒄 𝑽𝑲 𝒗𝜶 𝒗𝜷
q q
V2 = 2 j π3 1 √1 UC
3 UC e 6 UC 2

2 2 √12 UC
q
0, 1, 0 2 j 2π −1 U
√
V3 = 3 UC e
3
6 C
1, 0, 0 q =
𝑉 𝑈 𝑒 𝑈 0
V4 = 23 UC e jπ3 3
q
0, 1, 1 2 0
− 3 UC
q
j 4π −1 U −1 U
0, 0, 1 V5 = 2
3 UC e 2
3 √
6 C 1 2 C
√
1
1,1,1,0, 01 𝑉
q
= 𝑈 𝑒 q
𝑈 −1 𝑈
√2
5π
= 2 U ej 3 6 √2 UC
1
V6 3 C 3
6 UC

0, 0, 0 V0 = 0 0 0
2 −1 1
0,1,1,1, 01 V7 = 0
𝑉 = 𝑈 𝑒
0
𝑈 0
𝑈
3 √6 √2
Table 4 summarizes the states of evolution of the active and reactive powers according
to the vectors selection with six sectors. 2 2
0, 1, 1 𝑉 = 𝑈 𝑒 − 𝑈 0
3 3

2 −1 −1
0, 0, 1 𝑉 = 𝑈 𝑒 𝑈 𝑈
3 √6 √2

2 1 −1
1, 0, 1 𝑉 = 𝑈 𝑒 𝑈 𝑈
3 6 √2
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 15 of 41
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 15 of 41
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 15 of 41
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 15 of 41
Table 4. Inverter switching table for 6 sectors.
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 Table 4. Inverter switching table for 6 sectors. 15 of 41
𝜽𝑹
Table 4. Inverter switching table for 6 sectors.
Table
Active 𝜽𝑹Reactive
4. Inverter switching table for 6 sectors.
𝜽𝑹𝟏 𝜽𝑹𝟐 𝜽𝑹𝟑 𝜽𝑹𝟒 𝜽𝑹𝟓 𝜽𝑹𝟔
Active
Power:
Table
𝜽
Reactive
𝑹 Power:
4. Inverter 𝜽table
[−30°,30°]
switching 𝜽𝑹𝟐 [90°,150°]
𝑹𝟏 for[30°,90°]
6 sectors. 𝜽𝑹𝟑 𝜽𝑹𝟒
[150°,210°] 𝜽𝑹𝟓
[210°,270°] 𝜽𝑹𝟔
[270°,330°]
θR
Active
𝒅
Power: Reactive
R1𝒅𝑸𝒈
Power: 𝜽
[−30°,30°]
𝑹𝟏 𝜽
[30°,90°]
𝑹𝟐 R3 𝜽
[90°,150°]
𝑹𝟑 𝜽
[150°,210°]
𝑹𝟒 𝜽
[210°,270°]
R5 𝑹𝟓 𝜽R6𝑹𝟔
[270°,330°]
Reactive Power: 𝐏𝒈 [−𝜽30
θ θ R2 θ θ R4 θ θ
Active Power: 𝑹 ◦ ,30◦ ] ◦ ,90◦ ] ◦ ,150◦ ] ◦ ,210◦ ] ◦ ,270◦ ] ◦ ,360◦ ]
dPg dQg
𝒅𝐏𝒈
Power: 𝒅0𝑸𝒈 [−30°,30°]
Power: 𝑉 ( , , ) [30°,90°]
[30
𝑉 ( , , ) [90°,150°]
[90
𝑉 ( , , ) [150°,210°]
[150
𝑉 ( , , ) [210°,270°]
[210
𝑉 ( , , ) [270°,330°]
[270
𝑉( , , )
Active
𝒅1𝐏𝒈 Reactive
𝒅0𝑸𝒈 𝜽𝑹𝟏 𝜽 𝜽𝑹𝟑 𝜽𝑹𝟒 𝜽 𝜽
0 V 1 𝑉
𝑉
V (( ,, ,, )) 𝑉 𝑉 (( 𝑹𝟐
,, ,, ))
V
𝑉
𝑉 (( ,, ,, ))V 𝑉 𝑉 (( ,, ,, )) V 𝑉 𝑉 (( 𝑹𝟓 ,, ,, )) 𝑉 (( 𝑹𝟔
𝑉
V ,, ,, ))
Power:
1 Power:
6(1,0,1 ) [−30°,30°]
𝑉 1(1,0,0) [30°,90°]
𝑉 2(1,1,0[90°,150°]
)
𝑉 3([150°,210°]
𝑉
0,1,0) [210°,270°]
𝑉
4(0,1,1) [270°,330°]
𝑉5(0,0,1 )
1 01 𝑉
𝑉 (( ,, ,, )) 𝑉 ( ,, ,, ))
, , ) ) 𝑉 (( V
𝑉 ((( ,,, ,,, )))
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 ((( ,,, ,,, ))) V 𝑉
𝑉 ((( ,,, ,,, ))) 𝑉
𝑉 ((( ,,, ,,, )))
1 𝒅10𝐏𝒈 V0(0,0,0𝒅)0𝑸𝒈 V7((1,1,1 )
, 0, (0,0,0 V V
10 𝑉
𝑉 (( ,, ,, )) 𝑉
)𝑉
𝑉 ((( ,,, ,,, ))) 𝑉 (( ,, ,, )) 𝑉
7(1,1,1)
𝑉 (( ,, ,, )) 𝑉
0(0,0,0)
𝑉 ((( ,,, ,,, ))) 𝑉7(1,1,1)
𝑉 ((( ,,, ,,, )))
1 𝑉
𝑉 ( , , ) 𝑉
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 ( , , ) 𝑉
𝑉 ( , , ) 𝑉
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉
0 0 V6(1,0,1)00 V ( , , ))
𝑉 𝑉( V ) )𝑉 ( , , )V3(0,1,0
, 2, (1,1,0 𝑉 ( , , ) V 𝑉 ( ), , ) V5((0,0,1
𝑉 (( ,,, ,,,) )))
0 1 1 𝑉1(((1,0,0
,, ,, )) 𝑉 (( ,, ,, )) 𝑉 (( ,, ,, )) 𝑉 )(( ,, ,, )) 4(𝑉 0,1,1
(( ,, ,, )) 𝑉
0 V 1 𝑉
V2((1,1,0, , ) 𝑉 ( V 𝑉
, , ) )𝑉 ( , , )V4(0,1,1 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
1
b. Dynamics 𝑉
1(1,0,0)1performance:( , , ) ) 𝑉 ( , 3, (0,1,0 ) ( , , ) 𝑉 )(( ,, ,, )) V5(𝑉0,0,1 ( ), , )
( , , ) 𝑉6(((1,0,1
V , ,) )
, , )
b. 0Dynamics 0 𝑉
performance: ( , , ) 𝑉 ( , , ) 𝑉 ( , , ) 𝑉 ( , , ) 𝑉 ( , , ) 𝑉 ( , , )
Voltage vectors affect the instantaneous active and reactive power dynamics. There-
b. Dynamics1performance:
b.
fore, Dynamics
Voltage
𝑉 ( ,the
performance:
vectors affect
the expressions of the power
𝑉dynamics
, ) instantaneous
( , , ) 𝑉can ( , be
active
𝑉 ( , , ) by:
, ) formulated
and reactive
𝑉 ( , dynamics.
power , ) 𝑉 ( There-
, , )
Voltage
fore, Voltage vectors
vectorsaffect
the expressions affect
of the the
theinstantaneous
dynamicsactive
instantaneous activeandand reactive
reactivepowerpower dynamics.
dynamics. Therefore,
There-
b. Dynamics performance: 𝑑𝑃power 1
can
1
be formulated by:
the expressions
fore, the expressions of theofpower the = dynamics
power 𝑉 +
dynamicscan
𝑉 be−
canformulated
be 𝑉 𝑉 +
formulatedby:
𝑉 𝑉by: (35)
𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑡 𝐿1 𝐿1
Voltage vectors affect the = 𝑉
instantaneous + 𝑉 −
active 𝑉and 𝑉 + 𝑉
reactive 𝑉 power dynamics. There-
(35)
d g 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑡 1 𝐿1 2 𝐿1
fore, the expressions ofPthe = Vgα 𝑉 ++ 𝑉 − 1 beV𝑉formulated
𝑉 + 𝑉 𝑉

power dynamics 2 can by: (35)


= V − V + V V
dt 𝑑𝑡 L f 𝐿 𝑑𝑄 = 1gβ 𝑉 𝑉L𝐿f − 𝑉 𝑉
gα cα gβ cβ
𝑑𝑃 1𝑑𝑄 1 (36)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿1
= 𝑉 =+ 𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉 −𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 + 𝑉 𝑉 (35)
(36)
𝑑𝑡 d𝐿Q g𝑑𝑡 1𝐿 𝑑𝑄 1 𝐿
With: = 𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑉 𝑉 (36)


= Vgα Vcβ − Vgβ Vcα
𝑉 and 𝑉 : represent the Concordia
With: dt 𝑑𝑡 L f𝐿 components of the inverter output voltage.
𝑑𝑄 1
𝑉 and
With:
The 𝑉 : represent
combinations the Concordia
of each inverter = voltage𝑉 𝑉 vector
components − 𝑉 of 𝑉 the for
used inverter output voltage.
the instantaneous (36)
power
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑉
Vcα and
The
variation are𝑉V
combinations
and : represent
summarized
cβ : represent of the
each
in Concordia
inverter
Table
the Concordia5 [129]. components
voltage
In vector
this
components table, of
of the
used
the inverter
for
sign
the the
(+)
inverter output
means
outputa voltage.
instantaneous
minor power
voltage. varia-
With:
tion, The
variation
while combinations
are the sign (++)of
summarized
combinations each
in Table
means
of inverter
a significant voltage
5 [129].
voltage vector
Invariation.
this table,Asused forbethe
thecan
sign (+) instantaneous
means
seen froma the
minor power
varia-
table, we
tion, 𝑉
variation
have while and
are
are 𝑉
the
the following : represent
summarized
signcombinations:
summarized (++) means the Concordia
ininTable
Table 5 5[129].
a significant components
[129].InIn this table,
variation.
this table, of
As
the the
thecan
sign inverter
sign be(+)
(+) seen
means output
means
from voltage.
a the
minor
a minor varia-
table, we
variation,
whileThe
tion,
have while combinations
the (++)
theincrease
the
An sign
following sign (++)
means ofmeans
each
incombinations:
reactive inverter
a significant
a significant
power voltage
isvariation.
obtained vector
variation.
As
bycan used
As be forbethe
can
seen
applying seen
from
the instantaneous
from the
the table,
voltage wepower
table,
vectors 𝑉
we,
have
the following
variation
have the
𝑉 ,𝑉 .
An are summarized
following
increase combinations:
incombinations:
reactive in Table
power 5 [129].
is In
obtainedthis table,
by the sign
applying (+)
the means
voltagea minor
vectors 𝑉
varia- ,
 An
tion, while
An
A decrease
the
, 𝑉 .in in
𝑉 increase
increase sign in (++) means
reactive
reactive
reactive power a
power
power
significant
is
is obtained variation.
obtained
by applying
is obtained by As can
applying be
the voltage
by applying
seen
the from
voltage
the vectors
the table,
vectors
, VK +1 , 𝑉
voltageVKvectors 𝑉
we
VK +2,,.
have 𝑉the following
,, 𝑉 combinations: 1 , VK −2 , 𝑉
 AA 𝑉decrease
decrease𝑉 in.. reactive
in reactive power is obtained
power by applying
is obtained the voltagethe
by applying vectors VK −vectors
voltage VK +3,.
 An An increase
increase in in reactive
active power power is is
obtainedobtained
by by
applying applying
the the
voltage voltage
vectors vectors
V 𝑉 ,
K +1 𝑉K +2,,
, V
 𝑉 decrease
A
An , 𝑉 . in inreactive
increase active powerpoweris is obtained
obtained by byapplying
applyingthe voltage vectors
the voltage vectors
VK𝑉 , , V𝑉
𝑉+3 increase
,, 𝑉 .
,
K −2 . 0 V , V .
 𝑉
An 𝑉 in in, 𝑉7 active
, 𝑉 reactive ,power
𝑉 , 𝑉power is obtained by applying the voltage vectors
. is obtained
 AA decrease
decrease in reactive power is is
obtainedby applying
by by the voltage
applying the voltage VK , VK −𝑉1 . ,
vectorsvectors
 𝑉
An , 𝑉
increase , 𝑉 in, 𝑉 ,
active
A decrease in reactive power is obtained𝑉 , 𝑉power
. obtained
by applying applying
the voltage thevectors
voltage 𝑉 ,vectors
𝑉 .
𝑉 , 𝑉 .
, 𝑉 , 𝑉in reactive
𝑉5.decrease ,variations
𝑉 , 𝑉power , 𝑉of. active
TableA Instantaneous is obtained by applying
and reactive powers due thetovoltage
appliedvectors 𝑉 ,𝑉 .
voltage vectors.

Table An increase
A5.decrease
Instantaneous invariations
in reactive active power
power
of is obtained
is obtained
active and by applying
by applying
reactive powers thetovoltage
due applied thevectors
voltage
voltage 𝑉 ,vectors
𝑉 .
vectors.
, 𝑉 K,−𝑉2 , variations
Table𝑉5. Instantaneous
V 𝑉 K−, 1𝑉 , 𝑉of. active
V V K V K+1
and reactive V V
K+2 due to K+3
powers V
applied voltage 0 V7
vectors.
 QAg5.decrease
Table 𝑽
_ _ in
Instantaneous 𝑲 reactive 𝑽
𝟐 variations
_ 𝑲power𝟏 of active
++ 𝑽
is obtained 𝑽
𝑲 and reactive 𝑽
+ 𝑲by𝟏applying
powers+𝑲 𝟐due 𝑽 _𝑲 𝟑 vectors
thetovoltage
applied 𝑽+𝟎 vectors.
voltage 𝑽
𝑉 , 𝑉_𝟕 .
𝑸 𝑽_𝑲_ 𝟐 𝑽𝑲_ 𝟏 𝑽
++𝑲 𝑽𝑲+ 𝟏 𝑽𝑲+ 𝟐 𝑽𝑲_ 𝟑 𝑽+𝟎 𝑽_𝟕
Pg 𝒈 + _ _ + ++ ++
Table𝑸
𝑷5.𝒈𝒈 Instantaneous 𝑽𝑲_ 𝟏 of active
𝑽_𝑲_ 𝟐 variations 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 due to𝑽applied 𝑽++𝟎 vectors.
𝑽+_𝟕
+ _ _𝑲 and reactive
++ 𝑲
++ 𝟏 powers
𝑲+ 𝟐
++ 𝑲_ 𝟑
++ voltage
+ +
𝑸
𝑷𝒈𝒈 _+_ __ ++
_ ++ +
++ _
++ ++ +_
𝑽𝑲 𝟐 the
Figure 9 illustrates
𝑷 𝑽𝑲general
𝟏 𝑽𝑲
structure 𝑽of𝑲 DPC
𝟏 𝑽𝑲the𝟐PMSG-wind
of 𝑽𝑲 𝟑 energy
𝑽𝟎 conversion
𝑽𝟕
𝒈
Figure + _ _ + ++ ++ + +
9 illustrates the general structure of DPC of the PMSG-wind energy conver-
𝑸
system.𝒈 _ _ _ ++ + + _ + _
Figure 9 illustrates the general structure of DPC of the PMSG-wind energy conver-
sion system.
𝑷 𝒈
Figure
sion system. +
9 illustrates the_ general _structure +of DPC of
++the PMSG-wind
++ +
energy +
conver-
sion system.
Figure 9 illustrates the general structure of DPC of the PMSG-wind energy conver-
sion system.
Energies 2022,
Energies 2022, 15,
15, 6238
6238 16 of
16 of 41
41

Figure 9. Synoptic schema of DPC applied to the PMSG-wind

PMSG-wind energy
energy conversion
conversion system.
system.

The
The design
design of
ofswitching
switchingtables
tablesemployed
employedinin DPC
DPCcontrol algorithms
control algorithmsis aishot topic
a hot for
topic
researchers. Most of the research works summarized in Table 6 use simplifying
for researchers. Most of the research works summarized in Table 6 use simplifying as- assumptions
for their work,
sumptions and in
for their mostand
work, cases, they cases,
in most have assumed
they havethat the network
assumed voltage
that the network is ideal,
volt-
which is not always the case in practice. Table 6 summarizes a performance comparison
age is ideal, which is not always the case in practice. Table 6 summarizes a performance
between
comparisondifferent employed
between differenttable-based
employed DPC techniques,
table-based DPC namely, VF-DPC,
techniques, namely, V-DPC and
VF-DPC,
RV-DPC.
V-DPC and RV-DPC.
Table 6. Comparison between different employed table-based DPC techniques.
Table 6. Comparison between different employed table-based DPC techniques.

Table- Active
ActivePower Variation
Power Variation Active
Reference Table-Based
Reference Voltage Current
Voltage Current Active Response Switching
Based d P 𝒅
=1 = 𝟏 dP 𝒅
=1 = 𝟏 PowerPower Response Switching
Paper g 𝐏𝒈 g 𝐏𝒈 Sensors THD Time Loss
Paper DPC
DPC dQg =0 d =1 Sensors THD Ripple
Ripple Time Loss
𝒅𝐐𝒈 = 𝟎 Qg 𝒅𝐐𝒈 = 𝟏
[94] RV-DPC Little Zero Include Low Minimal Slow Small
[94] RV-DPC Little Zero Include Low Minimal Slow Small
[90] Medium Zero Exclude High Maximal Slow Small
[90] Medium Zero Exclude High Maximal Slow Small
[88] Little Very little Include Low Minimal Slow Small
[88] VF-DPC Little Very little Include Low Minimal Slow Small
[130] VF-DPC Little Zero Exclude Low Minimal Slow Small
[130] Little Zero Exclude Low Minimal Slow Small
[131] Medium Zero Exclude High Maximal Slow Small
[131] Medium Zero Exclude High Maximal Slow Small
[96] Medium Zero Exclude High Maximal Slow Small
[96] Medium Zero Exclude High Maximal Slow Small
[95]
[95] Little
Little BigBig Exclude
Exclude Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Medium
Medium
[132]
[132] Very
Verylittle
little BigBig Exclude
Exclude Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Fast
Fast Large
Large
[133]
[133] Little
Little Medium
Medium Include Include Low
Low Minimal
Minimal Slow
Slow Small
Small
[134]
[134] Very
Verylittle
little Very little Include
Very little Include Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Medium
Medium
V-DPC
[135]
V-DPC Big Very littlelittleInclude Medium Medium Fast Large
[135] Big Very Include Medium Medium Fast Large
[136]
[136] Little
Little Very little Include
Very little Include Low
Low Minimal
Minimal Slow
Slow Small
Small
[137]
[137] Little
Little Zero
Zero Include
Include Low
Low Minimal
Minimal Slow
Slow Small
Small
[138]
[138] Little
Little BigBig Include
Include Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Medium
Medium
[139]
[139] Little
Little BigBig Include
Include Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Medium
Medium
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 17 of 41

4. Backstepping Control
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 17 of 41
4.1. Review of Backstepping Control
In recent years, many researchers have been interested in recursive techniques in
design controllers
4. Backstepping for nonlinear systems. Backstepping is a systematic method for non-
Control
linear control design;
4.1. Review of Backstepping it Control
can be applied to a general class of systems. Its name refers to
the recursive naturemany
In recent years, of the procedure
researchers haveconception
been interested [140].inThe backstepping
recursive techniques controller’s
in
principle
design controllers for nonlinear systems. Backstepping is a systematic method for non- a small
converts a complex system into cascaded first-order subsystems. First,
subsystem
linear control is design;
considered it canforbe which
appliedato virtual
a generalcontrolclasslaw is designed.
of systems. Then
Its name the to
refers design is
extended
the recursiveover several
nature stages
of the until conception
procedure the final control[140]. The law backstepping
for the overall system is con-
controller’s
principle converts
structed. a complex system
Hence, nonlinear systemsinto cascaded
become first-order
linear despitesubsystems. First, a small
the uncertainties. During the
subsystem isaconsidered
conception, Lyapunovfor which aof
function virtual control law
the controlled is designed.
system Then the design
is successfully is
constructed, in-
extended over several stages until the final control law for the overall
creasing the system stability [141–144]. There are two types of backstepping techniques. system is constructed.
Hence, nonlinear systems become linear despite the uncertainties. During the conception,
The first type is called the non-adaptive backstepping control. This technique is used
a Lyapunov function of the controlled system is successfully constructed, increasing the
when
systemthe parameters
stability [141–144]. of There
the studied system
are two types are known. The
of backstepping secondThe
techniques. typefirstistype
called
is adap-
tive backstepping
called the non-adaptive control. The adaptation
backstepping control. Thislawtechnique
is used to estimate
is used whenthe the various
parameters unknown
parameters
of the studiedsosystem
that they converge
are known. towards
The second type their ownadaptive
is called values backstepping
without affecting control.the sys-
tem’s overall stability.
The adaptation law is used Hence, the system
to estimate becomes
the various insensitive
unknown to parametric
parameters so that they variations
converge towards their own values without affecting the system’s overall stability. Hence,
[145].
the system
The main becomes insensitive
drawback of tothe
parametric
classicalvariations
BSC is [145].a phenomenon called “explosion of
The main drawback of the classical
terms”. This phenomenon occurs when virtual BSC is a phenomenon
inputs are called “explosion of several
differentiated terms”. times.
This phenomenon occurs when virtual inputs are differentiated several times. As a result,
As a result, the complexity of the controller increases, especially for higher-order sys-
the complexity of the controller increases, especially for higher-order systems, which makes
tems, whichimplementation
the practical makes the practical implementation
of the control more difficult [145].of theMany control morehave
solutions difficult
been [145].
Many solutions
introduced in thehave beentointroduced
literature improve thein the literature
classical BSC. to improve the classical BSC.
The following figure shows the
The following figure shows the improved controlimproved control structures
structures of SMC ofthat
SMC that
have have been
been
proposed
proposed to toimprove
improve thethe conventional
conventional BSCBSC (Figure
(Figure 10). 10).

10. Summary
Figure 10.
Figure SummaryofofBSC
BSCenhancement techniques.
enhancement techniques.

Many adaptations have been made to the backstepping controller design to solve the
Many adaptations have been made to the backstepping controller design to solve
abovementioned problem. In [145] authors proposed a nonlinear adaptive filter with a
the abovementioned problem.
positive time-varying integral In [145]
function authors
to avoid theproposed a explosion
issue of the nonlinearofadaptive
complexityfilter with
acaused
positive time-varying
by the integral function
recursive procedure. This filtertomay
avoid the issue
effectively of the explosion
eliminate of complexi-
the effect raised
ty caused by the recursive procedure. This filter may effectively
by the boundary layer error at each step. In [146] authors proposed a specific controleliminate the effect
raised by the
parameter thatboundary
is based onlayer error rules.
the fuzzy at eachThis
step. In [146]
control usesauthors
only one proposed a specific
fuzzy system in con-
each subsystem to approximate the unknown control gain and the unknown
trol parameter that is based on the fuzzy rules. This control uses only one fuzzy system nonlinear
function,
in as well as the
each subsystem differential of the
to approximate theformer
unknown subsystem’s
control virtual
gain andcontrol. Contrary tononline-
the unknown
the previous suggestion, Song et al. [147] chose to use both neuro and fuzzy systems in each
ar function, as well as the differential of the former subsystem’s virtual control. Contrary
subsystem. Meanwhile, Guangming et al. [148] chose to synthesize the fuzzy backstepping
to the previous suggestion, Song et al. [147] chose to use both neuro and fuzzy systems
sliding mode tracking control method with the fractional CF technique to overcome such a
in each subsystem.
shortcoming. In [149], Meanwhile, Guangming
the authors tried to combine theet al. [148]ofchose
benefits to synthesize
the disturbance the fuzzy
observer
backstepping sliding mode tracking control method with the fractional
with SMC under the framework of backstepping. Jiuwu et al. [150] combined another type CF technique to
overcome such a shortcoming. In [149], the authors tried to combine the benefits of the
disturbance observer with SMC under the framework of backstepping. Jiuwu et al. [150]
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 18 of 41

of observers controller, extended state observer (ESO), with backstepping controller. This
observer was used to estimate both unmeasured states and output disturbances online. In
the same context, Yeonsoo et al. [151] employed the model predictive technique (MPC) in
the backstepping controller to design the first step’s virtual input.
On the other hand, some authors tried to improve classical backstepping in terms of
robustness, stability, and reference tracking. In this context, Nizami et al. [152] proposed a
new control mechanism based on a Chebyshev neural network embedded in an adaptive
backstepping framework. In [153] authors suggested a robust technique that adaptively
estimates the nonlinear parameter uncertainties. This technique is based on a recurrent
radial basis function neural network uncertainty online observer to solve both parameter
variations and inevitable approximation, while Bossoufi et al. [154] used the rooted tree
optimization (RTO) algorithm. The performance of this technique was confirmed through
a test bench based on a dSPACE card. Integral backstepping is a further enhancement of
the classical backstepping approach. In this technique, an integral action is added to the
error terms to increase the controlled system’s precision and stability [155–158].
Table 7 summarizes the different techniques used for the BSC control found in the
literature.

Table 7. Various techniques used for BSC control.

Techniques Researchers
Filter Liu Y-H [145]; Nizami et al. [152]
Artificial intelligence Shen X et al. [142]; Min W [146]; Song S [147]; Belkhier Y [159]
Integral BSC Makhad M et al. [155]; Loucif, M et al. [157]; Eluri N.V.D.V. Prasad et al. [158]
Backstepping
Disturbance observer Wang F et al. [149];
Extended state observer Jiuwu et al. [150]
MPC-BSC Yeonsoo K et al. [151]
SMC-BSC Rajendran, S et al. [160]

4.2. Application of Backstepping Control on the PMSG Wind Power System

According to backstepping control principles and based on the system equations pre-
sented in the Appendix A, the backstepping control design can be determined by following
successive steps, where each step provides references for the next design step [161–164].

4.2.1. Machine Side Control

Step 1: Mechanical speed controller design:
The following expression can define the tracking error of speed:

eΩ = Ωre f − Ω (37)

Its derivate is given as:

 
. . . . 1 3p  
Ωre f −Ω = Ωre f Ld − Lq isd ·isq + isq Φ f − f c Ω


eΩ = − Tturb − (38)
Jtot 2

To reduce the speed tracking error, the current components are identified as virtual
control elements and the Lyapunov function is chosen as follows:

1 2
V1 = e (39)
2 Ω
The Lyapunov function derivative is therefore:
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 19 of 41

. .
V1 = eΩ · eΩ
eΩ 3p (40)
= − KΩ eΩ 2 + + f c Ω + KΩ · Jtot ·eΩ + 2 isq Φ f ) + 2· Jtot
3


Jtot (− Tturb p Ld − Lq isd ·isq ·eΩ
.
To maintain the first subsystem’s stability, the Lyapunov function derivative V1 must
be negative. Therefore, both isd and isq are chosen as follows:
(
isd_re f = 0
(41)
isq_re f = 2
3· p · Φ f ( Tturb − f c Ω − KΩ · Jtot ·eΩ )

isd_re f and isq_re f will be considered as virtual references for the second step.
.
Replacing the isd_re f , isq_re f and Ωre f = 0 with their values in Equation (40) gives:
.
V1 = −KΩ ·eΩ 2 ≤ 0 (42)

Hence, the system described by Equation (42) becomes stable only if KΩ is fixed to a
positive value.
Step 2: Stator current controller design:
The machine-side converter control voltages vsd_re f and vsq_re f are designed in this
step based on the virtual inputs of the system, which are the stator currents (isd , isq ).
The following expressions define the stator current errors:

ed = isd_re f − isd (43)

eq = isq_re f − isq (44)

. .
Based on Equations (43) and (44), the current error dynamic ed and eq can be presented
as follows:
. . . . 1

ed = isd_re f − isd = 0 − isd = Rs isd − pΩLq isq − vsd (45)
Ld

. . . 2 . . 1 
eq = isq_re f − isq = (− f c Ω − KΩ · Jtot ·eΩ ) + Rs isq + p· Ld ·Ω·isd + p·Ω·Φ f − vsq (46)
3· p · Φ f Lq

With:  
. 1 3p 3p
Φ f · eq −


eΩ = −KΩ · Jtot ·eΩ − · Ld − Lq isd ·isq (47)
Jtot 2 2
.
The eq expression becomes:
  
. 2 3p 1 
(KΩ · Jtot − f c ) Tturb − f c ·Ω − · Ld − Lq isd ·isq + isq Φ f


eq = + Rs isq + pΩLd isd + pΩΦ f − vsq (48)
3· p · Φ f 2 Lq

Another Lyapunov function must be adopted to determine the stator voltage refer-
ences. This function takes into account both the rotation speed error and the stator currents
errors:
1 2 
V2 = eΩ + ed 2 + eq 2 (49)
2
Using Equations (45), (47) and (48) the second Lyapunov function derivative becomes:
. . . .

V2 = eΩ eΩ + ed ed + eq eq (50)

. e
 
ed
V2 = −KΩ eΩ 2 − Kd ed 2 −Kq eq 2 + J Ω − 3p 3p
2 Φ f eq − 2 · L d − L q isd ·isq + Ld R s isd − pΩLq isq − vsd + Kd L d ed



tot
e

2L
 h i 
(51)
+ Lqq 3· p· J q ·Φ (KΩ · Jtot − f c ) Tturb − f c ·Ω − 3p2 · L d − L q isd ·isq + isq Φ f


+ Rs isq + pΩLd isd + pΩΦ f − vsq + Kq Lq eq
tot f
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 20 of 41

According to the Lyapunov theorem, to ensure the stability of the subsystem, the
derivative of V1 must be negative. Therefore, Kd and Kq are fixed to a positive value while
the following voltages are used as reference voltages:

3p



 vsd_re f = Rs isd − pΩLq isq + Kq Lq eq − 2· Jtot Ld Ld − Lq isd ·eΩ
 h i
2L 3p
vsq_re f = 3· p· Jtotq ·Φ (KΩ · Jtot − f c ) Tturb − f c ·Ω − 2 · Ld − Lq isd ·isq + isq Φ f


(52)
 f
+ R i + pΩL i + pΩΦ + K L e − 3
p ·i Φ · e

Ω

s sq d sd f q q q 2· Jtot sq f

4.2.2. Grid-Side Converter Control

The GSC is controlled for two main reasons: to keep the DC bus voltage constant and
to ensure that energy is transferred efficiently to the distribution grid [161–164]. Based on
the model of the GSC in the d-q referential presented in the Appendix A, the grid current
and power can be represented as follows:
 di vfd Rf v gd
gd
 dt =

 Lf − Lf ·i gd + w g ·i gq − Lf

 di gq =
 vfq Rf v gq
− ·i gq − w g ·i gd −

dt Lf Lf Lf
h i (53)


 Pg = 32 v gd ·i gd + v gq ·i gq

 h i
Q g = 32 v gq ·i gd − v gd ·i gq



One can notice that power is directly proportional to the quadrature current component
i gq as well as the direct current component i gd . The backstepping control can be designed
based on the following steps.
The first step is to define the direct and quadrature grid current errors:

e gd = i gd_re f − i gd (54)

e gq = i gq_re f − i gq (55)
The derivative of the current tracking errors can be expressed as:
. . .
e gd = i gd_re f − i gd (56)
. . .
e gq = i gq_re f − i gq (57)
Introducing the Lyapunov function for current errors:

1 2 
V3 = e gd + e gq 2 (58)
2
Taking the derivative of Equation (58) along the dynamics of the system:
.  . .

V3 = e gd e gd + e gq e gq (59)
. .
Replacing i gd and i gq by their expression in Equation (59) gives:

! !
.
2 2
vfd Rf v gd vfq Rf v gq
V3 = −K gd e gd − K gq e gq + e gd − i gd + ω g i gq − + K gd e gd + e gd − i gq − ω g i gd − + K gq e gq (60)
Lf Lf Lf Lf Lf Lf

To make the Lyapunov derivative function negative and ensure system stability, both
K gd and K gq were fixed to positive values, and the GSC reference voltages were chosen as
follows: 
v f d−re f = R f i gd − L f ω g i gq − L f K gd e gd + v gd
(61)
v f q−re f = R f i gq + L f ω g i gd − L f K gq e gq + v gq
 Additionally, the reference value of the direct current 𝑖 was fixed to zero to
ensure an operation with unit power factor while the quadrature current reference
Energies
Energies 2022,
2022, 15,15, 6238
6238
𝑖 was deduced from the bus regulator as shown Figure 11. 2121ofof4141
Figure 11 illustrates the general structure of BSC of the PMSG-wind energy conver-
sion system.
Additionally,the
Additionally, thereference
referencevalue
valueofofthe
thedirect
directcurrent 𝑖 fixed
currentwas was fixedtotoensure
to zero zero to
an
ensure an operation with unit power factor while the quadrature current
operation with unit power factor while the quadrature current reference was deduced from reference
𝑖 bus regulator
the was deduced from the
as shown bus 11.
Figure regulator as shown Figure 11.
Figure1111illustrates
Figure illustratesthe
thegeneral
generalstructure
structureofof BSC
BSC ofof
thethe PMSG-wind
PMSG-wind energy
energy conver-
conversion
sion system.
system.

Figure 11. Synoptic schema of BSC applied to the PMSG-wind energy conversion system.

5. Model
Figure Predictive
Figure11.
11.Synoptic Control
Synopticschema
schema ofBSC
of BSCapplied
applied to
to the PMSG-wind energy
energy conversion
conversionsystem.
system.
5.1.5.Review of Model Predictive Control
Model Predictive Control
5. Model Predictive Control
InReview
5.1. recentofyears, predictive
Model Predictive control has emerged as a major control technique appli-
Control
5.1. Review of Model Predictive Control
cable toInpower
recent converters and electric
years, predictive drives.
control has Predictive
emerged control
as a major (MPC-model
control predictive
technique appli-
In recent years, predictive control has emerged as a major control technique appli-
control)
cable uses the system model to predict the future behavior of the process
to power converters and electric drives. Predictive control (MPC-model predictive for a specific
cable to power converters and electric drives. Predictive control (MPC-model predictive
control variable
control)
control) uses
usestheand
the thenmodel
system
system obtainto
model toan optimal
predict
predict the actionbehavior
the future
future based on
behavior ofthe
of predefined
theprocess
the processfor optimization
foraaspecific
specific
control
criteria variable
[132,165–168]. and then obtain an optimal action based on the predefined
control variable and then obtain an optimal action based on the predefined optimization optimization
criteria
criteria [132,165–168].
A classification
[132,165–168].of the different predictive control strategies is shown in Figure 12
[168]. A A classification
classificationof thethe
of different
differentpredictive control
predictive strategies
control is shown
strategies in Figure
is shown 12 [168].
in Figure 12
[168].
Predictive control
Predictive control

With modulator
With modulator
Without modulator
Without modulator

Deadbeat Predictive Continuous

Deadbeat Predictive Continuous ControlSet
ControlSet Other
Other PredictiveControl
Predictive Control
control (DBPC) (MPC CCS-MP) (GPC,DCC)
control (DBPC) (MPC CCS-MP) (GPC,DCC)

Hysteresis Based Trajectory Tracking Direct Model Finite Control-Set Other(¨P-DPC,

Hysteresis MPC
Based TrajectoryMPC
Tracking Direct Control
Predictive Model Finite Control-Set
MPC(FCS-MPC) Other(¨P-DPC,
M2PC,S-MPC)
MPC MPC Predictive Control MPC(FCS-MPC) M2PC,S-MPC)
Figure 12. Classification of the different predictive control strategies.
Figure 12.12.
Figure Classification
Classificationof
ofthe
the different predictive
different predictive control
control strategies.
strategies.
Predictive deadbeat control calculates the control variable that cancels the error be-
Predictive
tween
Predictive deadbeat
the control variable
deadbeat control
and the
control calculates
referencethe
calculates control
input.
the Thisvariable
control control that cancels
technique
variable that the
has
cancels error
a fast
thedy-be- be-
error
tween the control variable and the reference input. This control technique has
tween the control variable and the reference input. This control technique has a fast dy-a fast dynamic
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 22 of 41

response, but its difficulty lies in the system parameters’ variations and disturbances, which
can cause deterioration in the obtained performances.
In addition, model predictive control (MPC) is recognized as a simple and powerful
control strategy for controlling power converters because it is simple to apply in multi-
variable systems, takes into account nonlinearities and constraints of the system to be
controlled, and has a fast dynamic response [169,170]. This technique’s operating principle
is based on using a mathematical model to predict the system’s future behavior, and then
minimize the predefined cost function to achieve the specified control objectives.
MPC applied to power converters can be classified into two major categories: continu-
ous control set MPC (CCS-MPC) and finite control set predictive control (FCS-MPC) [171].
In CCS-MPC, a modulator is required to generate the switching states, leading to a fixed
switching frequency. However, the disadvantage of CCS-MPC is that the nonlinearities
taken in the model lead to a complex optimization problem, which is difficult to solve
online using a conventional hardware platform [171,172].
On the other hand, FCS-MPC predictive control relies on the discrete nature of the static
converters due to the limitation of the number of their switching states. This advantage
has the effect of reducing the calculation burden for both prediction and processing, as
each converter has a limited number of switching states. The prediction procedure is also
limited to these states [173–175]. Then, an optimization selects the optimal state (optimal
voltage vector) to be applied to the charge. The main elements of this control technique are
the mathematical model of the system and the predefined cost function [176–182].
Table 8 summarizes the different techniques used for the predictive control in the
literature.

Table 8. Various techniques used for predictive control.

Techniques Researchers
Deadbeat predictive
Nguyen, H et al. [183]; Bouderbala, M et al. [184]
control (DBPC)
Continuous control-set
With Modulator Balamurugan, A et al. [185,186]
(MPC-CCS-MP)
Other predictive control
Shehata, E et al. [187]
(GPC, DCC)
Hysteresis based
Prince, M et al. [188]
(MPC)
Trajectory tracking
Without Modulator Cortes-Vega, D et al. [189]
(MPC)
Direct model predictive control Yip, S. Y. et al. [190]
Other (P-DPC, M2PC, S-MPC) Shehata, E. G. et al. [191]

5.2. Application of Model Predictive Control on the PMSG Wind Power System
In general, the implementation of FCS-MPC finite-state predictive control consists of
four essential steps [192–195] as described below:
• Reference calculation: In this step, the reference control value x ∗ (k ) (x ∈ voltage,
current, power, torque, flux, etc.) is calculated depending on the application’s nature.
• Prediction: this subsystem predicts the future values of the control variables x P (k + 1)
based on the DT model, the system parameters and the converter switching state
combinations S(K).
• Extrapolation: the future value of the reference control variable x̂ ∗ (k + 1) is estimated
in this step based on the current and past sample values x ∗ (k ), x ∗ (k − 1).
• Cost Function Minimization: this function is used to minimize the error between the
predicted and extrapolated references g = x̂ ∗ (k + 1) − x P (k + 1).
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 23 of 41

Energies 2022, 15, 6238 • 23 of

Cost Function Minimization: this function is used to minimize the error between the 41
predict-
∗ (𝑘
ed and extrapolated references g = 𝑥 + 1) − 𝑥 (𝑘 + 1).
The following figure shows the general scheme of the FCS-MPC finite-state predic-
The [196]
tive control following figure
(Figure shows the general scheme of the FCS-MPC finite-state predictive
13).
control [196] (Figure 13).

static converter

X*(K+1)
Minimization S(K+1)
p of the cost Charge
x (K+1) N
function
X(K) prediction model
N

Figure
Figure 13. The
13. The general
general scheme
scheme ofofthe
theFCS-MPC
FCS-MPC finite-state
finite-state predictive
predictivecontrol.
control.
5.2.1. Machine-Side Control
5.2.1. Machine-Side Control
As a first step for implementing the MPC control on the MSC side, a continuous-
As adynamic
time first step for implementing
model the MPC
of PMSG stator currents control
must on the
be given MSC side,
[197–200]. a continuous-
Considering the
timemathematical
dynamic model
modelofofPMSG stator
the PMSG currents
in the mustframe
dq reference be given
shown[197–200]. Considering
in the Appendix A, the the
continuous-time
mathematical model model
of theof PMSG
PMSGcanin be
therepresented in aframe
dq reference simplified forminas:the Appendix A,
shown
the continuous-time model of PMSG  canbe represented
  in
 a simplified form as:
d isd (t) i (t) v (t)
= A(t) sd + B sd + w(t) (62)
𝑑 i𝑖sq ((𝑡)
dt t) 𝑖 (t(𝑡)
isq ) vsq𝑣(t)(𝑡)
= 𝐴(𝑡) +𝐵 + w(t) (62)
𝑑𝑡 𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑣 (𝑡)
where  
− Rs we (t) Lsq " 1
# " #
where Lsd 0 0
A(t) =  Lsd Lsd 
; B= 1 ; w(t) = − we ( t ) ϕr (63)
−we (t) Lsd − Rs 0
−𝑅Lsq 𝑤 L(𝑡)𝐿 1 Lsq Lsq
⎡ ⎤
sq
⎡ 0 ⎤ 0
𝐿 implementation
The next step⎢ in MPC 𝐿 ⎢𝐿 a suitable
⎥ is to use ⎥ −𝑤
discretization(𝑡)𝜑
algorithm to
A(t) = ⎥ ; Binto
=⎢ 1 ⎥ ; w(t) = (63)
convert the above⎢continuous-time
−𝑤 (𝑡)𝐿 −𝑅
CT model a discrete-time DT model. 𝐿 In this study
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ 𝐿
a forward Euler approximation was𝐿used to
⎦ simplify 𝐿 ⎦
⎣ the analysis. This approach takes into
account the future sample (k + 1) as well as the present sample (k), as seen below:
The next step in MPC implementation is to use a suitable discretization algorithm to
Ts ) − x ( Ts )
 
dx ( t
convert the above continuous-time) x ( kT +
≈ CT model into a , discrete-time DT model. (64)
In this
s 
x e isd , isq
dt
study a forward Euler approximation t=kTs was usedTs to simplify the analysis. This approach
takes into account the future sample (k + 1) as well as the present sample (k), as seen be-
This later can be simplified as:
low:
 
dx (t)
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) x (k + 1) ≈
𝑥(𝑘𝑇 +𝑇Ts) − 𝑥(𝑇 )
x (k )+ (65)
≈ dt t,=𝑥k 𝜖 𝑖 , 𝑖 (64)
𝑑𝑡 𝑇
After carrying out the required discretization, the discrete time DT model of the PMSG
This
can belater canfrom
derived be simplified as: as:
Equation (62)
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 
isd (k + 1𝑥(𝑘
) + 1) ≈isd𝑥(𝑘) (k) + 𝑇 vsd (k) (65)
   
= φ(k) + Γb 𝑑𝑡 + Γw (k ) (66)
isq (k + 1) isq (k) vsq (k)
After carrying out the required discretization, the discrete time DT model of the
With,
PMSG can be derived 
from Equation (62) as: R T we (k ) Lsq Ts


 1 − Ls s L
𝑖 (𝑘 + 1)
( k ) ≈ [ I + A ( k ) T ] 𝑖 (𝑘)we (k) Lsdds Ts𝑣 (𝑘) sdRs Ts 
≈

 φ s 
= 𝜙(𝑘) +Г + Г (𝑘)

 − 1 − (66)
𝑖 (𝑘 + 1) 𝑖 (𝑘)
" T Lsq #𝑣 (𝑘) Lsq




s
0

With, Γb ≈ BTs ≈ Lsd Ts (67)
 0
" Lsq


 #
0


Γw (k) ≈ w(k ) Ts ≈


− we (kL)sqϕr Ts



Energies 2022, 15, 6238 24 of 41

Considering the DT model of the PMSG machine given by Equation (66), the future
behavior of the PMSG currents is predicted by calculating the future value of the currents.
Hence, the predictive dq-axes currents can be represented as follows:
 p     p 
isd (k + 1) isd (k) vsd (k)
p = φ ( k ) + Γ b p + Γw (k ) (68)
isq (k + 1) isq (k) vsq (k)

where superscript p denotes the predicted variable.

The predicted MSC voltages vds and vqs are obtained in terms of switching states and
DC-link voltage (uC ) by the following model:
 p   p 
vsd (k) ssd (k )
p = u C ( k ) p (69)
vsq (k) ssq (k )
p
uC (k ) is the capacitor voltage; ss,dq (k) is the dq axis state switching. its expression is as
follows:
 p  " #s p (k)
1 1 sa
cosθe (k) sinθe (k ) 2 1 − −
 
ssd (k) √2 √2  s p ( k )
p = 3 3 sb
(70)
ssq (k) −sinθe (k) cosθe (k) 3 0 2 − 2 p
ssc (k )
By substituting Equation (69) into Equation (68), the predicted stator currents model
becomes: p      p 
isd (k + 1) isd (k ) ssd (k )
p = φ(k) + Γb uc (k ) p + Γw (k ) (71)
isq (k + 1) isq (k ) ssq (k)
On the other hand, the current references at (k) sampling instant are extrapolated to
(k + 1) sampling instant by using first-order Lagrange extrapolation [201–206].
 ∗ ( k + 1) = 2i ∗ ( k ) − i ∗ ( k − 1)
îsd sd sd (72)
∗ ( k + 1) = 2i ∗ ( k ) − i ∗ ( k − 1)
îsq sq sq

∗
where, îs,dq is the extrapolated reference currents while is,dq ∗ is the generator reference
∗ is
currents. to achieve a unity power factor in all operating conditions, the direct current isd
∗
fixed to zero, whereas the isq is obtained by the MPPT control.
Finally, to minimize the error between predicted and extrapolated references currents,
a cost function is used:
h i2 h i2
∗ p ∗ p
g MSC (k) = îsd (k + 1) − isd (k + 1) + îsq (k + 1) − isq (k + 1) (73)

5.2.2. Grid-Side Control Scheme

The dynamic model of the dq-axis grid currents in the continuous-time domain is
given by:
       
d i gd (t) i (t) v (t) v (t)
= C (t) gd + D fd − D gd (74)
dt i gq (t) i gq (t) v f q (t) v gq (t)
where  −R 
f 1
" #
Lf wg Lf 0
C (t) =  −R f , D =
 1 (75)
−w g 0 Lf
Lf

By following the same procedure that was used for determining the MSC predictive
controller, the GSC cost function can be presented as follows:
h i2 h i2
p p
gGSC (k) = î∗gd (k + 1) − i gd (k + 1) + î∗gq (k + 1) − i gq (k + 1) (76)

Figure 14 illustrates the general structure of MPC of the PMSG-wind energy conversion
system.
 By following the same procedure that was used for determining the MSC predictive
controller, the GSC cost function can be presented as follows:

𝑔 (𝑘) = 𝚤̂∗ (𝑘 + 1) − 𝑖 (𝑘 + 1) + 𝚤̂∗ (𝑘 + 1) − 𝑖 (𝑘 + 1) (76)

Energies 2022, 15, 6238 Figure 14 illustrates the general structure of MPC of the PMSG-wind energy25 con-
of 41
version system.

PMSG-wind energy
Figure 14. Synoptic schema of MPC applied to the PMSG-wind energy conversion
conversion system.
system.

6.
6. MPPT
MPPT Control
Control
According
According toto Betz’s
Betz’s law,
law, turbines
turbinescan
cannot
notconvert
convertmore
morethan
than16/27
16/27 (59.3%)
(59.3%) of the
of the ki-
kinetic
netic energy into mechanical energy. This factor is known as Betz’s coefficient andand
energy into mechanical energy. This factor is known as Betz’s coefficient de-
noted 𝐶 C pmax
denoted = 0.593.
= 0.593. InIn fact,wind
fact, windturbines
turbinesachieve
achievepeak
peakvalues for 𝐶C pin
values for in the
the range
range ofof
0.45 to 0.50, about 75–85% of the theoretically possible maximum. In this study,
0.45 to 0.50, about 75–85% of the theoretically possible maximum. In this study, the WT the WT
produces
produces maximum
maximum power when C
power when 𝐶p_max
_
= 0.48.
= 0.48. As
As shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 15,
15, this
this maximum
maximum
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 can be obtained when β and λ are equal to their optimum (λopt = 0.8, β = 0◦ ). Therefore,
can be obtained when β and λ are equal to their optimum (𝜆 = 0.8, β = 0°). Therefore,
in order to keep the power coefficient at maximum, the maximum power point tracking
in order to keep the power coefficient at maximum, the maximum power point tracking
control strategy (MPPT) must be used [207–209].
control strategy (MPPT) must be used [207–209].

15.The
Figure 15.
Figure Therelationship between
relationship the λ, the
between λ,Cβp . and Cp.
β and

The MPPT algorithm extracts maximum power from available wind speed and turns
The MPPT
the generator at its algorithm
optimum speedextracts maximum
[13]. As depicted in power
Figure 15,from available
the WT produceswind
the spee
turns the generator
maximum power when atthe
itspower
optimum speed
coefficient Cp [13]. Asmaximum
is at its depictedvaluein Figure
C p_max 15,
whichthe WT p
depends
es on the λopt power
the maximum value. Therefore,
when thethepowerturbine’s rotational speed
coefficient Cp ismustat itsbemaximum
constantly value
adjusted according to wind speed changes to the specific value that ensure the optimum
which depends on the 𝜆 value. Therefore, the turbine’s rotational speed must b
tip speed ratio (TSR) λopt . In the literature, various MPPT algorithms for WT have been
stantly adjusted according to wind speed changes to the specific value that ensu
optimum tip speed ratio (TSR) 𝜆 . In the literature, various MPPT algorithms f
have been proposed. A review of MPPT Algorithms for WECS is given in [14]. Th
MPPT algorithm without speed measurement is widely used, and it is known
 es the maximum power when the power coefficient Cp is at its maximum value
which depends on the 𝜆 value. Therefore, the turbine’s rotational speed must
stantly adjusted according to wind speed changes to the specific value that ens
optimum tip speed ratio (TSR) 𝜆 . In the literature, various MPPT algorithms
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 have been proposed. A review of MPPT Algorithms for WECS is given 26 of in
41 [14]. T

MPPT algorithm without speed measurement is widely used, and it is known

simplicity, as well as its constant reliability and efficiency. As shown in Figure
proposed. A review of MPPT Algorithms for WECS is given in [14]. The TSR MPPT
control strategy estimates the wind speed in real time and imposes a reference
algorithm without speed measurement is widely used, and it is known for its simplicity, as
that allows
well as the PMSG
its constant to rotate
reliability aroundAsitsshown
and efficiency. optimal speed.
in Figure 16, this control strategy
Then,
estimates the the
windestimated
speed in realvalue of the
time and winda reference
imposes speed istorque
giventhatby:allows the PMSG
to rotate around its optimal speed.
Ω .𝑅
𝑣 is given
Then, the estimated value of the wind speed = by:
𝜆
Ωopt · R
vest = (77)
The expression of the optimum power
λopt that can be extracted from the wind i
lows:
The expression of the optimum power that can be extracted from the wind is as
follows: 1
𝑃 1_ = 2 . 𝜑. 𝜋. 𝑅 . 𝐶 3_ (𝜆, 𝛽). 𝑣
Pturb_opt = · ϕ·π · R 2
·C p_max (λ, β)·vw (78)
2
Theexpression
The expression ofreference
of the the reference electromagnetic
electromagnetic torque becomes:
torque becomes:

Pturb_opt 𝑃 1 _ 1 1 1
𝑇 = = = · ϕ·π · R=2 ·C p_max
. 𝜑. 𝜋.λ𝑅opt., 𝐶
β ·_v3w · 𝜆 , 𝛽 . 𝑣 . (79)


Tturb_opt
Ω 2Ω 2 Ω Ω

Figure 16.The
Figure 16. TheMPPT
MPPTstrategy without
strategy speed measurement.
without speed measurement.
7. Results and Discussion
To show the effect of each classical control (SMC, DPC, BSC and MPC) on the dynamic
and static performance of the WECS, a simulation test was performed under a variable
wind profile in MATLAB/Simulink software. Figure 17a shows the wind profile that was
used in this simulation.
The principal characteristics of this simulation are described as follows:
• The WECS parameters are mentioned in the Appendix A.
• The wind speed varies between 3.5 m/s and 8.5 m/s for 10 s.
• Grid frequency f = 50 Hz.
• To commute IGBT devices of two-level converters, pulse width modulation (PWM)
was used in both SMC and BSC.
• A phase-locked loop (PLL) was used to synchronize the GSC to the grid in all control
schemes except the DPC control scheme.
Figure 17b shows that the mechanical angular speed shape perfectly follows the set
wind profile. The low value of the speed is due to a large number of poles in the machine.
It can be seen from Figure 17c that the tip speed ratio λ (lambda) and the power coefficient
 7. Results and Discussion
To show the effect of each classical control (SMC, DPC, BSC and MPC) on the dy-
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 namic and static performance of the WECS, a simulation test was performed under a
27 of 41
variable wind profile in MATLAB/Simulink software. Figure 17a shows the wind profile
that was used in this simulation.
Cp areThe principal
equal to theircharacteristics
optimal value of this simulation
references, 8.1 andare described
0.48, as follows:
respectively, despite wind speed
•
changes.
The Furthermore,
WECS parameters the mechanical power
are mentioned inhas
theaAppendix
form similar
A. to that of wind Figure 17d.
•
These results
The wind ensure
speedthat the between
varies system operates
3.5 m/saround
and 8.5its optimum
m/s for 10 s.rotational speed, proving
• MPPT
the control’s efficiency.
Grid frequency f = 50 Hz.
• Figure 18a,b shows
To commute IGBT devicesthe active
ofand reactive
two-level powers of pulse
converters, the different controls. Figure
width modulation (PWM)18a
illustrates the active power,
was used in both SMC and BSC.which has the same shape as the wind profile. However,
•
negative active powerloop
A phase-locked means thatwas
(PLL) the used
machine is in generator
to synchronize themode.
GSC to Figure 18b in
the grid illustrates
all con-
the reactive power,except
trol schemes whichthehasDPC
a zero value,
control ensuring a unit power factor.
scheme.

(a) (b) (c)

(d)
Figure 17.
Figure 17. MPPT’s
MPPT’s performance:
performance:windwindspeed
speed(m/s)
(m/s)(a),
(a),power
powercoefficient
coefficientCCp (λ, β) and tip speed ra-
p (λ, β) and tip speed ratio
tio TSR
TSR (b),(b), Mechanical
Mechanical Speed
Speed of the
of the PMSGPMSG
(c), (c), Mechanical
Mechanical Power
Power (d). (d).

Figure
For 17b shows
all types that the
of classical mechanical
controls (SMC,angular
DPC, BSC, speedandshape
MPC) perfectly follows
Figure 18a showsthethat
set
wind
the profile.
active power The low its
tracks value of thegenerated
reference speed is due
by theto MPPT
a largestrategy
numberprecisely
of polesand in without
the ma-
achine . It caneffect
coupling between
be seen from the two17c
Figure axes, while
that thespeed
the tip stator ratio 𝜆 (lambda)
reactive power Qs and(Figure 18b)
the power
remains
coefficientclose
Cp to
arezero to to
equal keep theoptimal
their unit power
valuefactor, thus 8.1
references, optimizing
and 0.48,the quality of the
respectively, de-
generated
spite windelectrical energy. Furthermore,
speed changes. The notable difference that can
the mechanical be observed
power fromsimilar
has a form these figures
to that
(Figure
of wind18a,b)
Figureis17d.
that These
the PMSG wind
results turbine
ensure that system
the systemperforms better
operates power
around itsoscillation
optimum
and overshoot under MPC than the other controls.
rotational speed, proving the MPPT control’s efficiency. The chattering problem (high power
oscillation)
Figure appears clearly
18a,b shows theinactive
the shape of both Ps
and reactive (SMC) and
powers Qs(SMC)
of the of the
different SMC. Almost
controls. Figure
the
18a same problem
illustrates can bepower,
the active observed in the
which hascurve of both
the same the as
shape active and the
the wind reactive
profile. power
However,
(Ps(DPC) , Qs(DPC) ) produced in the case of DPC control. And, as has been explained, these
two phenomena are caused by the discontinuous function used in the SMC structure,
and the hysteresis controllers used in the DPC design. However, the system’s response
time (Tr(MPC) = 0.05 s) of the predictive technique is a little slower than that of SMC,
BSC, and DPC control which are characterized by a fast response time (Tr(SMC) = 0.025 s,
Tr(BSC) = 0.03 s and Tr(DPC) = 0.048 s) (see zoom(1) Figure 18a). This delay is due to the
excessive computational load of the MPC techniques.
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 28 of 41

Energies 2022, 15, 6238 negative active power means that the machine is in generator mode. Figure2818b of 41 illus-
trates the reactive power, which has a zero value, ensuring a unit power factor.

(a)

(b)
Figure 18.18.
Figure Active
ActiveStator
Statorpower
power Ps (a), Reactive
Ps (a), ReactiveStator
Stator Power
Power QsQs
(b).(b).

ForFigure 19 shows
all types that thecontrols
of classical magnitude of the
(SMC, injected
DPC, BSC,current
and MPC)varies according
Figure to the that
18a shows
thevariation of the wind
active power while
tracks itsthe frequencygenerated
reference remains constant
by theat fs = 50 Hz
MPPT for the four
strategy types and
precisely
of control. At the same time, the waveform of the injected current takes a better
without a coupling effect between the two axes, while the stator reactive power Qs (Fig- sinusoidal
shape under MPC and BSC than that of both the SMC and DPC, where some unwanted
ure 18b) remains close to zero to keep the unit power factor, thus optimizing the quality
distortion appears in their shapes (see zoom Figure 19a–d).
of the generated electrical energy. The notable difference that can be observed from
these figures (Figure 18a,b) is that the PMSG wind turbine system performs better power
oscillation and overshoot under MPC than the other controls. The chattering problem
(high power oscillation) appears clearly in the shape of both Ps(SMC) and Qs(SMC) of the
SMC. Almost the same problem can be observed in the curve of both the active and the
reactive power (Ps(DPC), Qs(DPC)) produced in the case of DPC control. And, as has been
explained, these two phenomena are caused by the discontinuous function used in the
SMC structure, and the hysteresis controllers used in the DPC design. However, the sys-
tem’s response time (Tr(MPC) = 0.05 s) of the predictive technique is a little slower than
that of SMC, BSC, and DPC control which are characterized by a fast response time
 (Tr(SMC) = 0.025 s, Tr(BSC) = 0.03 s and Tr(DPC) = 0.048 s) (see zoom(1) Figure 18a). This delay
is due to the excessive computational load of the MPC techniques.
Figure 19 shows that the magnitude of the injected current varies according to the
variation of the wind while the frequency remains constant at fs = 50 Hz for the four
types of control. At the same time, the waveform of the injected current takes a better si-
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 29 of 41
nusoidal shape under MPC and BSC than that of both the SMC and DPC, where some
unwanted distortion appears in their shapes (see zoom Figure 19a–d).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 19.
19. Injected
Injected current
current iig-abc by: SMC (a); DPC (b); BSC (c); MPC (d).
g-abc by: SMC (a); DPC (b); BSC (c); MPC (d).

On the other
otherhand,
hand,ititisisimportant
importanttotoperform
perform a harmonic
a harmonic analysis
analysis to check
to check whether
whether the
the injected
injected current’s
current’s THDTHD rate meets
rate meets the standard
the IEEE IEEE standard limit≤(TDH
limit (TDH 5%). ≤Figure
5%). Figure 20 il-
20 illustrates
lustrates thatharmonic
that the total the total distortion
harmonic achieved
distortionbyachieved
MPC andby BSCMPC(THDand BSC (THD
= 1.23%, THD == 1.23%,
1.91%)
THD = 1.91%) is considerably lower than that achieved by SMC and DPC
is considerably lower than that achieved by SMC and DPC (THD = 3.12%, THD = 2.77%). (THD = 3.12%,
THD = 2.77%).
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 30 of 41

Figure 20. Spectrum analysis for the current injected ig-a by: SMC (a); DPC (b);BSC (c); MPC (d).

Considering the number of references cited in this work and the simulation results
obtained, it was necessary to add a comparative analysis to this work to have a clear idea
of the properties of each classical control and see its effect on the PMSG wind energy
conversion system, as well as to see the level of agreement between the results obtained
and what is written in the literature. The following table presents a comparative analysis
between the four presented controls (Table 9):

Table 9. Comparison of the four reviewed controls.

Simulations Results Literatures

ξ TDH Ease of
Controller Tr (s) Remarkable Properties Disadvantages
% % Implementation
Strong performance in the face
of uncertainties and
Requires the mathematical
disturbances.
SMC 0.025 0.25 3.12 Simple model of the system.
The system stability is
Chattering problem.
guaranteed by using lyapunov
function.

Energies 2022, 15, 6238. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15176238 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 6238 31 of 41

Table 9. Cont.

Simulations Results Literatures

ξ TDH Ease of
Controller Tr (s) Remarkable Properties Disadvantages
% % Implementation
Easier implementation and
low complexity. Variable switching frequency.
DPC 0.048 0.32 2.77 Very Simple PWM modulation blocks and Large active and reactive
internal regulating loops are power ripple bands.
not included.
Uncertainties can be handled. Requires the mathematical
Stability is ensured at every model of the system.
BSC 0.030 0.17 1.91 Complicated
design step using the Complex design.
Lyapunov function. Explosion of terms.
Easier implementation.
Requires the mathematical
Excellent performance under
MPC 0.05 1.15 1.25 Simple model of the system.
varying wind conditions.
Excessive computational load.
High flexibility.

8. Conclusions
This study presented an overview of the most popular control strategies that have been
used to control the WECS based PMSG. The four controls, SMC, DPC, BSC, and MPC, were
successfully reviewed and evaluated. First, the principles of each control were explained,
followed by a discussion of the benefits and drawbacks of using these types of controls
in the PMSG wind energy conversion system. Additionally, the various improvements
applied to the classical controls proposed in the literature were highlighted. The MPPT
control was also used in this work to get maximum power under a rapidly changing wind
profile.
Furthermore, to check on the performance of each control, a simulation test of the
four classical controls was performed in the MATLAB/Simulink software using a variable
wind profile. Finally, a performance comparison between the four classical controls was
presented. The simulation results show that the predictive control outperforms the con-
ventional controls in terms of accuracy, simplicity, precision, reference point tracking, and
the quality of the injected currents. Furthermore, it overcame the drawbacks of traditional
control techniques, exemplified by the chattering phenomena of the SMC control, the
high-power ripples caused by the DPC’s hysteresis comparators, and the complexity of
the backstepping. The simulation results were quite identical to what was published in the
literature. Hence, this work can be considered a useful reference for novice researchers in
the energy field to move ahead in the next decade.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.M., H.E.A., H.S., N.Z.L.; methodology, B.M., H.E.A.,
H.S., N.Z.L.; software, B.M., H.E.A., H.S., N.Z.L.; validation, B.M., B.B.; formal analysis, B.M., H.E.A.,
H.S., N.Z.L.; investigation, B.M., H.E.A., H.S., N.Z.L.; resources, B.M., H.E.A., H.S., N.Z.L.; data
curation, B.M., H.E.A., H.S., N.Z.L.; writing—original draft preparation, B.B., Y.E.M., S.M., M.B.;
writing—review and editing, B.B., Y.E.M., S.M.; visualization, M.K., B.B., Y.E.M.; supervision, B.B.,
S.M.; project administration, B.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 32 of 41

Nomenclature

Pturb Ψ(d,q) d-q axis flux

vw /Pwind ∅f Generator flux
Ω Pg Active grid power
Ωt Qg Reactive grid power
Tem UC DC-link voltage
Tem_ref Vg (d,q) d-q axis grid voltage
Tturb Vf (d,q) d-q axis filter voltage
Cp (λ, β) ig (d,q) d-q axis grid current
λ if (d,q) d-q axis filter current
β ωg Grid pulsation
ρ Rf Filter resistance
p Lf Filter inductance
S WT Wind turbine
R WECS Wind energy conversion system
Ωe MPPT Maximum power point tracking
Ps MPC Model predictive control
Qs SMC Sliding mode control
Rs DPC Direct power control
Ls (d,q) BSC Backstepping control
Vs (d,q) Tr Response time
is (d,q) THD Total harmonic distortion
fc PMSG Permanent magnet synchronous generator
IGBT PWM Pulse width modulation

Appendix A

Table A1. PMSG and Wind Turbine parameters.

PMSG Parameters Symbol Values Turbine Parameters Symbol Values

Power generator Pn 1.5 MW
Radius of the turbine blade R 55 m
Pole number P 75
Stator resistance Rs 6.25 × 10−3 Ω Turbine+ generator moment Jtot 10,000 N.m
d axis inductance Lsd 4.229 × 10−3 H Specific density of air ρ 1.22 kg/m3
q axis inductance Lsq 4.229 × 10−3 H Tip-speed ratio λopt 8
Generator flux ∅f 11.1464 Wb
Optimal power coefficient Cp_max 0.426
Coefficient of friction fc 0.0142 N.m.s/rad

Wind turbine modelling:

The kinetic power Pwind captured by the turbine and the mechanical power Pturb
delivered to the PMSG are quantified by the two equations below.

1
Pwind = ·ρ·π · R2 ·v3w (A1)
2
1
·ρ·π · R2 ·C p ( A, β)·v3w
Pturb = C p ( A, β)· Pwind = (A2)
2
The mechanical torque Tturb is expressed as the quotient of the power transmitted to
PMSG by its rotor mechanical speed, as follows.

Pturb 1 1
Tturb = = ·ρ·π · R2 ·C p (λ, β)·v3w · (A3)
Ω 2 Ω
C p ( A, β) represents the power coefficient of the wind turbine, which describes the
capacity of the turbine to transform the wind kinetic power to mechanical power. Its
Energies 2022, 15, 6238 33 of 41

expression depends on the tip speed ratio λ and the pitch angle β [2–6], and it is often
approximated by a specific non-linear function as follows:

    1 0.035
1 0.035 −21( λ+0.08 · β − 1+ β3 )
C p (λ, β) = 0.5176 116 − − 0.4β − 4 e + 0.0068λ (A4)
λ + 0.08· β 1 + β3

The tip-speed ratio λ is defined as the ratio between the blades’ speed and the wind
speed:
Ω· R
λ= (A5)
vw
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator Model:
Based on the simplifying conditions, assumptions, and physical laws, the dynamic
model of PMSG in the d-q reference frame can be described as follows:
• Stator Electric equations:
(
dΨsd
vsd = Rs ·isd + − p·Ω·Ψsq
dt
dΨsq ; we = p · Ω (A6)
vsq = Rs ·isq + dt + p·Ω·Ψsd
• Stator Magnetic equations:

Ψsd = Lsd ·isd + ∅ f


(A7)
Ψsq = Lsq ·isq
• Mechanical equations:

dt = Tmec = Tturb − Tem − f c · Ω

Jtot · dΩ

(A8)
Jtot = Jturb + Jg
The electromagnetic torque is then calculated as

3 h
i
Tem = · p Lsd − Lsq isd ·isq + isq ·∅ f (A9)
2
The active and reactive powers of the stator can be expressed as follows:

Ps = 23 vsd ·isd + vsq ·isq 

  
(A10)
Qs = 32 vsq ·isd − vsd ·isq

Grid Model:
The grid voltages in the d-q referential can be presented as follows:
di gd
(
v gd = v f q + R f ·i gd − L f dt + w g · L f ·i gq
di (A11)
v gq = v f q + R f ·i gq − L f dtgq − w g · L f ·i gd

The active and reactive powers supplied into the grid are:
 h i
 Pg = 3 v gd ·i gd + v gq ·i gq
2h i (A12)
 Q g = 3 v gq ·i gd − v gd ·i gq
2

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