Awka Journal of History (AJOH) Maiden Issue, Vol.1, No.1, Aug.

2023

TERRORISM IN WEST AFRICA IN THE 21ST

CENTURY: A STUDY OF BOKO HARAM IN
NORTHEAST NIGERIA 2009-2021
Evelyn Onwaniban1

Abstract
Terrorism has posed serious challenges to regional and global
security and stability. The security and development of the West
African Region have been grossly affected by terrorist activities.
This paper examines the phenomenon of terrorism in West
Africa during the 21st century with a particular focus on the
activities of Boko Haram in Northeast Nigeria between 2009
and 2021 when the group was most active. Apart from
ethnic/religious intolerance and religious extremism, which
informed the rise of terrorist groups, issues ranging from weak
government institutions and structures, poor policies and weak
implementation, corruption, scarce economic resources,
political marginalization,` inequality, injustice, poor
infrastructural development, neglect and lingering unresolved
issues among others had been adduced to be largely responsible
for the rise of violent insurgency which degenerated into
terrorism. The effect of terrorism has further crippled the weak
economy as apart from the destruction of existing structures
and disruption of normal activities, resources which are
supposed to be used for development are channeled into
combating terrorism and insurgency. The study adopts the
interdisciplinary approach utilizing both primary and
secondary sources for the qualitative analysis. The study
examined the nature of crises in the country and the activities of
Boko Haram in destabilizes regional stability and development,
among others. The study emphasises the need for transparency
and accountability of government in every sector, strengthened
institutions, inclusivity, independence of the judiciary, effective
law enforcement, religious regulation, development of

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indigenous systems for job creation and good governance

generally as a panacea for stability in the region.
Key words: Boko Haram, Terrorism, Nigeria, Security, West
Africa
Introduction
The 21st century has witnessed increased violence and death
associated with terrorism unprecedented in human history.
Terrorism attained its peak in 2014 globally, with 95 countries
attacked by terrorists, with more than 60% of the attacks and
78% of all fatalities in Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, and
Nigeria. 2
The quantum of terror unleashed in terms of scope and
dimension has tended to undermine human capital and
development. The fight against terrorism has become the highest
priority of most states in the 21st century as it undermines the
sovereignty of states, destroys existing structures and has
hampered further developments in states because resources,
which should be used ordinarily for other sectors, are being
channeled to security issues. Whereas the resources for state
development are being diverted to combat terrorism, the
mismanagement of these resources (human capital and natural
resources) are partly the problems that stir up violent actions
that often time lead to terrorism, among other forms of violence.
This is true of terrorism perpetrated in the African continent.
In 2021, Sub-Saharan Africa accounted for 48% of global
terrorism deaths. The region is acclaimed as the home to the
world’s fastest-growing and most-deadly terrorist groups, with
the Islamic State (IS) and Al-Shabaab, among others inflicting
terror in the continent at large and Boko Haram, notably in
Nigeria.3 The effects of the activities of these groups go far
beyond the nation-state where they originate. Apart from the
psychological impact on humans, terrorist activities distort
existing development, undermine fundamental human rights

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and hamper long and short-term human capital development as

well as social-cultural, economic and political goals. 4 Not only do
they generate refugee problems and massively displace persons
internally, but they also result in the incidence of cross-border
attacks by local militias and influence smaller armed groups
against neighbouring countries. It is the recognition of the
devastating effects of terrorism and the global influence of
terrorist groups that the United Nations, in partnership with
other regional organizations and states, has come up with
different strategies to curb this menace. Understanding the
causes of terrorism would enable states better tackle its effects
and attend to the core needs for sustainable developments.

Conceptualisation of Term: Terrorism

Terrorism is an age-long instrument used in the past to coerce;
the word terrorism was first used in the eighteenth-century
French Revolution to describe the reign of terror when the
“revolutionary government drafted violence and harsh measures
against citizens suspected of being enemies of the revolution.”5
The revolutionary wars in Europe in earlier times, the events of
the First and Second World Wars as well as the Cold War all
contributed to the advancement of terrorism. Its global outlook
was intensified in the 1980s and 1990s following the revolution
in information and communication, which rapidly integrated the
world into a global village. Triggered subtly by the Cold War, the
disintegration of the Soviet Union changed the outlook of warfare
and terrorism, with increased non-state actors hijacking and
employing modern technologies to wreak havoc at the national
and international levels.6 Ranging from the people’s will and
assassination of political leaders to indiscriminate attacks and
suicide bombings, terrorists have adopted different technology,
techniques and tactics and used different arms, riffles, bombs
and explosives to cause chaos in various societies.7 While there is
no universally accepted definition of terrorism, as it has become
difficult to differentiate it from other armed group and political
violence which often overlap in their activities, existing

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declarations and conventions provides for protection against

terrorism and proscribe punishments against states and non-
state actors who employ the use of terror against their targets.8
Terrorism involves the systematic use of violence or the threat
of violence, especially as a weapon of intimidation or a means
of coercion. 9 It is usually adopted by armed groups (state and
non-state armed groups), organizations or individuals in
possession of arms as a tool to achieve a goal. Terrorism is
commonly associated with all forms of warfare and can be a form
of protest, rebellion or specialized tactics in warfare.10 However,
the Geneva Convention of 1949 defines terrorism as the illegal
and indiscriminate use of violence by non-state actors against
people or property to create an emotional response through the
suffering of victims in furtherance of a political, economic,
religious or social agenda.11 It involves violence to a person’s life,
such as murder, mutilation, cruel treatment and torture,
hostage-taking and violation of other human rights by non-state
actors.12 Whether adopted by states or non-state actors,
terrorism inflicts psychological terror in victims and is by no
small means a major threat to world peace and security.
Several armed groups have emerged that have inflicted terror on
citizens through their actions going by the simple definition of
terrorism. However, not all the groups have been categorized as
terrorist groups. According to the Global Terrorist database, the
criminalization of terror, the indiscriminate attack on targets and
unlawful access to weapons are what makes terrorism different
from conventional warfare and other types of violence. Terrorists
target civilians and non-combatants as well as government
officials, the police and military bases/personnel. They attack
public places and structures such as markets, schools, religious
places of worship, oil installations and airports, among others,
and employ the tactics of abduction and hijacking of
planes/trucks/boats (usually those containing food or arms) to
sustain their existence.13 Terrorists intend to coerce, intimidate
or pass their message to a larger audience(s) than the immediate

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target, thus challenging existing authorities.14 Also, terror is used

as a strategy to carry out criminal activities and terrorism is
usually accompanied by but not limited to pre or post-attack
statements of the perpetrators; through videos, letters, emails,
phone calls or website/social media posts, among others, to
claim responsibility for such attacks or their past behaviours, and
the particular nature of the target including the victim, weapon
used or the nature of the attack.15 It is instructive to note that in
prolonged terrorist attacks as well as when faced with counter-
terrorism forces, terrorists adopt guerrilla tactics and other
clandestine means to sustain their fight.
Over the last three decades, the United Nations listed terrorist
groups, including the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL),
Taliban, al-Qaida and Hizballah, whose activities seriously
threatened world peace and security.16 Also, different political
parties and organizations like the Popular Front for the
Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil
Eelam (LTTE) have been associated with terrorist activities in the
past. Aside from its transnational attacks, the use of internet
technology (online/social media) to propagate, recruit,
manipulate and finance terrorist activities has led to the ranking
of ISIL as the greatest threat to world peace and security. 17 While
there are several national terrorist groups in different states in
Africa, the activities of Boko Haram and al-Shabaab have also
posed threats to world peace and security as they transcend
national boundaries.18
Generally, terrorists have the ideologies and practices they
propagate. These ideologies, which may include political,
religious, or social-economic in nature, may be different but have
similar characteristics. They utilize violence as their major tool to
instil fear and pursue their agenda and try to hold quasi-states
and territorial claims in their state of attack. The ISIL tried to
establish strongholds in Syria, Iraq and Libya; al-shabaab’s
homeland is Somalia but embarked on a series of operations in
Kenya and Boko Haram activities cut across the neighbouring

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countries of Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Cameroon.19 Terrorists also

seek to recruit others to support their course and manipulate
recruits to achieve their goals; this is especially so as reflected in
suicide bombing. More so, they brutally terrorize all those who
would not comply with their directives. They abduct, imprison,
execute and carry out all kinds of cruel tactics indiscriminately
against people regardless of their gender. These characteristics of
terrorism have been manifested by the Boko Haram terrorists
and its splinter groups in West Africa.
Terrorism is arguably triggered by deep-rooted grievances
caused by a combination of several factors, including inequality,
marginalization, nepotism, oppression, injustice, corruption,
uncontrolled radicalism and violent extremism, and
underdevelopment, which are products of poor governance.20
The inability of governments to build and strengthen their
political institutions as well as make evidence-based
policies/regulations that would enhance social cohesion and
economic development and implement the same within the
ambit of the law is at the core of all the vices that cause
grievances in society. In Nigeria, lingering unresolved
grievances that often time degenerate into violent reactions are
at the core of violence that degenerates into terrorism. The
underlying issues surrounding the Niger Delta Crises, despite
the Presidential Amnesty granted them in 2009, and even Boko
Haram terrorism, remains largely unabated. 21
Boko Haram Terrorism in Northeast Nigeria Up to 2021
The Boko Haram group, also known as Jamā'at Ahl as-Sunnah
lid-Da'wah wa'l-Jihād (JASDJ), was founded by radical Islamist
Mohammed Yusuf in 2002, with a jihadist outlook aiming to
purify Islam in Northern Nigeria and impose the Sharia law.
However, some arguments trace the origin of the group to the
1980 Maitanisine uprisings in Kano.22 Its tenet is akin to the
Jihadist drive of Uthman Dan Fodio of 1804. The group was
initially perceived as a local group of Islamic extremists and

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armed men waging war against the Nigerian State. This was
following its protests, riots and attacks on locals as well as
disruptions of normal activities in the states, among others, in
the 1990s, but later became more violent following the killing of
some of its members, including its leader, Mohammed Yusuf, in
2009. Boko Haram group thereafter metamorphosed into an
insurgent group and began incessant violent attacks in the
country. They launched sophisticated attacks against
government officials and structures, as well as indiscriminate
attacks against civilians in communities. They attacked
marketplaces, churches, mosques, schools, prisons, barracks,
military posts/outlets and other public places, as well as
kidnapping foreign nationals, nationals and school children.
Also, foreign structures like the United Nations Headquarters in
Abuja (on 26 August 2011) and the MNJTG headquarters in Baga
were attacked by Boko Haram terrorists.23
The Boko Haram terrorists accompanied its attacks with pre and
post attacks statements claiming responsibility for destructive
actions.24 Its leader Abubakar Shekau started threatening attacks
on Western influence and the United States and solidarized,
pledging allegiance with foreign terrorist groups via audio and
video messages; al-Qaida (July 2010), Taliban (20 July 2014),
the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL- March 7, 2015).25
Boko Haram was hitherto linked to Al Qaeda in the Islamic
Maghreb; in March 2012, the Deash (ISIL) accepted the pledge
of allegiance to Boko haram. Boko Haram was also reported to
have gained support from Al-Qaeda.26
By 2012, the group had shown increased operational capabilities,
inhabited the forests and sacked and occupied villages in the
northeast. They utilized sophisticated weapons, small and light
weapons, vehicle/animal-borne improvised explosive devices
(IEDs) and drones to carry out attacks on their targets. Boko
Haram terrorists adopt guerilla tactics and suicide (sometimes
female) bombings against their targets. The group also operated
illegal checkpoints and tax systems in places, captured people

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and regulated the affairs of the population. With the frequency

and intensity of attacks reaching their peak in 2014, the Boko
Haram group was termed one of the world’s deadliest terror
groups.27 In August 2016, owing to internal crises, the group split
into two factions; Islamic State in West Africa (ISWA) and Boko
Haram. However, both groups’ intentions remained the same, to
target the Nigerian government and spread their ideology
beyond the country.28 By mid-2021, the Boko Haram attacks had
begun to subside with a focus on intra-group conflicts over power
struggles that led to the death of its leader Abubakar Shekau
Boko Haram and later the ISWAP commander Abu Musab al-
Bamawi.29
The absence of governance in the forest areas and weak
government presence in local communities, especially in
bordering and creek localities, had made the places attractive
to the terrorists and insurgents. Ineffective public institutions
and facilities, poor policing and security base, limited health
facilities, schools, poor road network and weak court systems,
among others in these places created a vacuum for the Boko
Haram and other armed groups to naturally occupy. 30 Food and
water shortage, unemployment, hunger, poverty, inequality,
political corruption, marginalization and other social-
economic and political grievances made the people in the
northeast region, especially in rural communities, to become
vulnerable to manipulation, attacks, and subjugation to not
just the Boko Haram terrorist groups but other insurgents,
militants, other criminal agents in their states. The insurgents,
providing these basic needs to these communities, naturally
aroused the sympathy and support of the people to their
courses, but this was also a result of fear and violence adopted
to intimidate the people into supporting their course.31
The Boko Haram terrorist, principally on religious
fundamentalism, exploit the lapses in the rural communities
and forest areas to launch massive terrorism in the country.
Since 2009 when it began its insurgency to March 2022, Boko

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Haram is reported to have killed about 35,000 persons in

Northern Nigeria and displaced an estimated 3 million people in
the Adamawa, Borno, and Yobe states as well as in other parts of
the Lake Chad Basin with over 336,070 refugees domiciled in
states across Chad, Cameroon and Niger.32 The group have
carried out over seventy-eight major terrorist attacks in Nigeria,
notably in Borno, Yobe, Adamawa, Bauchi, Jos, Kano and
Kaduna states, as well as in Abuja and, much later, Katsina state.
33 Boko Haram expanded its terrorist attacks into states in the

north-central region of Nigeria, including the Federal Capital

Territory as well as Plateau and Niger States.34 Although the
Boko Haram Terrorists Group operate largely in Nigeria and has
carried out several attacks in the country, their activities and
attacks transcend the boundaries to neighbouring countries with
grave consequences for the region.35 They have carried out
several attacks and kidnaps, as well as killings and displacing
civilians in northern Cameroon, Chad and Niger, and later in
Burkina Faso, with attendant varied socio-economic effects on
the countries and security consequences for the entire West
Africa region.36
Effects of Boko Haram on Nigeria and the West Africa
Region
Boko Haram’s aspiration to establish a Sharia State in Nigeria
and its intention to extend it to West Africa and topple legitimate
governments is evident in its trans-border attacks/kidnaps and
affiliations/support of other terrorist groups, which aroused
great regional and global concerns. The splitting of the Boko
Haram group led to the multiplicity of terrorist groups in the
region with a tendency to influence insurrections and cross-
border attacks by local militias against the states.37 Although the
existence of armed groups naturally poses serious threats to the
security and legitimacy of the state, Boko Haram terrorism
instigates and emboldens other armed groups to lunch intensive
attacks against the government. The Boko Haram insurgency in
Nigeria was followed by a surge of violence and other criminal

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activities elsewhere in Nigeria, including banditry, ethnic

conflicts, armed robbery and farmer-herder conflicts. The
prolonged existence of terrorists and other armed groups and
ineffective counter-terrorism lasting over time have made
violence culture to become entrenched in society.
The Boko haram terrorism has led to the loss of huge human
capital and resources, thus undermining long-term and short-
term human capital development. The massive attacks and
displacement on communities in affected states, destruction of
facilities and structures, raiding of crops and disruption of
farming activities, among others. Boko Haram terrorism has
contributed massively to food crises and famines in the northeast
and Nigeria in general, and by implication, inflation in the West
Africa region. Although some countries in West Africa appear
to be relatively stable, such as Ghana, Benin Republic, and
Togo and do not suffer direct physical attacks from the Boko
Haram terrorists groups, the indirect consequences of the
attacks loom large; inflation as a result of food shortage,
massive emigration from affected states, and deepened
weakening of the security of the region. Boko Haram terrorism
has led to the displacement of about 3 million people, thereby
increasing the number of internally displaced persons and
refugees in the region as well as asylum seekers in the world, with
attendant humanitarian crises.38
The destruction of existing structures and the persistent nature
of attacks creates insecurity that discourages both foreign and
domestic investors and thus threatens national development. It
also disrupts other developments as more funds would be
diverted to the defence and security sector to the neglect of other
viable sectors; health, education, and economic sectors, among
others. The war against terrorism is not without a heavy toll on
the Nigerian economy, as the nation’s defence budget and
spending continuously increased in the last nine years. Between
2015 to 2022, the defence budget rose above 11 trillion naira

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despite the declining impact of such budgetary virtues and

accrued huge debt as a result of the same.39
In addition, terrorism poses serious threats to the ecosystem,
aggravating the problems of climate conditions. The use of
bombs and explosives by the Boko Haran terrorists not only
affects humans but added to the environmental challenge and
climate change. Studies have shown that climate change does not
directly lead to a higher level of conflict, but climate pressure
does. It also shows that countries enduring conflict are less able
to cope with climate change because their ability is adapt is
weakened by such conflicts.40 Also, forced migration as a result
of famine caused by encroaching desertification has increased
the struggle for land, food scarcity and hunger, among others
which exacerbate conflict, especially in other regions in Nigeria.
Violence associated with terrorism and other armed conflict has
been indicated as the major obstacle to the achievement of the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).41 It has also been
indicated as a factor to watch if the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) 2030 will be achieved. In this regard, the effective
collaboration of governments is needed to root out terrorism.
Also, leaders at different levels of society should work and
mobilize human and material resources to effectively root out
terrorism. Terrorism triggers criminality, robbery, kidnappings,
extortion, drug trafficking, money laundering, and arms
trafficking, as exemplified in the Boko Haram terrorism. Other
effects of Boko Haram terrorism include the psychological
impact on people and violations of fundamental human rights,
among others.
Efforts at Curbing Boko Haram Terrorism in Nigeria
Several efforts have been made to curb Boko Haram Terrorism,
which has both national and regional colouration. At the national
level, the government of Nigeria adopted different measures to
curb the menace of Boko Haram in the country. These have
been mostly military intervention and counter-measures

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attacks; declaration of a state of emergency in three northeast

states, namely Borno, Yobe, and Adamawa states and shutdown
of mobile phone coverage in 2013; assembling of a Joint Task
Force (JTF) of military, police and customs officers and several
deployments of troops for internal security operations since
2009 and police investigations and trials and since 2013, the
incorporation of community security, the Civilian Joint Task
Force into its security framework to effectively identify and
prosecute the war against terrorism through local intelligence
gathering and surveillance among others42. The attack on the
Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF) office and other attacks
in the region led to a reorganization of the sub-regional security
cooperation in 2015 to counter the terrorists. 43The MNJTF,
which had been since1994 to check trans-border crime and
security issues around the Lake Chad Basin States, Nigeria,
Cameroon, Chad, Niger and Benin, was revived to counter the
Boko Haram terrorist.44 Also, the Nigerian government sought
other regional collaborations and international assistance; Joint
Trans-Border Security Committee between Nigeria and
Cameroon in February 2012; assistance by the US troops
training, reconnaissance and airborne intelligence using
predator drones, and deployment of personnel to carry out
operations as well as Intelligence, surveillance; equipment
support to the Cameroon military from US AFRICOM; US,
Target acquisition and Reconssainance (ISTAR) training in
Chad and Niger respectively; training support provided by
France and UK and other support from China and Columbia. The
United Nations provided humanitarian support for refugees and
other displaced persons, likewise many INGOs. The Nigerian
government simultaneously committed to an upswing in defence
spending between 2009 and 2022.45 However, terrorism
remains the bane of peace and security in the country. The
problem of inadequate equipment and facilities, inadequate
synergy among relevant security agencies, poor intelligence and
weak citizenry support, among others, have contributed to the
ineffectiveness of the counter-terrorism/insurgency drive in the

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country.46 Also, the root causes of the problem are yet to be

addressed. The intense use of kinetic means without addressing
fundamental issues such as corruption, weak institutions,
poverty, social exclusion, marginalization, religious extremism,
poor infrastructure, nepotism, human rights abuse, injustice,
desertification and climate change, among others, has made the
kinetic intervention nearly futile. It has further increased distrust
for the government and further weakening of the state. However,
it should be noted that intensive collaborations among several
agencies and security services in the northeast region have led to
the de-escalation of Boko Haram terrorism as an increased
number of terrorists have laid down their arms and turned
themselves for rehabilitation and integration into society in the
ongoing Operations Safe Corridor. Also, the region is gradually
resuming its agricultural activities, among others.47
Conclusion
The 21st century has witnessed the greatest threats to world peace
and security associated with terrorism. The debilitating effects of
terrorism have led to the largest global and regional coalition of
governments, non-state actors and military efforts to curb
terrorism and terrorist threats. The Boko Haram terrorist have
consistently threatened the peace and stability of Nigeria and the
West Africa region for over a decade despite national, sub-
regional and foreign intervention military and technical
intervention. The realities in the fight against Boko Haram
terrorism revealed the weak socio-economic and political
structures of the country to combat threats to its sovereignty
which in itself was the cause of the rise of insurgency that
degenerated into terrorism. The weak economy was further
crippled as resources which were supposed to be used for the
development of other sectors were channeled into the fight
against terrorism. Poor leadership, weak law enforcement,
politicization, ill-equipped and undertrained security operatives,
and inadequate modern technology, among others, hindered the
effective fight against terrorism and other security threats in the

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country.48 The northeast region continues to be characterized by

poor infrastructural base, porous borders and weak security
architecture to be able to anticipate and manage risks and
respond timely to security threats, among others. The Nigerian
state should review its political leadership recruitment process,
harmonize the human and natural resources for development,
and provide holistic and evidence-based practicable policies and
programmes to address the lingering and emergent problems in
the varied states in the northeast and the nation-state at large. 49

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Endnotes

1
Evelyn Onwaniban is a Research Fellow at the Nigerian Army
Resource Centre Abuja. [email protected]
2 Annex of Statistical Information Country Reports on Terrorism

2014, National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and

Responses to Terrorism, University of Maryland. See also
Global Terrorist Index Report from the Institute of Economics
and Peace 25th December 2018
3 Relief Web March 2022, “Global Terrorism Index 2022”,

https://reliefweb.int/report/world/global-terrorism-
index-2022 (accessed March 22, 2022)
4 United Nations System Task Team on the Post-2015 United

Nations Agenda. “Peace and Security: Thematic Think Piece”,

May 2012
5 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), The Doha

Declaration: Promoting a Culture of Lawlessness, UN Vienna

2018.
6 Telford Taylor, Final Report to the Secretary of the Army on

the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials under Control Council

Law. No 10, 1949, 15-17.
7 Amanda Spencer, “The Hidden Face of Terrorism: An Analysis

of Women in Islamic State”. Journal of Strategic Security Vol

9, no. 3. Special Issue, 2016, 74
8 Telford Taylor, Final Report to the Secretary of the Army on

the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials under Control Council

Law. No 10, 1949, 1-10, 70
9 Merriam Webster Merriam

webster.com/dictionary/governance
10 Telford Taylor, Final Report to the Secretary of the Army on

the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials under Control Council

Law. No 10, 1949, 9-10
11 The Geneva Convention 1949. The English Dictionary

(Wiktionary). Global Terrorist Database July 2018

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12 The Geneva Convention of 12 August 1949. International

Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). 35-56
https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/publications/icrc-
002-0173.pdf (accessed 5 June 2022)
1999 International Convention for the Suppression of the
Financing of Terrorism and Security
13 Global Terrorist Database. “Code Book: Inclusive Criteria and

Variable” July 2018.

14 Annex of Statistical Information Country Reports on Terrorism

2014, National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and

Responses to Terrorism, University of Maryland
15 Global Terrorist Database, “Code Book: Inclusive Criteria and

Variable” July 2018, 16

16 Monty G. Marshall, “Global Terrorism: An Overview and

Analysis” Centre for Systemic Peace, Occasional Paper

Series No. 3, 2002, 2-5. See also, Country Reports on
Terrorism 2019. US Department of State
https://www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-
terrorism-2019/ (accessed June 5, 2023) 5
17 Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee. Boko Haram:

CTED www.un.org/sc/ctc/news/tag/boko-haram/ (accessed

3 August 2019). See also Amanda N. Spencer, “The Hidden
Face of Terrorism: An Analysis of Women in Islamic State”.
Journal of Strategic Security Vol 9, no. 3. Special Issue, 2016,
74-75
18 Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee. Boko Haram:

CTED and Amanda N. Spencer. “The Hidden Face of

Terrorism: An Analysis of Women in Islamic State”. Journal
of Strategic Security Vol 9, no. 3. Special Issue, 2016. 74-75
19 Chukwudi. Njoku and others, “Terrorism in Africa: Mapping

the Nigeria and Kenya Situation” in International Journal of

Development and Sustainability, Vol. 7, no. 3, 2018, 993-
1014. Schmid, Alex, “Root Causes of Terrorism: Some
Conceptual Notes, a Set of Indicators, and a Model.
Democracy and Security.” Volume 1, Issue 2, 2005, 2127-136
and Brynjar Lia and Katja Skjølberg, “Causes of Terrorism: An
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Expanded and Updated Review of the Literature?'

Kjeller,Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, 2004,
http://rapporter.ffino/rapporter/2004/040307.pdf.
(accessed 5 June 2023)
20 Crenshaw Martha, “The Causes of Terrorism.” Comparative

Politics 13, no. 4, 1981, 379–99. https://doi.org/10.2307/421717.

21 Dr. Dadiowei Tari and Mr. Toutimiye Ogbofa, interviewed by

Evelyn Onwaniban on 3 November 2020 in Bayelsa.

Agamene Gift interviewed by Evelyn Onwaniban on 4th
November 2020 and Egila Luckyman, on 6th November 2020
in Portharcourt was interviewed by Evelyn Onwaniban in
Portharcourt.
22 Walker Andrew, “What is Boko Haram?” United States

Institute of Peace Special Report 308, June 2012

www.usip.org
23 Country Report on Terrorism 2020. See also, Crises Group

African Briefing No. 137, “Preventing Boko Haram

Abductions of Schoolchildren in Nigeria” Relief Web 12 April
2018. All Party Parliamentary Group on Nigeria Meeting
Summary Report, 13 May 2014. And The United State
Security Council Report of the Secretary-General
S/2020/652”Children and Armed Conflcit in Nigeria,
https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9
B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/S_2020_652.pdf
(accessed 5 June, 2023)
24 Walker Andrew, “What is Boko Haram?” United States

Institute of Peace Special Report. See New Delhi Television (

NDTV) and Boko Haram Videos
https://www.ndtv.com/topic/boko-haram-video
25 Counter Terrorism Guide

https://www.dni.gov/nctc/groups/boko_haram.html
26 Eli Lake, “Boko haram’s Bin Laden Connection” Daily Beast,

July 12, 2017 https://www.thedailybeast.com/boko-

harams-bin-laden-connection

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27 Global Terrorism Index 2010. Global Terrorism Index 2015,

The Atlantic November 18, 2015. www.theatlantic.com,
Forbes Report www.forbes.com,
28 United Kingdom Foreign travel advice: Nigeria,
https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/nigeria (accessed
28 August 2022)
29 BBC News 14 October 2021, “Nigeria says ISWAP leader Abu

Musab al-Barnawi is dead”

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58576635
Accessed 1 July 2023
30 Mr Gadzama Aliu and Alhaji Mustapha Sani Bello were

interviewed by Evelyn Onwaniban on 5 May 2022 in Abuja,

Hajiya Usmanu Fatima, interviewed by Evelyn Onwaniban, on
6th May and Saminu Garba, interviewed by Evelyn
Onwaniban, on 7 March 2022,s Abuja
31 Interview held with Alhaji Mustapha Sani Bello on 5 May 2022
32 UNHCR -Nigerian refugees in Chad, Cameroon and Niger 31

March 2022 and Clémentine André, “Looking Beyond Boko

Haram in the Lake Chad Region”, Internal Displacement
Monitoring Centre, September 2019
https://www.internal-displacement.org/expert-
opinion/looking-beyond-boko-haram-in-the-lake-chad-
region
33 ICG Annual Reports and Accounts, 2020

https://www.icgam.com/wp-
content/uploads/2022/02/ICGAnnualReport-Complete-
2020.pdf
34 GCR2P, March 2022. globalr2p.org/countries/nigeria/. See

also, the United States Institute of Peace Special Report 308

June 2012
https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/SR308.pdf and
BBC News Pidgin 27 April 2021, “ Boko Haram don enta my
State, Abuja sef no Safe-Niger Governor
https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/tori-56884892 accessed 3
June 2023
161
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35 Note: The Lake Chad basin has been notorious as a safe haven
for criminal groups since the Trans Sahara Trade era. In
modern times, expelled rebels from the states in the region,
criminal networks groups and dissidents used the traditional
route to thrive in the area. Thus, aggravating the insecurity in
the region.
36 Global Terrorism Index 2022, Relief Web March, 2022,

https://reliefweb.int/report/world/global-terrorism-
index-2022 and Wassim Nasr, France 24 News, December
27, 2019 www.france24.com
37 United Kingdom Foreign travel advice: Nigeria
https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/nigeria (accessed
28 August 2022)
38 United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Fact

Sheet no. 32. “Human Rights and Counter-Terrorism”. Global

Terrorist Database. “Code Book: Inclusive Criteria and
Variable”. July 2019
39 Azimazi Momoh Jimoh and others “Worsening insecurity:

Seven-year N8tr defence spending, fresh N762b loan worry

Senate, CSOs” The Guardian 21 June 2021,
https://guardian.ng/news/worsening-insecurity-seven-
year-n8tr-defence-spending-fresh-n762b-loan-worry-
senate-csos/ (accessed 4 June 2023) and
Punch Editorial Board, “Huge military spending yielding no
result” The Punch, I8 January 2023
https://punchng.com/huge-military-spending-yielding-no-
result/ (accessed 5 June 2023) and Ajumoke Babatunde-
Lawal “Increasing Nigeria’s defence budget to improve
security” Business Day 20 May 2022,
https://businessday.ng/research-post/article/increasing-
nigerias-defence-budget-to-improve-security/ (accessed 5
June 2023)
40 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) Report 09

July 2020 https://www.icrc.org/en/document/climate-

change-and-conflict (accessed 5 June 2022).
162
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41 Sixty-Eight Session of the WHO Regional Committee for

Africa, Dakar, Republic of Senegal, 27-31 August 2018
https://www.afro.who.int/sites/default/files/sessions/final-
reports/AFR-RC68-
17%20Report%20of%20the%20Regional%20%20Committee
%20-%20Final-Web.pdf
42 Hassan Idayat, and Zacharias Pieri, "The rise and risks of
Nigeria’s civilian joint task force: Implications for post-
conflict recovery in Northeastern Nigeria." Boko Haram
Beyond the Headlines: Analyses of Africa’s enduring
insurgency, 2018, 74-86
43 African Union Pillar Paper for Screening, Prosecution,
Rehabilitation and Reintegration, Lake Chad Basin
Commission August 2018 annex-3-lcbc-strategy-pillar-paper-
screening-prosecution-rehabilitation-and-reintegration.pdf
44 Abdul Khalifa Ibrahim. “Confronting Terrorism in the Lake
Chad Basin-The Multinational Joint Task Force in
Perspective,” Multinational Joint Task Force November 21,
2022 https://mnjtffmm.org/confronting-terrorism-in-the-
lake-chad-basin-the-multinational-joint-task-force-in-
perspective/ (accessed 5 June, 2023)

163
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45 Africa Centre for Strategic Studies, May 7, 2017, Fundamental

Security Challenges Nigeria Must Face, Part 5: Strategies for
Combating Extremism and FES Nigeria Policy Brief, Defence
Budget and Spending: Implications and Options for Post
Covid-19 Nigeria, August 2020. Premium Times, 29 January
2022, www.premiumtimesng.com.
46 Trading Economics: Nigeria Military Expedition,
https://tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/military-expenditure
Army Recognition News, 5 January 2022 “Nigerian Defense
budget 2022 increased for additional equipment and
capabilities” https://www.armyrecognition.com/ l
47 Jiang Agu, Nyam Collins and Saminu Mallam (security
operatives) were interviewed by Evelyn Onwaniban on 28
February 2023 in Abuja, with Mr Gadzama Aliu on 5 May
2022 and 28 February 2023 by Evelyn Onwaniban in Abuja
48 OCED 2009. Issues in Government and Terrorism”

Governance at a Glance. pp 19-41

49 OCED 2009. Issues in Government and Terrorism”

Governance at a Glance. pp 19-41 and Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations, Accra, 2018, ´Creating a
forest landscape restoration movement in Africa: a call to
healing planet earth” Nature and Faune, Volume 32, Issue 1

164