CHAPTER 1

BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
➢ Biological classification is the method of arrangement of organisms into groups based of their
characters.
Aristotle’s classification
➢ Aristotle made the earliest attempt for a more scientific basis of classification.
➢ He used simple morphological characters to classify plants.
➢ He classified plants into herbs, shrubs and trees.
➢ He grouped animals into two groups, red blooded and non-red blooded.
Two kingdom classification
➢ Carolus Linnaeus developed Two Kingdom classification with kingdom Plantae and kingdom
Animalia. They included al plants and animals respectively.
➢ This system is easy to classify and understand organisms into plants and animals.
Demerits of two kingdom classification
➢ This classification does not distinguish between prokaryotes (without true nucleus) and eukaryotes
(with true nucleus).
➢ Two kingdom system does not differentiate between unicellular and multicellular organism.
➢ It did not differentiate between the non-photosynthetic fungi and photosynthetic green algae.

Five Kingdom Classification

➢ R.H. Whittaker proposed the five-kingdom classification in 1969.
➢ The main criteria used for classification include cell structure, thallus organization mode of
nutrition, phylogenetic relationships (evolutionary relationship) and reproduction.
➢ The kingdoms defined by him were named Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

Characteristics of the Five kingdoms

KINGDOM MONERA
➢ The kingdom includes all prokaryotes, bacteria, cyanobacteria and mycoplasma.
➢ Unicellular and the most primitive of living forms microscopic cells with cell wall.
➢ Well defined nucleus and membrane bound cell organelles are absent.
➢ Reproduction is asexual except gene recombination.

1
Bacteria: the most abundant micro-organism that can survive in all kinds of climate.
Based on shape bacteria are classified into 4 groups as follows.
1) Coccus (pl: Cocci ) - Spherical 2) Bacillus (pl: Bacilli) – Rod shaped
3) Vibrium (pl:Vibrio) – Comma shaped 4) Spirillum (pl: Spirilla) -Spiral shaped

Various types of Bacteria

A. Archaebacteria
➢ They are group of most primitive prokaryotes which live under unfavourable conditions.
➢ They differ from other bacteria in having different cell wall structure (absence of peptidoglycan).
➢ They are grouped into three.
1. Halophiles – live in extreme salty area
2. Thermoacidophiles – live in hot springs.
3. Methanogens - live in marshy area. They are present in the gut of several ruminant animals like cows
and buffalo, which is responsible for production of biogas (methane) from dung of these animals.
B. Eubacteria: They are called as true bacteria. They contain rigid cell wall, if motile contain flagellum.
Based on the nutrition they are classified into three.
Cyanobacteria or blue-green algae: photosynthetic bacteria.
➢ They contain chlorophyll a and carotenoids.
➢ They may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
➢ Fresh water, marine or terrestrial.
➢ Some have specialized heterocyst cells to perform nitrogen fixation (eg, Nostoc and Anabaena).

.
2
2. Chemosynthetic bacteria
➢ They oxidize inorganic substances like nitrate, nitrite, ammonia etc. to produce energy and help in
recycling of nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur etc.
3. Heterotrophic bacteria: They are most abundant and act as decomposer.
➢ They are helpful in production of curd, antibiotics and fixing nitrogen in leguminous plants.
➢ Some of them are pathogenic and cause disease like cholera, typhoid, tetanus in human and citrus
canker in plants.
Reproduction in bacteria
1. Fission: during favourable condition bacteria divides into two.
2. Spore formation: during unfavourable condition thick resting spores are formed.
3. Sexual reproduction: by a primitive type of DNA transfer from one bacterium to another
Mycoplasma
➢ They are the smallest living cells known. They lack cell wall and can survive without oxygen.
➢ They cause disease in plants and animals.

2. KINGDOM PROTISTA

➢ It includes all unicellular and colonial eukaryotes. Most of them are aquatic floating planktons.
➢ Mode of nutrition may be photosynthetic, saprophytic, parasitic or holozoic.
➢ Flagella may be present in some.
➢ It includes Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans.

Chrysophytes:
➢ They include diatoms and golden algae (desmids).
➢ They are found in fresh water as well as marine water.
➢ In diatoms cell wall forms two thin overlapping cells which fit together as in soap box.
➢ They are chief producer in oceans. Their cell walls contain silica and indestructible.
➢ The accumulation of cell walls of diatoms over billions of years is called diatomaceous earth.
➢ Diatomaceous earth is used for polishing, filtration of oil and syrups.
Dinoflagellates
➢ They are basically unicellular, marine, motile, biflagellate and photosynthetic protists.
➢ Predominate colour is golden brown but yellow, green, red and even blue also exists.
➢ Cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.
➢ Some red dinoflagellates like Gonyaulax grow in large number in the sea and make the sea appear red
is called “red tide”.
➢ Toxins released during red tide may even kill marine animals such as fishes.
Euglenoids
➢ They are fresh water unicellular flagellates eg, Euglena.
➢ They have protein rich layer called pellicle instead of cell wall which make their body flexible.
➢ They have two flagella, one short and a long one.
➢ They are photosynthetic in presence of sunlight and act as heterotrophic predators in absence of
sunlight.
Slime Moulds
➢ They are saprophytic protists and feeds on decaying twigs and leaves.
➢ Under favourable condition, they form an aggregation called plasmodium which produce fruiting bodies
bearing spores. The spores are highly resistant and survive for many years.

3
Protozoans
➢ All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.
➢ They are considered as primitive relatives of animals. There are four groups of protozoans.
1. Amoeboid protozoans
➢ They live in fresh water, sea water, or moist soil.
➢ They move and capture food by pseudopodia.
➢ Some are parasitic also. eg. Amoeba, Entamoeba (Parasite).

2. Flagellated protozoans
➢ They are free-living or parasitic and have flagella.
➢ The parasitic form Trypanosoma causes the disease sleeping sickness.

3. Ciliated protozoans
➢ They are aquatic and have cilia all over the body for movement. They have a cavity called gullet that
opens out of the cell surface, eg Paramoecium.

4. Sporozoans
➢ This includes organism that have an infectious spore like stage in their life cycle, eg, Plasmodium
causes malaria in human population.

a) Dinoflagellate b) Euglena c) Slime mould d) Paramoecium

3. KINGDOM FUNGI
➢ Fungi are heterotrophic organisms. Fungus is Latin word which means mushroom.
➢ Fungi have great diversity in structure and distribution.
➢ Examples (a)Yeast is a unicellular fungus - used to make bread and wine
(b) Puccinia – causes wheat rust disease.
(c) Penicillium - source antibiotic called Penicillin.
➢ Fungi consist of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae. Network of hyphae is mycelium.
➢ Coenocytic hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm.
➢ Others have septae or cross walls in their hyphae.
➢ The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin and polysaccharides.
➢ Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrates are saprophytes.
➢ The fungi that depend on living plants and animals are called parasites.
➢ Fungi can also live as symbionts in association with algae as lichens.
➢ Fungi live with roots of higher plants as mycorrhiza.
Reproduction in fungi
➢ Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means - fragmentation, fission and budding.
➢ Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores.
➢ Sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores.

4
The sexual cycle involves the following three steps.
➢ Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called plasmogamy.
➢ Fusion of two nuclei called Karyogamy.
➢ Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
➢ The fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in diploid cells (2n).
➢ But in some fungi such as ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, an intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n
i.e. two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is called
dikaryophase of fungus.
➢ Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid.
➢ The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, and haploid spores are formed.
Classification of fungi
➢ Kingdom fungi is divided into various classes based on the morphology of the mycelium, mode of
spore formation and fruiting bodies such as Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and
Deuteromycetes.
Phycomycetes
➢ Members of phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in moist and damp
places or as obligate parasites on plant.
➢ The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.
➢ Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores (motile)or by aplanospores (non - motile) and sexual
reproduction takes place by zygospores.
➢ If the gametes are similar in morphology, these are called as isogamous or if dissimilar, they are
known as anisogamous or oogamous, eg, Mucor, Rhizopus, Albugo is a parasitic fungus on mustard.

Examples of fungi: Mucor Aspergillus Agaricus

Ascomycetes
➢ The ascomycetes are unicellular or multicellular. Commonly known as sac-fungi.
➢ They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous.
➢ Mycelium is branched and septate. The asexual spores are conidia produced on conidiophores.
➢ Sexual spores are called ascospores which are produced endogenously in sac like asci arranged in
different types of fruiting bodies called ascocarps, eg Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora
Basidiomycetes
➢ Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi.
➢ They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps or as parasite.
➢ The mycelium is branched and septate. Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation.

5
 ➢ The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or somatic
cells of different strains which gives rise to basidium arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarp.
➢ Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the basidium producing four basidiospores.
eg , Agaricus (mushroom), Puccinia (rust fungus).
Deuteromycetes
➢ Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or vegetative phases are known.
➢ The mycelium is septate and branched. They reproduce only by asexual spores known as conidia.
➢ Some are saprophytes or parasites while a large number of them are decomposers of litter and help in
mineral cycling, eg, Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma
Kingdom plantae
➢ Majority members are eukaryotic, chlorophyll-containing organisms.
➢ Few members are partially heterotrophic- insectivorous plants or parasite. eg: Bladder wort and Venus
fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants and Cuscuta is a parasite.
➢ The kingdom Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
➢ Life cycle has two distinct phases – the diploid sporophytic and the haploid gametophytic – that
alternate with each other. This phenomenon is called alternation of generation.
Kingdom Animalia
➢ It includes heterotrophic eukaryotic multicellular organisms and their cells lack cell wall.
➢ Their mode of nutrition is holozoic (ingestion of food).
➢ They digest food in internal cavity and store reserve food as glycogen or fat.
➢ They follow definite growth pattern and the adults have definite size and shape.
➢ Higher forms have elabourate sensory and neuromotor mechanism, many are capable of locomotion.
Viruses, Viroids, Prions and Lichens
➢ R.H. Whittaker has not placed lichen and acellular organisms such as viruses, viroids and prions in five
kingdom classification.
Viruses:
➢ Virus means venom or poisonous fluid.
➢ Dmitri Ivanowsky (1892) recognised certain microbes cause mosaic disease of tobacco.
➢ M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract of the infected plants of tobacco could cause
infection in healthy plants and named the new pathogen “Virus” and called the fluid as Contagium
vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid).
➢ W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be crystallised and crystals consist of proteins.
➢ They are inert structure outside the host cell.
➢ They have living state inside the host and multiply by using host cell machinery, so they are called as
obligate parasites.
➢ They are smaller than bacteria because they passed through bacteria-proof filters.

6
 ➢ Viruses contain proteins coat outside, either RNA or DNA inside, (i.e either single or double stranded
RNA or double stranded DNA).
➢ The Protein coat called capsid made of small submits called capsomeres, protects the nucleic acid.
➢ Disease caused by viruses are mumps, smallpox, herpes, influenza and AIDS
➢ Symptoms in plants are mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing,
dwarfing and stunted growth.

Viroids
➢ In 1971 T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent smaller than viruses.
➢ It was found to be free RNA and protein coat was absent. It causes potato spindle tuber disease.

Prions
➢ These are abnormally folded protein particles responsible for neurological diseases.
➢ These agents are similar in size to viruses.
➢ They cause bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow disease in cattle and
Cr-Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.

Lichens
➢ They are symbiotic associations between algae and fungi.
➢ The algal component is called phycobiont: (autotrophic) prepare food for fungi
➢ The fungal component is called mycobiont: (heterotrophic) provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients
and water for algae.
➢ Lichens are very good pollution indicators i.e they do not grow in polluted areas.

Six kingdom classification (Three Domain system)

➢ It was proposed by Carl Woese in 1969 and is widely accepted than five kingdom classification.
➢ In this system the four kingdoms consisting of eukaryotic organisms form the domain Eukarya.
➢ The remaining two domains are Archaebacteria and Eubacteria (Prokaryotes).
➢ It includes kingdoms like Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

VIJAYA P, HSST BOTANY, GHSS MEDICAL COLLEGE CAMPUS

7
 CHAPTER 2
PLANT KINGDOM

➢ Kingdom plantae is classified into Algae, Bryophytes. Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
➢ Angiosperms are classified by different ways as follows.

Artificial system of classification

➢ It is based on vegetative characters or superficial morphological characters such as habit, colour,

number and shape of leaves, etc.
➢ It is primitive or oldest system of classification.
➢ Linnaeus’s artificial system of classification was based on the androecium structure.

Drawbacks of artificial system of classification

➢ It does not demonstrate natural and phylogenetic relationships.
➢ This system gives equal importance to vegetative and reproductive/sexual characters.
➢ This is not acceptable, as vegetative characters are influenced by the environmental factors.

Natural System of Classification

➢ The natural system of classification is based on natural affinities among the organisms.
➢ It is based on external and internal features like structure, anatomy, embryology and phyto-chemistry,
e.g. Classification for flowering plants given by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker.

Phylogenetic classification systems

➢ It is based on evolutionary relationships between the various organisms.
➢ This assumes that organisms belonging to same taxa have a common ancestor.

Now we use information from other sources to resolve difficulties in classification.

Numerical taxonamy
➢ It is easily carried out using computers based on all observable characteristics.
➢ Number and codes are assigned to all the characters and the data are then processed.

Cytotaxonomy
➢ Cytotaxonomy is based on cytological information like chromosome number, structure, behaviour and
type of chromosomes.

Chemotaxonomy
➢ It is the system based on the evidences from chemical constituents of the plant to resolve confusions.
(enzymes, hormones, proteins, amino acids, etc).

ALGAE
➢ Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic (both freshwater and
marine) organisms.
➢ The important salient features of algae are given below
➢ The plant body (thallus) is without differentiation.
➢ The basic form and size of algae is highly variable, they are Microscopic unicellular forms: (eg.
Chlamydomonas.), Colonial form (e.g. Volvox), Filamentous forms: (eg. Ulothrix and Spirogyra). A few
marine forms such as kelps, form massive plant body.
Reproduction
➢ The algae reproduce vegetatively, asexually and sexually.
➢ Vegetative Reproduction: It occurs by fragmentation. Each fragment gets develop into a new
thallus/organism.
8
 ➢ Asexual Reproduction: It occurs by a number of accessory spores, such as zoospores, aplanospores,
akinetes etc.
➢ Sexual reproduction:
➢ Through fusion of two gametes. It is of many types:
➢ Isogamous: Fusion of gametes similar in size. They may be flagellated (e.g. Chlamydomonas) or
nonflagellated (non-motile, e.g. Spirogyra).
➢ Anisogamous: Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size. E.g. Some species of Chlamydomonas.
➢ Oogamous: Fusion between one large, non-motile (static) female gamete and a smaller, motile male
gamete. E.g. Volvox, Fucus.

Economic importance of Algae

➢ At least half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by them.
➢ Increase oxygen level in the environment.
➢ Many species like Laminaria, Sargassum etc. are used as food.
➢ Agar obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are used in ice-creams and jellies and also used to culture
bacteria.
➢ Algin obtained from brown algae and carrageen from red algae used commercially.
➢ Chlorella unicellular algae rich in protein and used as food supplement even by space travellers.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE
➢ Algae are classified into 3 classes: Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.

CHLOROPHYCEAE
➢ Commonly known as green algae.
➢ Main pigment is chlorophyll ‘a’ and ‘b’.
➢ Unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
➢ Cell wall has inner layer of cellulose and outer layer of pectin.
➢ Most of them have one or more pyrenoids (storage bodies) located in the chloroplasts.
➢ Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch.
➢ Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation.
➢ Asexul reproduction is by flagellated zoospores.
➢ Sexual reproduction may be isogamy, anisogamy or oogamy, e.g., Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Spirogyra.

PHEOPHYCEAE
➢ Commonly known as brown algae and mainly marine in habitat.
➢ They possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoid, xanthophylls (fucoxanthin).
➢ The vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall usually covered by algin a gelatinous coating.
➢ The plant body attached to the substratum by a holdfast, a stalk called stipe and leaf like photosynthetic
organ called the frond.
➢ Mannitol and laminarin as reserve food material.
➢ Reproduce asexually by biflagellate pear-shaped zoospores.
➢ Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.
➢ The gametes are pyriform and bear two laterally attached flagella. e.g, Ectocarpus, Fucus, Laminaria

RHODOPHYCEAE
➢ Commonly known as red algae.
➢ Red colour is due to the red pigment r-phycoerythrin in their body along with chl.a and d.
➢ Cell wall made of cellulose, pectin and polysulphate esters.
➢ Reserve food material is floridean starch
➢ Reproduce asexually by non-motile spores and sexually by non-motile gametes (Oogamous type).
e.g. Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gelidium

9
10
BRYOPHYTES
➢ They are known as amphibians of the plant kingdom because they can live in soil but need water for
sexual reproduction.
➢ They occur in damp, humid and shaded localities.
➢ Their body is more differentiated than that of algae.
➢ It is thallus-like and prostrate or erect, and attached to the substratum by unicellular or multicellular
rhizoids.
➢ They lack true roots, stem or leaves. They may possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-like structures.
➢ The main plant body is haploid. It produces gametes, hence is called a gametophyte.
➢ The male sex organ (antheridium) produces biflagellate antherozoids.
➢ The female sex organ (archegonium) is flask-shaped and produces a single egg.
➢ Antherozoids are released into water where they come in contact with archegonium.
➢ An antherozoid fuses with an egg to form a zygote.
➢ Zygotes do not undergo meiosis immediately. It divides and produce a multicellular body called a
sporophyte.
➢ Sporophyte is not free-living but attached to the photosynthetic gametophyte and derives nourishment
from it.
➢ Some cells of the sporophyte undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores. These spores germinate to
form new gametophyte.

Economic Importance
➢ Bryophytes in general are of little economic importance.
➢ (i) Some mosses provide food for herbaceous mammals, birds and other animals.
➢ (ii) Species of Sphagnum (a moss), provides peat that have long been used as fuel.
➢ Iii) Sphagnum has the capacity to hold water and hence it is used as packing material for trans-
shipment of living material.
➢ iv) They have great ecological importance in plant succession on bare/soil. Rocks. Mosses along with
lichens decompose rocks and make soil for the growth of higher plants.
➢ (v) Mosses from dense mats on the soil and prevent soil erosion.

Bryophytes are divided into liverworts and Mosses.

LIVERWORTS
➢ The plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e.g, Marchantia.
➢ The thallus is dorsi-ventral and closely attached to the substrate.
➢ Asexual Reproduction is by fragmentation of thalli or by the formation of specialized structures called
gemmae (sing, gemma).
➢ Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds which develop in small receptacles called gemma cups
located on the thalli.
➢ During sexual reproduction gametes are formed and after fusion, zygote develops in to a sporophyte.
➢ The sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and capsule.
➢ After meiosis, spores are produced within the capsule, and later germinate to form new gametophytes.

MOSSES
➢ The main stage of the life cycle of a moss is the gametophyte which consists of two stages.
➢ The first stage is the protonema stage which develops directly from a spore.
➢ It is a creeping, green, branched and frequently filamentous stage.
➢ The second stage is the leafy stage which develops from the secondary protonema as a lateral bud.
➢ They consist of upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves. This stage bears sex organs.
➢ Gametes formed inside the sex organs fused to form zygote. After fertilization the zygote develops into
a sporophyte consisting of foot, seta, and capsule. eg. Funaria, Sphagnum

11
PTERIDOPHYTES

➢ They include horsetails and ferns

➢ First terrestrial plant possesses vascular tissue like xylem and phloem.
➢ The main plant body is diploid sporophyte and differentiated into true root, stem and leaf.
➢ Leaves may be small (microphyll) as in Selaginella or large (macrophyll) as in ferns.
➢ Sporangia having spores are produced in leaf-like appendages called sporophylls and may be arranged
to form strobili or cones.
➢ In Sporangia, the spore mother cells give rise to spores after meiosis.
➢ Spores germinate to form small but multicellular free-living, mostly photosynthetic haploid
gametophyte called prothallus.
➢ These gametophytes need cool, damp, shady places to grow so, pteridophytes are restricted to narrow
geographical regions.
➢ The gametophyte bear male and female sex organs called antheridia and archegonia.
➢ Water is required for the transfer of antherozoids – the male gametes released from the antheridia, to the
mouth of archegonium.
➢ Fusion of male gamete with the egg present in the archegonium result in the formation of zygote.
➢ Zygote developed into multicellular, well- differentiated sporophyte.
➢ Most of the pteridophytes produce similar kinds of spores hence called homosporous.
➢ Genera like Selaginella and Salvinia which produce two kind of spores, macro (large) and small (micro)
spores. This condition is known as known as heterospory.
➢ Microspore and macrospore germinate and gives rise to male and female gametophyte respectively.
➢ The female gametophytes in these plants are retained on the parent sporophyte for variable period.
➢ The development of zygote into young embryo takes place within the female gametophytes.
➢ This event is a precursor to the seed habit, and is considered an important step in evolution.
➢ Pteridophytes further classified into four classes: Psilopsida (Psilotum), Lycopsida (Selaginella,
Lycopodium), Sphenopsida (Equisetum) and Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum).
12
GYMNOSPERMS
➢ The gymnosperms (Gymnos : naked, sperma : seeds ) are naked seeds as the ovules are not enclosed by
any ovary wall.
➢ Gymnosperm includes medium-sized trees or tall trees and shrub.
➢ Roots in some genera have fungal association in the form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some others
(Cycas) small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with N2 - fixing cyanobacteria.
➢ Stem is branched (Pinus), or unbranched (Cycas). Leaves may be simple or compound.
➢ Gymnosperms are heterosporous. They produce haploid microspores and megaspores.
➢ Male strobili or cone has microsporophylls which bear microsporangia having microspores which
develop into gametophyte called pollen grain.
➢ Female cone or strobili has megasporophylls which bear megasporangia with megaspore mother cells.
This is enclosed in ovules.
➢ The male gamete from pollen grain grows towards the archegonia in the ovule.
➢ Fertilisation leads to development of zygote which in turn develop in to embryo and the ovule into
seeds.
➢ In gymnosperms male and female gametophytes remain within the sporangia retained on the
sporophyte.
➢ Pollen grains are released from the microsporangium and carried by air to the opening of the ovule.
➢ Pollen tube carrying male gametes grow towards the archegonia in the ovule and discharge their
contents near the mouth of archegonia.
➢ After fertilisation zygote develops into embryo and ovule into seeds. The seeds are not covered.

ANGIOSPERMS
➢ They are flowering plants in which pollen grains and ovules are developed in flowers.
➢ In angiosperms, the seeds are enclosed and protected within fruits.
➢ They range in size from the smallest microscopic Wolfia to tall trees of Eucalyptus.
➢ They are divided into two classes: Dicotyledons: with two cotyledons in their seeds and
Monocotyledons: only one cotyledon.

VIJAYA P, HSST BOTANY, GHSS MEDICAL COLLEGE CAMPUS

13
 CHAPTER 3
MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
➢ The study of external features of an organism is called its morphology.

Parts of Flowering Plants

➢ All the flowering plants have roots, stem leaves, flowers
and fruits.
➢ The underground parts of flowering plant are the root
system and the portion above the ground forms the shoot
system.

The Root
➢ Primary roots are the direct elongation of the radicle.
➢ Primary roots bear lateral roots of several orders that are
referred to as secondary, tertiary roots, etc.
➢ Primary roots along with lateral roots forms the Tap root
system. eg, Mustard, Gram, etc.
➢ In monocot plants, primary root is short lived after seed
germination.
➢ It is replaced by large number of roots at the base of the
stem. Such roots constitute the Fibrous root system, eg.
wheat, rice etc.
➢ The roots that arise from any parts of the plant other than
radicle are called adventitious roots, eg. Grass, Banyan
tree, Maize, etc.

Functions of root system

1.Absorption of water and minerals from the soil.
2. Storage of food materials.
3.Providing a proper anchorage to the plant parts.
4.Synthesis of plant growth regulators

Regions of the Root

➢ The apex of root is covered by a thimble- like structure
called root cap, it protects the tender apex of root.
➢ Above the root cap is region of meristematic activity
having small cells with dense cytoplasm.
➢ The part above the region of meristematic activity is
region of elongation where cells undergo elongation
and enlargement.
➢ Region of maturation contains root hairs that help in absorption of water and minerals.

THE STEM
➢ Stem is the aerial part develops from plumule of the embryo. Stem bears nodes and internodes.
➢ Leaves are born on nodes and portion between two nodes are called internodes.
➢ The stem has axillary buds or terminal buds.
➢ The main function of stem is spreading branches bearing leaves, flowers and fruits.
➢ Stem arranges leaves in a way that it gets direct sunlight to perform photosynthesis.
➢ It also conducts water and minerals and product of photosynthesis.
➢ Some stem performs functions like storage of food, support, protection and vegetative propagation.

14
THE LEAF
➢ Leaf is a green, flattened structure produced on the node of a stem.
➢ Each leaf bears a bud in its axil called as the axillary bud, which
forms a branch.
➢ Leaves are specialized organs for photosynthesis.
➢ Leaves originate from shoot apical meristem and are arranged in an
acropetal order.
➢ A typical leaf consists of three parts- Leaf base, Petiole and Lamina.
➢ Leaf is attached with stem by leaf base which may bear two small
leaf like structure called stipule.
➢ In leguminous plants the leaf base may become swollen and called
pulvinus.
➢ The structure that holds the leaf is called petiole.
➢ The green exposed part of the leaf is known as lamina or leaf blade.
➢ Lamina bears the veins or veinlets. Middle prominent vein is called midrib.
➢ Veins provide rigidity to the leaf blade and act as channel for transport of water and minerals.

VENATION
➢ The arrangement of vein and veinlets in the lamina is called venation.
➢ When the veins form a network, the venation is called reticulate,
➢ Leaves of dicotyledonous plant show reticulate venation.
➢ When the veins run parallel to one another within a lamina the venation is called parallel.
➢ Parallel venation is the character of most monocotyledons.

TYPES OF LEAVES
➢ A leaf having a single or undivided lamina is called Simple leaf.
➢ The incisions do not touch the mid rib, eg, Mango, Guava etc.
➢ When the incision of lamina reach up to the midrib and breaking it into a number of leaflets, it is called
compound leaves.
➢ In Palmately compound leaves, the leaflets are attached at common point, eg, Silk cotton.
➢ In Pinnately compound leaf a number of leaflets are present on a common axis, the rachis, eg, neem

PHYLLOTAXY
➢ The pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem or branch is called Phyllotaxy.
➢ In alternate type of phyllotaxy single leaf arise at each node as in China rose.
➢ In opposite types of phyllotaxy a pair of leaves arise from each node opposite to each other, eg, Guava.
➢ If more than two leaves arise at a node and form a whorl is called whorled type of phyllotaxy, eg.
Alstonia.

15
INFLORESCENCE
➢ During the flowering season, the vegetative apex of the stem into a floral meristem.
➢ The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis is termed as inflorescence.
➢ Based on whether the floral axis continues to grow or end in a flower.
➢ Inflorescences are of two main types, racemose and cymose.
Racemose inflorescence
➢ The main axis continues to grow.
➢ The flowers are grown in acropetal succession.
Cymose inflorescence
➢ The main axis terminates in a flower, hence is limited in growth.
➢ The flowers are borne in basipetal order.

THE FLOWER
➢ Flower is the part of angiosperm plants for sexual means of reproduction.
➢ Stalk of the flower is called pedicel.
➢ A typical flower has four whorls arranged on a swollen end of pedicel called thalamus/ receptacle.
➢ They are Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and Gynoecium.
➢ In flower like lily, the calyx and corolla are not distinct and are called perianth.
➢ When a flower has both androecium and gynoecium, the flower is called bisexual.
➢ A flower having either androecium or gynoecium only is called unisexual.
➢ When a flower can be divided into two equal halves in any radial plane passing through the centre, it is
said to be actinomorphic (radial symmetry) as in Mustard, Datura, and Chilli.
➢ When flower can be divided into two similar halves only in one vertical plane it is zygomorphic as in
Pea, Gulmohar, Cassia etc.
➢ A flower is asymmetric (irregular) if it cannot be divided into two equal halves by any vertical plane
passing through the centre, eg, canna
➢ When Floral appendages are in multiple of 3,4 or 5 the flowers are said to be trimerous, tetramerous
and pentamerous respectively.
➢ Flower with bracts is called bracteate and without it is ebracteate.
16
Based on the position of ovary with respect to other floral part on thalamus, flowers are of following
types:
➢ Hypogynous flower– Ovary occupies the highest position. The ovary in such case is called superior, eg.
Mustard, brinjal and Hibiscus.
➢
➢ Perigynous flowers-If the gynoecium is situated at the centre and other parts are on the rim at same
height. Ovary is called half-inferior.

➢ Epigynous flowers- The margin of thalamus grows to completely cover the ovary.
Ovary is said to be inferior.

PARTS OF A FLOWER

Calyx is the outermost whorl of the flower; its members are called sepals.
➢ They are generally green and leafy; protect the flower in bud stage.
➢ It may be gamosepalous (sepals united) or polysepalous (sepals free).

Corolla is composed of petals.

➢ Petals are brightly coloured to attract the insects for pollination.
➢ They may be Polypetalous (petals are free) or Gamopetalous (petals are united or fused).

Aestivation
➢ The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to other members of
the same whorl is called aestivation. The main types are as follows.
1.Valvate: sepals or petals in a whorl just touch one another at the margin, without overlapping. eg. Calotropis.

2.Twisted: One margin of the appendage overlaps that of the next one, eg. china rose.

3.Imbricate: The margin of sepals or petals overlap one another but not in any particular direction as in
Cassia and gulmohur.

4.Vexillary: In pea and bean flowers, there are five petals- the largest (standard) overlaps the two lateral petals
(wings) which in turn overlap two smallest anterior petals (keel). This type of aestivation is known as vexillary
or papilionaceae.

17
THE ANDROECIUM
➢ Androecium represent the male reproductive parts of flower and consists of stamens.
➢ Each stamen consists of a stalk or filament and an anther.
➢ Pollen grains are produced in pollen sacs of the anther.
➢ Sterile stamen is called staminode.
➢ When stamens are attached with petals, such stamens are called epipetalous (Brinjal).
➢ A stamen is called Epiphyllous when it is attached to the perianth. E.g. lily
➢ If Stamens in a flower are free, they are called polyandrous.
➢ Stamens may be united in one bundle (monoadelphous), two bundles (diadelphous), more than two
(polyadelphous).

THE GYNOECIUM
➢ Female reproductive part of flower is made up of one or more carpels.
➢ Each carpel has stigma, style and ovary.
➢ Ovary is the enlarged basal part on which lies the elongated tube, the style.
➢ The stigma usually at the tip of the style. It receives pollen grain.
➢ When more than one carpel is present, it may be free (apocarpous), eg, lotus
➢ and rose or fused together (syncarpous) as in mustard and tomato.
➢ After fertilisation, ovules change into seeds and ovary mature into fruits.

PLACENTATION
➢ The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is called placentation. The placentation are of different
types namely marginal, axile, parietal, free central and basal.
1. Marginal: Ovules are arranged along the fused margins of ovary, eg, pea
2. Axile: Margins of carpels fuse to form central axis, The ovules are attached to placenta in a
multilocular ovary, eg, Hibiscus, tomato and lemon.
3. Parietal: Ovules develop on inner wall of ovary or on peripheral part, Mustard and Argemone.
4. Free central: Ovules borne on central axis and septa are absent, Dianthus and Primrose.
5. Basal: Placenta develops at the base of ovary and a single ovule is attached to it, sunflower and
marigold.

18
THE FRUIT
➢ Mature and ripened ovary developed after fertilisation is fruit.
➢ If a fruit is formed without fertilisation, it is called parthenocarpic fruit.
➢ Generally, the fruit consists of a wall called pericarp and seeds.
➢ In some fruits thick and fleshy pericarp is three layered called outer epicarp, middle mesocarp and inner
endocarp.

THE SEED
➢ In mango and coconut, the fruit is known as drupe, develop from monocarpellary superior ovaries and
are one seeded.
➢ After fertilization ovules develop into seeds.
➢ A Seed is made up of a seed coat and an embryo.
➢ The embryo is made up of embryonal axis, radicle and cotyledons

STRUCTURE OF DICOT SEED

➢ Seed coat has two layers outer testa and inner tegmen.
➢ Hilum is scar through which seed is attached to the ovary
➢ Small pore above the hilum is called micropyle.
➢ Embryo has embryonal axis and two cotyledons
➢ Seeds may be endospermous (endospermous) or non-endospermous (without Endosperm), eg, Bean,
Pea.

STRUCTURE OF MONOCOT SEED

➢ Generally monocotyledonous seeds are endospermic but orchids are non-endospermic.
➢ In monocotyledonous the thin seed coat is fuse with the fruit wall.

➢ The outer covering of endosperm separates the embryo by a protienous layer called aleurone layer.
➢ Embryo is small and placed in a groove at one end of the endosperm.
➢ It has one large shield shaped cotyledon called scutellum and short axis with plumule and radicle.
➢ Plumule and radicle are covered by a sheath called coleoptile and coleorhiza
19
SEMI -TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF A TYPICAL FLOWERING PLANT
➢ The plant is described beginning with its habit, vegetative characters
and then floral characters (inflorescence and flower parts).
➢ The floral formula is represented by some symbols.
➢ In the floral formula, Br stands for bracteate K stands for calyx, C for
corolla, P for perianth, A for androecium and G for Gynoecium.
➢ Fusion is indicated by enclosing the figure within bracket and
adhesion by a line drawn above the symbols of the floral parts.
➢ A floral diagram gives information about number and fusion of floral
parts, their arrangement and relation.

Family Solanaceae
➢ Plant mostly herbs or shrubs, rarely small trees,
➢ It is a large family, commonly called as the ‘potato family’.
➢ Stem herbaceous rarely woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, or hollow, hairy or glabrous.
underground stem in potato
➢ Leaves: alternate, simple or pinnately compound exstipulate, reticulate venation.

Floral Characters
➢ Inflorescence solitary, axillary or cymose as in Solanum.
➢ Flower: bisexual, actinomorphic
➢ Calyx: sepals five, united, persistent, valvate aestivation
➢ Corolla: petals five, united; valvate aestivation
➢ Androecium: stamens five, epipetalous
➢ Gynoecium: bicarpellary, syncarpous; ovary superior, bilocular, placenta swollen with many ovules.

Economic importance
➢ Many of them are source of food (potato, tomato, brinjal etc.), spices (Chilli), fumigatory (tobacco) or
ornamentals (petunia).

VIJAYA P, HSST BOTANY, GHSS MEDICAL COLLEGE CAMPUS

20
 CHAPTER 4

ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

➢ Anatomy is the branch of biology which deals with the study of internal structure of organisms.
➢ Plants have cells as the basic unit, cells are organised into tissues and in turn the tissues are
organised into organs.
➢ Tissue is a group of cells having common origin and performing a common function.
➢ There are two types of tissues in plants, a) Permanent tissue and b) meristematic tissue
➢ They are formed by division and differentiation of meristematic tissues.
➢ Tissues vary depending on their location in the plant body. Their structure and function would also be
dependent on location.
➢ On the basis of their structure and location, there are three types of tissue systems. These are the
epidermal tissue system, the ground or fundamental tissue system and the vascular or conducting tissue
system.

EPIDERMAL TISSUE SYSTEM

➢ It forms the outermost covering of whole plant body, which consists of epidermal cells, stomata,
epidermal appendages (trichomes and hairs).
➢ Epidermis forms outermost protecting layer made up of is single layered parenchyma cells.
➢ The outside of the epidermis is often covered with a waxy thick layer called the cuticle which prevents
the loss of water. Cuticle is absent in roots.
➢ Stomata are structures present in the epidermis of leaves.
➢ Stomata regulate the process of transpiration and gaseous exchange.
➢ Each stoma is composed of two bean shaped cells known as guard cells which enclose stomatal pore.
➢ Epidermal cells adjacent to the guard cells become specialised in their shape and size and are known as
subsidiary cells.
➢ The stomatal aperture, guard cells and the surrounding subsidiary cells are together called stomatal
apparatus
➢ The root hairs are unicellular elongation of epidermal cells and help in absorption of water and mineral
nutrients.
➢ Trichomes are multicellular hairs present on the stem.

GROUND TISSUE SYSTEM

➢ All tissues except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue.
➢ It consists of simple tissues of cortex, pericycle, pith and medullary rays.
➢ In leaves, the ground tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast containing cells called
mesophyll.
21
VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEM
➢ The vascular system consists of complex tissues, xylem and
phloem that together form vascular bundles.
➢ The arrangement of xylem and phloem are different in roots and
stem.
➢ In roots the xylem and phloem seen in different radii. Such
vascular bundles are called radial vascular bundles (Roots).
➢ In stem the xylem and phloem are arranged in the same radius.
Such vascular bundles are called conjoint (stem and leaves).
➢ Conjoint vascular bundles may be open or closed
➢ In open vascular bundle cambium (a meristem) is seen in
between xylem and phloem as in dicot stem.
➢ In closed vascular bundle cambium is absent as in monocot stem.

ANATOMY OF DICOT ROOT

➢ The outermost layer of dicot root is epiblema containing

unicellular root hairs.
➢ The cortex consists of several layers of thin-walled parenchyma
cells.
➢ The innermost layer of cortex is called endodermis, Endodermal
cell wall has thick deposition of waxy material suberin, which is
impermeable to water. It is called casparian strip.
➢ Inner to endodermis lies a few layers of thick-walled parenchymatous cells referred to as pericycle.
➢ Xylem and phloem groups are limited in number. Xylem elements are polygonal in outline.
➢ The parenchymatous cells which lie between the xylem and the phloem are called conjunctive tissue.
➢ All tissues on the inner side of the endodermis such as pericycle, vascular bundles and pith constitute
the stele.

ANATOMY OF MONOCOT ROOT

➢ The anatomy of the monocot root is similar to the dicot root in many respects.
➢ It has epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular bundles and pith.
➢ Xylem and phloem groups are more in number than dicot root.
➢ Pith is large and well developed.

22
ANATOMY OF DICOT STEM
➢ Epidermis forms the outermost protective layer of the stem.
➢ Cortex is the the multiple layers of cells arranged in between epidermis and pericycle.
➢ Hypodermis: Layers of collenchymatous cells just below the epidermis,
➢ which provide mechanical strength to the young stem.
➢ Cortical layers: Layers of round thin walled parenchymatous cells with intercellular spaces.
➢ Endodermis: The innermost layer of the cortex rich in starch grains and hence called starch sheath.
➢ Pericycle is present on the inner side of the endodermis and above the phloem.
➢ Vascular bundles
➢ Limited in number and arranged in a ring form.
➢ Vascular bundles are conjoint and open.
➢ Parenchymatous tissue seen in between vascular bundles constitute medullary rays.
➢ A large number of rounded, parenchymatous cells occupy the central portion of the stem is the pith.

ANATOMY OF MONOCOT STEM

➢ The hypodermis is made up of sclerenchyma.

➢ Vascular bundles are conjoint and closed.
➢ Vascular bundles are numerous and scattered in the ground tissue
➢ Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a sclerenchymatous bundle sheath.
➢ Phloem parenchyma is absent in monocot stem and they have water-containing cavities within the
vascular bundles.

23
ANATOMY OF DOSIVENTRAL (DICOT) LEAF

➢ The leaf lamina of a dorsiventral leaf has 3

parts: epidermis, mesophyll and vascular
system.
➢ The upper epidermis is called adaxial
epidermis and lower one is called abaxial
epidermis.
➢ More number of stomata are present on the
abaxial epidermis.
➢ There are two types of cells in the
mesophyll, upper layer called palisade
parenchyma and lower spongy
parenchyma.
➢ There are numerous large spaces and air
cavities between the cells of spongy
parenchyma.
➢ Vascular bundles can be seen in the midrib
and veins.
➢ Vascular bundles are surrounded by a layer
of thick-walled bundle sheath cells.

ANATOMY OF ISOBILATERAL (MONOCOT)

LEAF
➢ Stomata are present on both the surfaces of
an isobilateral leaf.
➢ The mesophyll is not differentiated into
palisade and spongy parenchyma.
➢ Some adaxial epidermal cells in grasses are
modified into large, empty cells called
bulliform cells.
➢ Bulliform cells are special cells which
absorb water and become turgid.
➢ This time leaf surface is exposed. But if they
lose water the cell become flaccid and the
leaves curl inwards.

VIJAYA P, HSST BOTANY, GHSS MEDICAL COLLEGE CAMPUS

24
 CHAPTER 5
CELL THE UNIT OF LIFE
INTRODUCTION
➢ Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
➢ Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first observed living cells.
➢ Robert Brown discovered nucleus.
➢ Mattias Schleiden discovered plant cells.
➢ Theodore Schwann discovered animal cells.
➢ Rudolf Virchow new cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
➢ Organisms with a single cell is called unicellular and with many cells are multicellular organisms.

Cell Theory
➢ Cell Theory was formulated by Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann,
➢ It was modified by Rudolf Virchow.
➢ Cell theory states that
• All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
➢ Cells are surrounded by cell membrane and in plants cell wall is also present
➢ Each cell has a dense membrane bound structure called nucleus, with chromosome and DNA.
➢ Cells with membrane bound nuclei are called eukaryotic whereas cells without a membrane bound
nucleus are prokaryotic.
➢ A semi-fluid matrix called cytoplasm occupies the volume of the cell.
➢ Besides the nucleus eukaryotic cells contain different types of membrane bound structures called cell
organelles.
➢ Size and shape of the cell varies according to their position and function in the living body.
➢ Mycoplasmas, the smallest cells, are only 0.3 μm in length and bacteria could be 3 to 5 μm.
➢ The largest isolated single cell is the Ostrich egg.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
➢ Represented by bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO.
➢ Smaller and multiply more rapidly than eukaryotic cells.

25
 ➢ Bacteria are classified into four types bacillus (rod shaped)
coccus (spherical), vibrio (comma shaped) and spirillum
(spiral).
➢ All prokaryotes have a cell wall that surrounds the plasma
membrane.
➢ There is no well-defined nucleus and hence the genetic
material is basically naked.
➢ A specialized differentiated form of cell membrane called
mesosome is present.

Cell envelope and its Modifications

➢ Most prokaryotic cell have characteristic complex cell
envelope.
➢ The cell envelops consists of tightly bound three-layer structure;
i) Glycocalyx. ii) Cell wall iii) Plasma membrane.
➢ According to the nature of the cell wall and behaviour towards the staining procedure
developed by Christian Gram, bacteria which take up gram stain are Gram positive and the others do
not are Gram negative.
➢ Glycocalyx may be as loose mass called slime layer or in some it may be thick and tough
called the capsule.
➢ The cell wall provides strong structural support and give shape of the cell.
➢ Plasma membrane: This layer surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates the entry and exit
➢ of substances in the cells.

Mesosomes
➢ A special membranous structure is the mesosome which is formed by the extensions of plasma
membrane into the cell.
➢ It can be in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae.

Functions
➢ Cell wall formation,
➢ DNA replication and distribution to daughter cells.
➢ Respiration and secretion processes.
➢ Increase surface area of plasma membrane and enzyme content.

Flagella
➢ Bacterial cells may be motile or non-motile, if motile they have flagella.
➢ It is composed of three structures filament, hook and basal body.

Pili and Fimbriae

➢ The pili are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein.
➢ The fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell.
➢ They help the bacteria to attach the host and other substances

Ribosomes and inclusion bodies

➢ Prokaryotic ribosome is 70 S type and has two sub units; smaller (30 S) and larger (50 S).
➢ Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
➢ Several ribosomes attached to a single mRNA to form a chain called polyribosome or
polysome.

Inclusion bodies
➢ Reserve food material in prokaryotic cells is stored in the cytoplasm in the form of inclusion bodies. eg.
Phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules.

26
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
➢ Eukaryotic cells are present in protista, plants, animals and fungi.
➢ The cells contain well organized nucleus with nuclear membrane.
➢ The genetic materials are arranged in chromosomes.
➢ Plants cells differ in having cell wall, plastids and large central vacuole as compared to animal cells.
➢ Animal cells have centrioles, which are absent in plant cell.

Cell membrane
➢ The cell membrane is composed of lipids that are arranged in a bilayer.
➢ The lipids are arranged within the membrane with the polar head towards the outer sides and
the hydrophobic tails towards the inner part.
➢ The lipid component is phospholipids and proteins are also present.
➢ Membrane protein may be integral or peripheral. Integral protein remains buried
in membrane but peripheral protein lies on the surface.

Fluid Mosaic Model

➢ Singer and Nicholson (1972)
proposed fluid mosaic model.
➢ According to this model the quasi-fluid
nature of lipid enables lateral
movement of protein within the bilayer
of lipids.
➢ The main function of plasma
membrane is the transport of molecules
across it.

Active transport
➢ The transport involves an expenditure
of energy by the cells.
➢ It occurs against the concentration gradient.
➢ It is a rapid process.

Passive transport
➢ The cells do not spend energy in passive transport.
➢ This transport is always along the concentration gradient.
➢ Water may cross the membrane from higher concentration to lower concentration by diffusion through
the cell membrane called osmosis.
➢ It is comparatively slow process.
27
Cell wall
➢ It is non-living rigid structure which gives shape to the cell
➢ Protects cell from mechanical damage and infection
➢ Plant cell wall consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins.
➢ Primary wall is the cell wall of a young plant cell, which is capable of growth
➢ Middle lamella is made up of calcium pectate which holds two adjacent cells together.
➢ Plasmodesmata connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells. (These connections running through
unthickened areas on the cell wall called pits).

Endomembrane system
➢ Endomembrane system of cell includes endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

➢ Endoplasmic reticulum is a network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm.
➢ ER divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments, they are luminal (inside ER) and
extra luminal (cytoplasm) compartments.
➢ The endoplasmic reticulum bearing ribosomes on their surface is called rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER), whereas ribosomes are absent in smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
Function
➢ RER is involved in protein synthesis and secretion, whereas SER is the major site
for synthesis of lipid. In animal cells lipid like steroidal hormones are synthesised.

Golgi apparatus
➢ Golgi apparatus was first observed by Camillo Golgi in 1898 near nucleus.
➢ They consist of many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternae stacked parallel to each other.
➢ The Golgi cisternae have distinct convex cis (the forming) face and concave trans
(the maturing) face.
➢ Golgi apparatus performs the function of packaging of materials and its transportation.
➢ A number of proteins synthesized by ribosomes are modified in cisternae of golgi apparatus.
➢ Golgi apparatus is the site for synthesis of glycoproteins and glycolipids.

Lysosomes
➢ Lysosomes are membrane bound vesicular structures formed by the process of packaging in the golgi
apparatus.
➢ They are rich in hydrolytic enzymes(hydrolases- lipase, protease, carbohydrases) active at acidic pH.
➢ These enzymes are capable of digesting carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.

Vacuoles
➢ The vacuole is the membrane-bound space containing water, sap, excretory product, etc.
➢ The vacuole is bound by a single membrane called tonoplast.
➢ In plants tonoplast (single membrane of vacuole) facilitates transport of ions and other substances.
28
 ➢ In Amoeba, the contractile vacuole is important for excretion.
➢ In many cells, as in protists, food vacuoles are formed for digestion of food particles.

Mitochondria
➢ Mitochondria (sing: mitochondrion) is double
membrane bound structure with the outer membrane
and inner membrane dividing its lumen into inner
and outer compartments.
➢ The inner compartment is filled with dense
homogenous substance called matrix.
➢ The inner membrane forms a number of infoldings
called cristae towards the matrix.
➢ Mitochondria are sites for aerobic respiration.
➢ They produce cellular energy in form of ATP so, they
are called “power houses” of the cell.
➢ The matrix of mitochondria also contains circular DNA molecules, a few RNA molecules, ribosomes
and components of protein synthesis.

Plastids
➢ Found in plant cells and in euglenoides.
➢ Based on the type of pigments plastids can be classified
into chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
➢ The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid
pigments which are responsible for trapping light for
photosynthesis.
➢ In the chromoplasts, fat soluble carotenoid pigments
like carotene, xanthophylls etc. are present.
➢ Leucoplasts are colourless plastids that store food.
➢ There are three types of leucoplasts: i) Elaioplast :
stores oil and fat ii) Amylopast : stores starch
iii) Aleuroplast : stores protein.

Structure of chloroplast
➢ Chloroplasts of the green plants are found in the mesophyll cells of the leaves.
➢ Chloroplasts are double membrane structures.
➢ The space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma.
➢ A number of organised flattened membranous sacs called the thylakoids.
➢ Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like the piles of coins called grana.
➢ There are flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae connecting the thylakoids of the different
grana.
➢ The stroma contains enzymes, double stranded DNA molecules, ribosomes
➢ Functions: Site of photosynthesis, and imparts colours to fruits and flowers.

Ribosomes
➢ Ribosomes are granular structure first observed by George
Palade (1953).
➢ Non-membranous cell organelles made up of ribonucleic
acid (RNA) and proteins.
➢ Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S while the prokaryotic
ribosomes are 70S.
➢ ‘S’ (Svedburg unit) stands for sedimentation coefficient.
(measure of density and size).

29
 ➢ Primary function is protein synthesis hence called protein factory of the cell.

Cytoskeleton
➢ An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present in the cytoplasm is
collectively known as cytoskeleton.
➢ Cytoskeleton involved in many functions such as mechanical support, motility,
➢ maintenance of the shape of the cell.

Cilia and Flagella

➢ Cilia and flagella are hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane and help in cell movement.
➢ Core of cilia and flagella is called the axoneme, that possesses a number of microtubules
running parallel to the long axis.
➢ The axoneme usually has nine pairs of doublets of radially arranged peripheral
microtubules, and a pair of centrally located microtubules.
➢ This type of arrangement of axonemal microtubules is referred to as the 9+2 array.
➢ The central tubules are connected by bridges and is also enclosed by a central sheath.
➢ Central sheath is connected to one of the tubules of each peripheral doublets by a radial spoke and
hence there are nine radial spokes.
➢ The peripheral doublets are also interconnected by linkers

Centrosome and centrioles

➢ Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures called centrioles.
➢ Both the centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each other.
➢ Each centriole is made up of nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin.
➢ The central part of the centriole is also proteinaceous and called the hub.
➢ The hub is connected with tubules of the peripheral triplets by radial spokes made of protein.
➢ Centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella and spindle fibres for cell division
in animal cells.

Nucleus
➢ Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown in 1831.
➢ The material of the nucleus (stained by basic dyes) was given the name chromatin by Flemming.
➢ The interphase nucleus has highly extended and elaborates nucleoprotein fibres called chromatin.
➢ The nucleus also contains nuclear matrix and spherical bodies called nucleoli(sing: nucleolus).
➢ Nucleolus is the site of active ribosomal RNA synthesis.
➢ Nuclear envelope consists of two membranes outer and inner.
➢ The space between them is called perinuclear space.
➢ Minute openings on the nuclear envelop (Nuclear pore) allow the movement of RNA and protein in
both directions.
➢ The nuclear matrix or nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and chromatin.
30
 ➢ Chromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins called histones, some non-histone proteins and RNA.
➢ During cell division the chromatins condensed to form chromosomes.
➢ Each chromosome essentially has a primary constriction or the centromere.
➢ On each side of centromere there is disc shaped structures called kinetochores.

Based on the position of the centromere chromosomes are classified into four types.

➢ Metacentric: centromere at the middle with two equal arms.

➢ Sub-Metacentric: centromere near the centre with one short arm and one long arm.

➢ Acrocentric: centromere near the tip with one extremely short arm and a very long arm

➢ Telocentric: chromosome has a terminal centromere.

➢ A few chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a constant location.

This gives the appearance of a small fragment called the satellite.

Microbodies
➢ Minute membrane bound vesicles plant and animal cells are called microbodies.
➢ Microbodies contain various enzymes.

VIJAYA P, HSST BOTANY, GHSS MEDICAL COLLEGE CAMPUS

31
 CHAPTER 6
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
CELL CYCLE

➢ The sequence of events by which the cell duplicates its genome, synthesises the other constituents and
divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle.

Phases of cell cycle

➢ The duration of cell cycle can vary from organism to organism.
➢ Cell cycle is divided into two basic phases: Interphase and M phase
➢ The M Phase represents the phase when the actual cell division or mitosis occurs.
➢ The interphase represents the phase between two successive M phases.
➢ The M Phase starts with the nuclear division, corresponding to the separation of daughter chromosomes
known as karyokinesis and usually ends with division of cytoplasm known as cytokinesis.
➢ The interphase, commonly called the resting phase, is the time during which the cell is preparing for
division by undergoing both cell growth and DNA replication in an orderly manner.
➢ The interphase is divided into three phases:
➢ G1 phase (Gap 1)
➢ S phase (Synthesis)
➢ G2 phase (Gap 2)

G1 phase (Gap 1)
➢ G1 phase corresponds to the interval between
mitosis and initiation of DNA replication.
➢ Cell is metabolically active and grows in size but
does not replicate its DNA.

S phase (Synthesis)
➢ During S or synthesis phase, the amount of DNA
per cell doubles, but there is no increase in the
chromosome number.
➢ In animal cells, during the S phase, DNA
replication begins in the nucleus, and the centriole
duplicates in the cytoplasm.

G2 phase (Gap 2)
➢ Cell growth continues.
➢ Synthesis of RNA and proteins continues and cell is prepared for mitosis phase.

G 0 Phase
➢ Some cells do not show division, eg. heart cells.
➢ Many other cells divide only occasionally to replace damaged or dead cells.
➢ The cells that do not divide further exit G1 phase and enter an inactive stage called quiescent stage.
➢ In animals, mitotic cell division is seen only in the diploid somatic cells.
➢ In plants mitosis takes place in both haploid and diploid cells.

MITOSIS
➢ It is a process of cell division where chromosomes replicate and divides into two similar daughter cells.
➢ The process of mitosis keeps the chromosome number equal in daughter cells as well as parental cell.
➢ Hence, it is also called equational division. Mitosis usually takes place in somatic cells.
➢ Mitosis is divided into four stages of nuclear division (Karyokinesis)
➢ They are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
32
1.PROPHASE
➢ Prophase is the first stage of mitosis, which follows the S and G2 phases of
interphase.
➢ The centrosome moves towards opposite poles of the cell.
➢ Each centrosome radiates out microtubules called asters.
➢ The two asters together with spindle fibres forms mitotic apparatus.
➢ Chromosomal material condenses to form compact mitotic chromosomes.
➢ Chromosomes are seen to be composed of two chromatids attached
together at the centromere.

2.METAPHASE
➢ The condensation of the chromosomes is completed and they can be
clearly observed under microscope.
➢ This is the stage at which morphology of the chromosome is most easily
studied.
➢ Metaphase chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids, which are
held together by the centromere.
➢ Small disc-shaped structures, where spindle fibres attach to the surface of
the centromeres are called kinetochores.
➢ Chromosomes are arranged at the centre of the cell with the help of spindle
fibres.
➢ The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is referred to as
the metaphase plate.

3.ANAPHASE
➢ Centromere splits and daughter chromosomes move towards two opposite
poles.
➢ The centromere of each chromosome is towards the pole with the arms of
the chromosome trailing behind.

4.TELOPHASE
➢ Chromosomes finally reach their respective poles. The chromosomes begin
to de-condense and return into a undifferentiated mass.
➢ Nuclear envelope assembles around each chromosome clusters.
➢ Golgi bodies and ER complex, which had disappeared after prophase start
to reappear.

CYTOKINESIS
➢ Cytokinesis involves the division of cytoplasm of a cell.
➢ In animal cells, a furrow develops in the plasma membrane, which
gradually deepens and ultimately joins in the centre dividing the cell
cytoplasm into two.
➢ It is achieved in plant cell by cell plate formation.
➢ The formation of the new cell wall begins with the formation of a simple
precursor, called cell-plate that represents the middle lamella between the
walls of two adjacent cells.
➢ When karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis, a multinucleated
condition called syncytium is formed. (eg, liquid endosperm in coconut)

SINIFICANCE OF MITOSIS
➢ Mitosis usually results in the production of diploid daughter cells with
identical genetic compliment.
➢ The growth of multicellular organism is due to mitosis.
33
 ➢ Cell growth disturb the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio, so the cell has to divide to restore the nucleo-
cytoplasmic ratio.
➢ Mitosis also helps to cell repair. (eg, epidermal cells, lining of gut, and blood cells).
➢ Mitotic division in the meristematic tissues result in the continuous growth of plants throughout their
life.
MEIOSIS
➢ The cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes into half and haploid daughter cells are
produced.
➢ It helps in production of haploid phase in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organism.
➢ It involves following events of DNA replication.
➢ Two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called meiosis I and meiosis II but single cycle of
DNA replication.
➢ It involves pairing of homologous chromosome and recombination.
➢ Four haploid daughter cells are formed at the end of meiosis II.

MEIOSIS I

1.Prophase I
➢ Prophase of first meiotic division is longer and more complex. It is sub divided into five phases based
on chromosome behaviour, i.e; Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis.
Leptotene
➢ During Leptotene, the chromosome becomes distinct and visible under microscope.
➢ Compaction of chromosome continues throughout the leptotene phase.
Zygotene
➢ Pairing of homologous chromosomes called synapsis occurs.
➢ A pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is called bivalent.
➢ Synapsis occurs with help of complex called synaptonemal complex.
Pachytene
➢ Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes.
➢ The crossing over is enzyme mediated process which involves enzyme recombinase.
Diplotene
➢ It is recognized by dissolution of synaptonemal complex and tendency to separation of bivalent
except at the site of crossing over.
➢ The X-shaped structures formed during separation are known as chiasmata.
Diakinesis
➢ Terminalisation of chiasmata can be observed.
➢ By the end of this stage, the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope break.

2. Metaphase I
➢ The bivalents align at the equatorial plate.
➢ Microtubules from the opposite poles attach to the pairs of homologous chromosomes.

3. Anaphase I
➢ The two chromosomes of each bivalent separate and move to the opposite ends of the cells.
➢ The sister chromatids are attached to each other.

34
4. Telophase1
➢ Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear and cytokinesis follows.
➢ This is called as diad of the cells.
➢ The stage between two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and it is short lived and follows
meiosis II.

MEIOSIS II
➢ Meiosis II resemble normal mitosis. It is initiated after cytokinesis.
Prophase II
➢ The nuclear membrane disappears by the end of prophase II.
➢ The chromosomes again become compact.
Metaphase II
➢ Chromosomes align at the equator.
➢ Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of sister chromatids at each pole.

Anaphase II
➢ Chromatids separate by splitting of centromere.
➢ As a result, chromatids move towards their respective poles in the cell.

Telophase II
➢ The two groups of chromosomes get enclosed by a nuclear envelope.
➢ Cytokinesis follows resulting in the formation of tetrad of cells i.e., four haploid daughter cells.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
➢ Meiosis is the mechanism by which conservation of specific chromosome number is achieved across
generations in sexually reproducing organisms.
➢ It increases the genetic variability in the population of organisms.
➢ Variations are very important for the process of evolution.

VIJAYA P, HSST BOTANY, GHSS MEDICAL COLLEGE CAMPUS

35
 CHAPTER 7
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS
➢ Photosynthesis is a physico-chemical process by which green plants use light energy to drive the
synthesis of organic compounds. It is an enzyme regulated anabolic process. Chlorophyll, light, water
and CO2 is required for photosynthesis.

➢ Photosynthesis is the basis of life on earth because it is the primary source of all food on earth and it is
responsible for release of oxygen in the atmosphere.

Early Experiments

➢ Joseph Priestley in 1770, on the basis of his experiments showed the essential role of air in growth of
green plants. A mouse kept in closed space could get suffocated and die but if a mint plant is kept in
bell jar neither candle will extinguish nor will the mouse die. He concluded that foul air produced by
animal is converted into pure air by plants. Priestley discovered Oxygen gas in 1774.

➢ Julius Von Sachs in 1854 shows that green part in plants produces glucose which is stored as starch.
Starch is the first visible product of photosynthesis.
➢ T.W.Engelmann (1843-1909) used prism to split light into its components and then illuminated
Cladophora (an algae) placed in a suspension of aerobic bacteria. He found that bacteria accumulated in
blue and red light of the split spectrum. He thus discovered the effect of different wavelength of light on
photosynthesis (action spectrum).
➢ Cornelius Van Neil (1897-1985) on the basis of studies with purple and green sulphur bacteria showed
that photosynthesis is a light dependent reaction in which hydrogen from an oxidisable compound
reduces CO2to form sugar. In green sulphur bacteria, when H2S instead of H2O was used as hydrogen
donor, no O2 was evolved. He inferred that O2 evolved by green plants comes from H2O but not from
CO2 as thought earlier.

Where Does Photosynthesis Takes Place?

➢ Chloroplasts are green plastids which function as the site of photosynthesis in eukaryotic
photoautotrophs. Inside the leaves, chloroplast is generally present in mesophyll cells along their walls.
➢ Within the chloroplast there is a membranous system consisting of grana, the stroma lamellae and the
fluid stroma.
➢ The membrane system is responsible for synthesizing light energy for the synthesis of ATP and
NADPH. In stroma enzymatic reactions incorporate CO2 in plants leading to synthesis of sugar.
➢ The reaction in which light energy is absorbed by grana to synthesis ATP and NADPH is called light
reaction. The later part of photosynthesis in which CO2 is reduced to sugar, light is not necessary and is
called dark reaction.

36
Pigments involved in Photosynthesis – Chromatographic separation of leaf pigments are as follows

➢ Maximum absorption by chlorophyll a occurs in blue and red regions having higher rate of
photosynthesis. So, chlorophyll a is the chief pigment.

➢ Other thylakoid pigments like chlorophyll b, xanthophyll and carotenoids are called accessary
pigments that absorb light and transfer energy to chlorophyll a and protect them from photo-oxidation.

Light reaction

Light reaction (photochemical phase) includes:

➢ Light absorption
➢ Water splitting
➢ Oxygen release and Formation of high energy chemical intermediates (ATP and NADPH).

➢ The pigments are organized into two discrete LHC (light harvesting complex) within photosystem I and
photosystem II.

37
 ➢ LHC are made up of hundreds of pigments molecules containing all pigments except single chlorophyll
a molecule in each PS.
➢ The pigments in photosystem I and photosystem II absorbs the lights of different wavelength. Single
chlorophyll a molecule makes the reaction centre. In PS I reaction centre has highest peak at 700nm,
hence called P700. And PS II reaction centre has highest peak at 680 nm, so called P680

The Non-Cyclic Electron Transport System

➢ Reaction centre of photosystem II absorbs light of 680 nm in red region and causing electron to become
excited. These electrons are picked by an electron acceptor which passes to electron transport system
consisting of cytochromes.
➢ Electrons are passed down the electron transport chain and then to the pigment of PS I.
➢ Electron in the PSI also get excited due to light of wavelength 700nm and are transferred to another
accepter molecule having a greater redox potential.
➢ When electron passes in downhill direction, energy is released. This is used to reduce the ADP to ATP
and NADP+ to NADPH. The whole scheme of transfer of electron is called Z-scheme due to its shape.
➢ Photolysis of water release electrons that provide electron to PS II. Oxygen is also released during this
process.

Fig: Non- Cyclic electron transport system Fig: Cyclic electron transport system

Cyclic electron Transport system

➢ PS1 is only functional. Cyclic flow of electrons occurs. Only ATP is produced. It occurs in the stroma
lamella., which contain only PS1. The exited electrons does not pass on to NADP + but is cycled back
to PS1 complex through the electron transport chain.

Photophosphorylation:

➢ The process through which ATP is synthesized by cells in mitochondria and chloroplast is named
phosphorylation.
➢ Photophosphorylation is synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate in the presence of light.

Difference between cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation

Cyclic photophosphorylation Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

➢ It is performed by photosystem I
independently. ➢ It is performed by collaboration of both PS I and
➢ An external source of electron is not PS II.
required. ➢ The process requires an external electron donor.
➢ It synthesizes only ATP. ➢ It synthesizes ATP and NADH both.
➢ It occurs only in stromal or intergranal ➢ It occurs in the granal thylakoids only.
thylakoids.
38
CHEMIOSMOTIC HYPOTHESIS OF ATP FORMATION

➢ Chemiosmotic hypothesis has been put forward to explain the mechanism of ATP synthesis.
➢ ATP synthesis is linked to development of proton gradient across the membrane of thylakoid and
mitochondria.

➢ Chemiosmotic hypothesis explain the mechanism of ATP synthesis in chloroplast.

➢ In photosynthesis, ATP synthesis is linked to development of a proton gradient across a membrane.
➢ The protons that are produced by the splitting of water are accumulated inside of membrane of
thylakoids (in lumen).
➢ As the electron moves through the photosystem, protons are transported across the membrane.
➢ NADP reductase enzyme is located on the stroma side of the membrane, along with electrons from the
acceptor it removes H+ from the stroma during reduction of NADPH + H+.
➢ This creates proton gradients across the thylakoid membrane as well as a measurable decrease in pH in
the lumen.
➢ ATPase has a channel that allows diffusion of protons back to stroma across the membrane.
➢ This releases energy to activate ATPase enzyme that catalyses the formation of ATP.
➢ ATP and NADH, the products of light reaction are used in synthesis of food.
➢ The first CO2 fixation product in C3 plant is 3-phosphoglyceric acid or PGA.
➢ In some other plants the first stable product is an organic acid called oxaloacetic acid a 4-C compound
hence is called C4 plants.

THE CALVIN CYCLE

➢ The CO2 acceptor molecule is RuBP (Ribulose bisphosphate).
➢ The cyclic path of sugar formation is called Calvin cycle on the name of Melvin Calvin, the discoverer
of this pathway. Calvin cycle proceeds in three stages:

Carboxylation :
➢ Carboxylation is the fixation of CO2 into a stable organic intermediate.
➢ CO2 combines with Ribulose 1, 5 bisphosphate to form 3 PGA in the presence of RuBisCo enzyme.

Reduction :
➢ These are a series of reactions that lead to the formation of glucose.
➢ 2 molecules of ATP for phosphorylation and two of NADPH for reduction per CO2 molecule fixed.
39
 ➢ The fixation of six molecules of CO2 and 6 turns of the cycle are required for the formation of one
molecule of glucose.

Regeneration :
➢ Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor molecule RuBP is crucial if the cycle is to continue uninterrupted.
➢ Regeneration steps required one ATP for phosphorylation to form RuBP.
➢ Hence for every CO2 molecule entering the Calvin cycle, 3 molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of
NADPH are required.
➢ To make one molecule of glucose 6 turns of cycle is completed so total energy required is

In Out
➢ Six CO2 ➢ One glucose
➢ 18 ATP ➢ 18 ADP
➢ 12 NADPH ➢ 12 NADP

Calvin Cycle/C3 cycle

The C4 pathway :
➢ Plants that are adapted to dry tropical regions have the C4 pathway.
➢ C4 acid (oxaloacetic acid) is the first CO2 fixation product.
➢ These plants have special type of leaf anatomy, they tolerate higher temperatures.
➢ The leaf has two types of cells: mesophyll cells are involved
➢ Bundle sheath with wreath like arrangement of large cells (Kranz anatomy).
➢ Initially CO2 is taken up by phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) in mesophyll cells and changed to oxaloacetic
acid (OAA) in the presence of PEP carboxylase.
➢ Oxaloacetate is reduced to malate/asparate that reaches into bundle sheath cells.
➢ In the bundle sheath cells these C4 acids are broken down to release CO2 and a 3-carbon molecule i.e.
pyruvic acid.
➢ The CO2 released in the bundle sheath cell enters the C3 cycle because these cells are rich in enzyme
Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase (RuBisCO).
40
 ➢ The pyruvate formed in the bundle sheath cell transported back to the mesophyll cell, get
phosphorylated to form phosphoenol pyruvate, eg. Maize, Sorghum.

Photorespiration:

➢ The light induced respiration (evolution of CO2) in green plants is called photorespiration.
➢ RuBisCO has active site for both O2 and CO2.
➢ In this process RuBP instead of being converted to 2 molecules of PGA, binds with O2 to form one
molecule of phosphoglycerate and phosphoglycolate.
➢ It results in the release of CO2 with utilization of ATP.
➢ In the photorespiratory pathway there is neither synthesis of sugar, nor of ATP.
➢ Therefore, photorespiration is a wasteful process.
➢ In C4 plant photorespiration does not occur.
➢ Hence C4 plants are photosynthetically more efficient than C3 plant.

C3 CYCLE C4 CYCLE
➢ The leaves do not have Kranz
➢ The leaves show Kranz anatomy.
anatomy.
➢ Mesophyll cells and bundle sheath cells are
➢ Mesophyll cells perform complete
involved.
photosynthesis.
➢ Photorespiration does not occur.
➢ Photorespiration occurs.
➢ PEP is the first acceptor of CO2.
➢ RuBP is the first acceptor of CO2.
➢ Both RuBP carboxylase and PEP carboxylase are
➢ RuBP carboxylase is the enzyme for
present
carboxylation.
➢ OAA is the first stable product.
➢ PGA is the first stable product.
➢ Plants are adapted to tropical climate.
➢ Plants are adapted to all climates.

41
Factors affecting photosynthesis

Environmental factors
➢ Light: Light intensity, light quality and duration of exposure affects photosynthesis. At low light
intensities there is linear relationship between incident light and CO2 fixation. At higher light intensities
the photosynthetic rate does not show further increase as other factors become limiting. Light saturation
occurs at 10% of the full sunlight. Increase in sunlight beyond a point causes the breakdown of
chlorophyll and a decrease in photosynthesis.

➢ Carbon dioxide concentration: With increase in concentration of CO2 rate of photosynthesis increase
till the compensation point.
➢ Temperature: It does not influence the rate of photosynthesis directly but at higher temperature
enzyme activity is inhibited due to denaturation of enzymes which affect the dark reaction.
➢ Water: Due to increase in amount of water, rate photosynthesis does not increase proportionally as
after saturation no more water is required during photosynthesis.

Plant factors:
➢ Age, size, number and orientation of leaves
➢ Mesophyll cells and chloroplast
➢ Internal CO2 concentration
➢ Amount of chlorophyll.

Law of Limiting Factors:

➢ If a chemical process is affected by more than one factor, then its rate will be determined by the factor
which is nearest to its minimal value. It is the factor which directly affects the process if its quantity is
changed.
➢ If all other factors are available in optimum level and temperature is very low the plant cannot
photosynthesise.

VIJAYA P, HSST BOTANY, GHSS MEDICAL COLLEGE CAMPUS

42
 CHAPTER 8
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
➢ All living organisms need energy for carrying out ‘life’ processes. It is obtained by oxidation of some
macromolecules obtained from ‘food’.
➢ Green plants and cyanobacteria can prepare their own food by photosynthesis.
➢ All other organisms directly or indirectly depend on green plants for their food.
➢ The mechanism of breakdown of food materials within the cell to release energy, and the trapping of
this energy for synthesis of ATP is called cellular respiration.
➢ Respiration is the process of breaking of the C-C bonds of complex compounds through oxidation
within the cells, leading to release of considerable amount of energy.

C6H12O6 +6O2 → 6CO2+ 6H2O+ energy

Respiratory Substrates
➢ The compounds that are oxidised during the process of respiration are called respiratory substrates.
➢ Usually, carbohydrates are oxidised in large amounts to release energy.
➢ Under some conditions in some plants, proteins, fats and organic acids are also used as respiratory
substrates.
➢ During the oxidation of food within a cell, all the energy contained in the respiratory substrates is
released in step-wise reactions controlled by enzymes and is trapped as chemical energy in ATP.
➢ Thus, ATP acts as the energy currency of the cell.

Exchange of Gases in Plants

➢ For the process of respiration, plant takes O2 and releases CO2.
➢ Plants have stomata and lenticels for gaseous exchange instead of specialised organs that are present in
animals.
➢ Plants can live without respiratory organs due to the following are the reasons.
➢ (i)) Every part of the plant has the ability of gas exchange and transport of gases is very rare from one
part to another.
➢ (ii) During photosynthesis that large volumes of gases are exchanged and each leaf of the plant has
ability to take care of its own needs by these processes.
➢ (iii) The distance that gases must diffuse even in large, bulky plants is not great. Each living cell in a
plant is located quite close to the surface of the plant.

TYPES OF RESPIRATION
➢ During the process of respiration, utilisation of O2 takes place with the release of CO2, water and energy
as products.
➢ According to the dependence of oxygen, cellular respiration may be classified into two types as given
below
Aerobic Respiration
➢ This is the type of respiration in which organism utilise oxygen for the complete oxidation of organic
food into CO2 and water. It occurs inside the mitochondria.
➢ Aerobic respiration yields more energy as the respiratory substrate gets completely oxidised in the
presence of O2.
Anaerobic Respiration
➢ This is the type of respiration in which organic food is oxidised incompletely without using oxygen.
➢ It occurs in cytoplasm and often releases small amount of energy.
➢ Many organisms are anaerobic some are aerobic.
➢ This breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid is called glycolysis

RESPIRATION
➢ Cellular respiration occurs inside the cell and proceeds with the help of enzymes.
➢ The first step in respiration (taking glucose as substrate) is the glycolysis.
43
 ➢ After glycolysis, the pyruvic acid may enter the Krebs’ cycle (aerobic respiration) or undergo
➢ fermentation (anaerobic respiration).

GLYCOLYSIS
➢ Glycolysis is a step-wise process by which one molecule of
glucose (6C) breaks down into two
➢ molecules of pyruvic acid (3C).
➢ The scheme of glycolysis was given by Gustav Embden,
Otto Meyerhof and J Parnas and is often referred as the
EMP pathway.
➢ It is a common pathway in both aerobic and anaerobic
modes of respiration.
➢ But in case of anaerobic organisms, it is the only process
taking place during respiration.
➢ Glycolysis is the process in which glucose undergoes partial
oxidation to form two molecules of pyruvic acid.
➢ In plants this glucose is derived from sucrose (end product
of photosynthesis) or from storage carbohydrates.
➢ Sucrose is converted into glucose and fructose by the
enzyme, invertase, and these two
➢ monosaccharides readily enter the glycolytic pathway.

Steps Involved in Glycolysis.

➢ Glucose and fructose are phosphorylated to give rise to
glucose-6- phosphate by the activity of the enzyme
hexokinase.
➢ Isomerisation of this phosphorylated glucose-6-phosphate
takes place to form fructose-6-phosphate with the help of an
enzyme phosphohexose isomerase
➢ This fructose-6-phosphate is again phosphorylated by ATP in order to form fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
in the presence of an enzyme phosphofructokinase and Mg2+.
➢ Splitting of fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate takes place into two triose phosphate molecules, i.e.,
dihydroxyacetone phosphate and
➢ 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (i.e., PGAL).
➢ Each molecule of PGAL removes two redox equivalents in the form of hydrogen atom and transfer
them to a molecule of NAD+ (This NAD+ forms NADH + H + ).
➢ Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is converted to 1,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid by the enzyme glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate dehydrogenase
➢ 1,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid is converted to 3-phosphoglyceric acid by the enzyme phosphoglycerate
kinase.
➢ 3-phosphoglyceric acid is converted to 2-phosphoglycerate by the enzyme phophoglyceromutase.
➢ 2-phosphoglycerate is converted to Phosphoenol Pyruvate (PEP) with the release of water.
➢ Pyruvate kinase converts phosphoenol pyruvate to pyruvate.
Metabolic Fate of Glycolysis
➢ ATP is utilised at two steps: first in the conversion of glucose into glucose 6-phosphate and second in
the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate.
➢ When 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) is converted to 1, 3-bisphosphoglyceric acid (BPGA),
NADH + H+ is formed from NAD+.
➢ Conversion of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to 3-phosphoglycerate and phospho-enol pyruvate to pyruvate,
are energy-yielding process, where energy is trapped by the formation of ATP.
➢ The overall reaction of glycolysis can be depicted as
Glucose + 2Pi + 2ADP + 2NAD+ —> 2 Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH+H+
➢ Two molecules of NADH+H+ on oxidation produce 6 molecules of ATP. Therefore, a net gain of
8ATP molecules occurs during glycolysis.
44
 ➢ There are three major ways in which different cells handle pyruvic acid produced by glycolysis.
➢ These are lactic acid fermentation, alcoholic fermentation and aerobic respiration.
➢ Fermentation takes place under anaerobic conditions in many prokaryotes and unicellular eukaryotes.
➢ For the complete oxidation of glucose to CO2 and H2O, organisms follow Krebs’ cycle, which is
also called as aerobic respiration.

FERMENTATION
➢ Fermentation is the incomplete oxidation of glucose under
anaerobic conditions by sets of reactions.
➢ Fermentation is of two types
1.Alcoholic fermentation and
2.Lactic acid fermentation.
➢ In alcohol fermentation, pyruvic acid is converted to CO2
and ethanol by pyruvic acid decarboxylase and alcohol
dehydrogenase.
➢ It is done under two steps
(а) Pyruvic acid is first de-carboxylated to acetaldehyde in
the presence of enzyme pyruvic acid decarboxylase.
(b) This acetaldehyde is further reduced to ethyl alcohol or
ethanol in the presence of enzyme, i.e., alcohol
dehydrogenase.
➢ During lactic acid fermentation, organisms like some
bacteria produces lactic acid as an end product from pyruvic acid.
➢ In some animal cells (muscles during exercise) when oxygen is inadequate for cellular respiration
pyruvic acid is reduced to lactic acid by lactate dehydrogenase.
➢ In the alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation, NADH+H+ is the reducing agent which is oxidized to
NAD+.
➢ The energy released in both the processes is not much and the total sum of ATP molecules produced
during fermentation is 2 ATP.
➢ In both lactic acid and alcohol fermentation not much energy is released.
➢ As a result of fermentation either acid or alcohol is produced on oxidation.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
➢ The complete breakdown of glucose molecules in the presence of oxygen to release energy is
➢ called aerobic respiration.
➢ For aerobic respiration, pyruvate is transported from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria.
➢ The crucial events in aerobic respiration are:
➢ The complete oxidation of pyruvate by the stepwise removal of all the hydrogen atoms,
➢ leaving three molecules of CO2.
➢ The passing on of the electrons removed as part of the hydrogen atoms to molecular O2
➢ with simultaneous synthesis of ATP
➢ First event takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria while the second process is located
➢ on the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
➢ In mitochondria, Pyruvate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation by a complex set of reactions
catalysed by pyruvic dehydrogenase with the participation of several coenzymes, including
NAD+ and Co-enzyme A.

➢ Two molecules of NADH are produced from the metabolism of two molecules of pyruvic acid.
➢ The acetyl CoA then enters a cyclic pathway, tricarboxylic acid cycle, more commonly called
➢ as Krebs’ cycle after the scientist Hans Krebs who first elucidated it

45
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE
➢ The TCA cycle starts with the condensation of
acetyl Co-enzyme A with oxaloacetic acid
➢ (OAA) and water to yield citric acid.The reaction is
catalysed by the enzyme citrate synthase and one
molecule of CoA is released. Citrate is then
isomerised to isocitrate.
➢ It is followed by two successive steps of
decarboxylation, leading to the formation of α-
ketoglutaric acid and then succinyl-CoA.
➢ In the next step Succinyl-CoA is oxidised to OAA
allowing the cycle to continue.
➢ During the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinic
acid a molecule of GTP is synthesised. This is a
substrate level phosphorylation.
➢ In a coupled reaction GTP is converted to GDP with
the simultaneous synthesis of ATP from ADP.

Output of Krebs’ Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle

➢ During this cycle of reactions, 3 molecules of NAD+ are reduced to NADH + H+, and one molecule of
FAD+ is reduced to FADH2.
➢ During this one molecule of ATP is reduced directly from GTP (by substrate level phosphorylation).

➢ For continuous oxidation of acetyl Co-A, continued

replenishment of oxalo acetic acid is necessary. In
addition to this regeneration of NAD+ from NADH and
FAD+ from FADH2 are also required.
➢ At the end, glucose has been broken down to release
CO2 and 8 molecules of NADH+H+, two
➢ FADH2 are synthesised and just two molecules of ATP.

Electron Transport System (ETS) and Oxidative

Phosphorylation
➢ These reactions in the respiratory process are to release
and utilise the energy stored in NADH+H+ and FADH2.
➢ The metabolic pathway through which the electron
passes from one carrier to another, is called the electron
transport system (ETS) and it is present in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
➢ This is accomplished when they are oxidised through the
electron transport system and the electrons are passed on
to O2 resulting in the formation of H2O.
➢ Electrons from NADH produced in the mitochondrial
matrix during citric acid cycle are oxidised by an NADH
dehydrogenase (complex I), and electrons are then
transferred to
➢ ubiquinone located within the inner membrane.
Ubiquinone also receives reducing equivalents via
FADH2 (complex II) that is generated during oxidation of
succinate in the citric acid cycle.

46
 ➢ The reduced ubiquinone (ubiquinol) is then oxidised with the transfer of electrons to cytochrome c via
cytochrome bc1 complex (complex III). Cytochrome c is a small protein attached to the outer surface of
the inner membrane and acts as a mobile carrier for transfer of electrons between complex III and IV.
➢ Complex IV refers to cytochrome c oxidase complex containing cytochromes a and a3 , and two copper
centres.
➢ When the electrons pass from one carrier to another via complex I to IV in the electron transport chain,
they are coupled to ATP synthase (complex V) for the production of ATPfrom ADP and inorganic
phosphate.

OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
➢ When the electrons pass from one carrier to another
via complex I to IV in the electron
transport chain, they are coupled to ATP synthase
(complex V) for the production of ATP
from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
➢ The electron transport and movement of protons
creates a proton gradient across the mitochondrial
membrane.
➢ The protons are pumped through a membrane protein
called complex-V.
➢ This complex consists of two major components, F1
and F0.
➢ The F1 headpiece is a peripheral membrane protein
complex and contains the site for synthesis of ATP
from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
➢ F0 is an integral membrane protein complex that forms the channel through which protons cross the
inner membrane.
➢ The energy derived from the proton pumping is used for the synthesis of ATP.
➢ For each ATP produced, 2H + passes through F0 from the intermembrane space to the matrix down the
electrochemical proton gradient.
➢ The number of ATP molecules synthesised depends on the nature of the electron donor.
➢ Oxidation of one molecule of NADH gives rise to 3 molecules of ATP, while that of one molecule of
FADH2 produces 2 molecules of ATP.
➢ Although the aerobic process of respiration takes place only in the presence of oxygen, the role of
oxygen is limited to the terminal stage of the process.
➢ Oxygen acts as the final hydrogen acceptor. During respiration, the energy of oxidation-reduction
utilised for the phosphorylation and hence the process is called oxidative phosphorylation.

THE RESPIRATORY BALANCE SHEET

➢ The net gain of ATP for every glucose molecule oxidised can be calculated based on the
➢ following assumptions:
➢ There is a sequential, orderly pathway functioning, with one substrate forming the next and with
glycolysis, TCA cycle and ETS pathway following one after another.
➢ The NADH synthesised in glycolysis is transferred into the mitochondria and undergoes oxidative
phosphorylation.
➢ None of the intermediates in the pathway are utilised to synthesise any other compound.
➢ Only glucose is being respired no other alternative substrates are entering in the pathway at
➢ any of the intermediary stages.
➢ Thus the net gain of ATP produced during aerobic respiration from one molecule of glucose,
➢ through glycolysis, Krebs’ Cycle and ETS are 38 ATP.
➢ Fermentation, on the other hand, results in a net gain of 2 ATP molecules from the partial
breakdown of the glucose molecule.

47
AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY

➢ Respiration is the breakdown of the

complex compounds into simple ones
to produce energy molecule, ATP.
➢ Hence the process is called catabolic
process and the pathway is termed as a
catabolic pathway.
➢ Actually, respiration is the result of
both anabolic and catabolic.
➢ When energy is required, proteins or
fatty acids are broken down to form
acetyl- CoA and further processes of
respiration occur (catabolism).
➢ When the body requires fatty acids or
proteins, respiratory pathway stops and
the same acetyl-CoA is utilized and
fatty acids are manufactured
(anabolism).
➢ Thus we can say respiration is the
process involving both catabolism and
anabolism. Products of the Krebs cycle
and glycolysis act as a precursor for the synthesis of fats, proteins, etc. Hence, the respiratory pathway
is known as an amphibolic pathway.

RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT
➢ The ratio of the volume of CO 2 evolved to the volume of O 2 consumed in respiration is called the
respiratory quotient (RQ) or respiratory ratio.

➢ The respiratory quotient depends upon the type of respiratory substrate used during respiration.
➢ When carbohydrates are used as substrate and are completely oxidised, the RQ will be 1, because equal
amounts of CO 2 and O 2 are evolved and consumed, respectively.

➢ When fats are used in respiration, the RQ is less than 1.

➢ Calculations for a fatty acid, tripalmitin, if used as a substrate is shown:

➢ When proteins are respiratory substrates the ratio would be about 0.9.
➢ Pure proteins or fats are never used as respiratory substrates.

DR VIJAYA P, HSST BOTANY, GHSS MEDICAL COLLEGE CAMPUS

48
 CHAPTER 9
PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
➢ The life of a plant initiates from a single cell called zygote.
➢ All the structures of plants such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds arise from
➢ the single cell in a very orderly sequence.

GROWTH
➢ Growth can be defined as a dynamic, irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ, its parts or
even an individual cell.
➢ Growth is accompanied by both anabolic and catabolic processes that occur at the expense of energy.

Plant Growth Generally is Indeterminate

➢ Plant growth is unique because plants retain the capacity for unlimited growth throughout
➢ their life due to the presence of meristems at certain locations in their body.
➢ Apical meristems are responsible for primary growth of the plants and elongation of the
plants along their axis.
➢ Lateral meristems, vascular cambium and cork cambium, appear later and these are responsible for the
increase in the girth and known as secondary growth.

Growth is Measurable
➢ It is observed that at cellular level, growth is the consequence of increase in the amount of protoplasm.
➢ It is difficult to measure the increase in the protoplasm directly, but use different parameters like
increase in fresh weight, dry weight, length, area, volume and cell number.

Phases of Growth
➢ Plant growth is generally divided into three phases, namely, meristematic, elongation and maturation.
➢ The meristematic phase of growth is represented by the constantly dividing cells, both at the root apex
and the shoot apex.
➢ The cells of meristamatic region are rich in protoplasm, possess large conspicuous nuclei, cell
➢ walls are primary in nature, thin and cellulosic with abundant plasmodesmatal connections.
➢ The cells of elongation phase show cell enlargement and new cell wall deposition.
49
 ➢ Just behind the phase of elongation, occurs a phase of maturation.
➢ The cells of maturation phase attain their maximal size in terms of wall thickening and protoplasmic
modifications.

Growth rate
➢ The growth rate is defined as the increased growth per unit time.
➢ Rate of growth can be expressed mathematically, and may be arithmetic or geometrical in nature.
➢ In arithmetic growth, following mitotic cell division, only one daughter cell continues to divide
➢ while the other differentiates and matures.

➢ On plotting the length of the organ against time, a linear curve is obtained.
➢ Mathematically, it is expressed as L t = L0 + rt
➢ L t = length time at t , L = length at time zero, r = growth rate / elongation per unit time.
➢ In geometrical growth, the initial growth is slow (lag phase), and it increases rapidly
➢ thereafter at an exponential rate (log phase),
➢ During this phase, both progeny cells undergoing mitotic cell division retain the ability to
➢ divide and continue to do so.
➢ With limited nutrient supply, the growth slows down leading to a stationary phase.
➢ If we plot the parameter of growth against time, we get a typical sigmoid or S-curve.
➢ A sigmoid curve is a characteristic of living organism growing in a natural environment.
➢ The exponential growth can be expressed as
➢ W1 = W0 ert
➢ Where W1 = final size, W0 – initial size, r = growth rate, t = time of growth
➢ e = base of natural logarithms
➢ Here r is the relative growth rate and is also the measure of the ability of the plant to produce new plant
material, referred to as efficiency index.
➢ The final size of W1 depends on the initial size, W0.

50
Quantitative comparisons between the growth of living system can also be made in two ways:
➢ 1.Absolute Growth Rate
➢ Measurement and the comparison of total growth per unit time is called the absolute growth rate.
➢ 2.Relative growth rate
➢ It is the growth of the given system per unit time expressed on a common basis, e.g., Per unit initial
parameter, eg; 2 leaves A and B show exact absolute increase in the area in a given time. However one
of them has much higher relative growth rate.
➢ Leaves A and B has grown by 5cm2 in one day. The initial size of the leaf was 5cm2, while that of leaf B
was 50cm2. Even though their absolute growth is the same, relative growth rate is faster in leaf A.

Conditions for growth

➢ The growth of a plant is influenced by a variety of external and internal factors.
➢ Water, oxygen and nutrients are very essential elements for growth.
➢ Water helps the plant cells to grow in size by cell enlargement and act as the medium for
➢ enzymatic activities.
➢ Oxygen helps in releasing metabolic energy essential for growth activities.
➢ Macro and micro essential elements are required by plants for the synthesis of protoplasm
➢ and act as source of energy.
➢ In addition, an optimum temperature range and environmental factors like light and gravity
➢ also affect certain phases/stages of growth.

DIFFERENTIATION, DEDIFFERENTIATION AND REDIFFERENTIATION

➢ The cells derived from root apical and shoot-apical meristems and cambium differentiate and
➢ mature to perform specific functions, termed as differentiation.
➢ The living differentiated cells that have lost the capacity to divide can regain the capacity of
➢ division under certain conditions, termed as dedifferentiation.
➢ eg, formation of meristems – interfascicular cambium and cork cambium from parenchyma cells.
➢ De-differentiated tissues divide and produce cells that once again lose the capacity to divide
➢ but mature to perform specific functions, this phenomenon is redifferentiation.

51
Development
➢ Development is a term that includes all changes that an organism goes through during its life
➢ cycle from germination of the seed to senescence.
➢ Plants follow different pathways in response to environment or phases of life to form
➢ different kinds of structures, and this ability is called plasticity.
➢ For example- heterophylly in cotton (The phenomenon in plants by which more than two types
➢ of leaves occurs on the same plant).

➢ Development is considered as the sum of growth and differentiation and it is under the control of
intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
➢ Intrinsic factors include plant growth regulators, whereas extrinsic factor includes light, water, oxygen,
temperature, nutrition, etc.

PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS

➢ The plant growth regulators (PGRs) are small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition.
➢ Examples- Indole compounds (indole-3-acetic acid, IAA); adenine derivatives (N6-furfuryl-
➢ amino purine, kinetin), derivatives of carotenoids (abscisic acid, ABA); terpenes (gibberellic
➢ acid, GA3); gases (ethylene, C2H).
➢ The PGRs can be broadly divided into two groups based on their functions. They are plant growth
promoters and plant growth inhibitors.
➢ Plant growth promoters are involved in growth promoting activities, such as cell division, cell
➢ enlargement, pattern formation.
➢ Major growth promoters include auxins, gibberellins and cytokinin.
➢ Plant growth inhibitors are involved in various growth inhibiting activities such as dormancy
➢ and abscission. Example- abscisic acid
➢ Ethylene acts as both promoter and inhibitor, though it is largely an inhibitor of growth activities.

The Discovery of Plant Growth Regulators

➢ Discovery of plant growth regulators started with the
observation of Charles Darwin and his son Francis
Darwin.
➢ They observed that the coleoptiles of canary grass
responded to unilateral illumination by
growing towards the light source.
➢ After a series of experiments, it was concluded that the
tip of coleoptile was the site of transmittable influence
that caused the bending of the entire coleoptile.
➢ Auxin was isolated by F.W. Went from tips of coleoptiles of oat seedlings.
➢ Gibberellins were first isolated from the fungus Gibberella fujikuroi,the causal organism of Bakanae
disease or foolish seedling disease of rice plants.
➢ E. Kurosawa (1926) reported the appearance of symptoms of the disease in rice seedlings when they
were treated with sterile filtrates of the fungus.
➢ The active substances were later identified as gibberellic acid.
52
 ➢ The first cytokinin was discovered by Miller, Skoog and his co-workers (1955) during callus tissue
culture of tobacco.
➢ The identified and crystallised the cytokinesis promoting active substance that they termed kinetin.
➢ During mid I960s, three independent researchers reported the purification and chemical
➢ characterisation of three different kinds of inhibitors i.e., inhibitor B, abscission II and dormin.
➢ Later all the three were proved to be chemically identical. It was named abscisic acid (ABA).
➢ Cousins (1910), confirmed the release of a volatile substance from ripened oranges that enhance the
ripening of stored unripened bananas.
➢ This volatile substance was later identified to be a gaseous plant growth regulators, i.e., ethylene.

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS

1.Auxins
➢ The term ‘auxin’ is applied to the indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and to other natural and
➢ synthetic compounds having certain growth regulating properties.
➢ They are generally produced by the growing apices of the stems and roots.
➢ IAA and indole butyric acid (IBA) have been isolated from plants(natural) and NAA (naphthalene acetic
acid) and 2, 4-D (2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic) are synthetic auxins.
➢ They help to initiate rooting in stem cuttings, promote flowering, prevent fruit and leaf drop
➢ at early stages, induce parthenocarpy (example- tomato).
➢ Auxin help to prevent fruit and leaf drop at early stages but promote the abscission of older mature
leaves and fruits.
➢ Auxin also controls xylem differentiation and helps in cell division.
➢ Auxin promotes apical dominance.
➢ In most higher plants, the growing apical bud inhibits the growth of the lateral (axillary)
➢ buds, a phenomenon called apical dominance.
➢ Removal of shoot tips (decapitation) usually results in the growth of lateral buds. It is
➢ widely applied in tea plantations, hedge-making.
➢ Auxins are widely used as herbicides. Example- 2, 4-D is widely used to kill dicotyledonous weeds.

2.Gibberellins
➢ All gibberellins are acidic and are denoted as GA, GA 2,
GA 3 ........and so on.
➢ Gibberellic acid (GA 3 ) was one of the first gibberellins
to be discovered.
➢ Their ability to cause an increase in length of axis is used
to increase the length of grapes stalks.
➢ They help to elongate and improve shape of fruits, delay
senescence.
➢ Spraying sugarcane crop with gibberellins increases the
length of the stem, thus increasing the yield
➢ Gibberellins also promotes bolting (internode elongation
just prior to flowering) in beet, cabbages and many
plants with rosette habit.
➢ Gibberellins also promotes bolting, defined as internode
elongation just prior to flowering, in beet, cabbages.

3.Cytokinins
➢ Cytokinins were discovered as kinetin (a modified form of adenine, a purine) from the autoclaved
herring sperm DNA.
➢ Zeatin is a natural cytokinin isolated from corn-kernels and coconut milk.
➢ Natural cytokinins are synthesised in regions where rapid cell division occurs, for example, root apices.
➢ Cytokinin helps to produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, lateral shoot growth and adventitious
shoot formation.
53
 ➢ Cytokinins help overcome the apical dominance and promote nutrient mobilisation which helps in the
delay of leaf senescence.

4. Ethylene
➢ Ethylene is a simple gaseous plant growth regulator synthesized by tissues undergoing senescence and
in ripening fruits.
➢ Influences of ethylene on plants include horizontal growth of seedlings, swelling of the axis and apical
hook formation in dicot seedlings.
➢ Ethylene promotes senescence and abscission of plant organs, and ripening of fruits.
➢ It enhances the respiration rate during ripening of the fruits. This rise in rate of respiration is called
respiratory climactic.
➢ Ethylene breaks seed and bud dormancy, initiates germination in peanut seeds, sprouting of
➢ potato tubers.
➢ Ethylene promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation in deep water rice plants. It helps leaves/ upper
parts of the shoot to remain above water.
➢ Ethylene also promotes root growth and root hair formation, thus helping the plants to increase their
absorption surface.
➢ Ethephon is the most widely used compound as a source of ethylene in agriculture.
➢ Ethephon in an aqueous solution is readily absorbed and transported within the plant and releases
ethylene slowly.
➢ Ethephon hastens fruit ripening in tomatoes and apples and accelerates abscission in flowers and fruits.
➢ It promotes female flowers in cucumbers thereby increasing the yield.

5. Abscisic Acid
➢ Abscisic acid (ABA) was discovered for its role in regulating abscission and dormancy.
➢ ABA inhibits seed germination.
➢ ABA stimulates the closure of stomata and increases the tolerance of plants to various kinds of stresses.
Therefore, it is also called the stress hormone.
➢ ABA plays an important role in seed development, maturation and dormancy.
➢ By inducing dormancy, ABA helps seeds to withstand desiccation and other factors unfavourable for
growth.
➢ ABA acts as an antagonist to Gibberellin.

Interaction between Plant Growth Regulators

➢ For every phase of growth, differentiation and development of plants, one or the other PGR has some
role to play.
➢ These can either act synergistically or antagonistically.
➢ Similarly, many functions in the plant body are controlled by more than one plan growth regulator. eg.
dormancy in seeds/ buds, abscission, senescence, apical dominance, etc

DR VIJAYA P, HSST BOTANY, GHSS MEDICAL COLLEGE CAMPUS

54