Obtain the expression for energy density of radiation in terms of Einstein’s Coefficients:

• rate of induced absorption = B12 Uγ N1 …… (1)

• rate of spontaneous emission=A21 N2 ……(2)
• rate of stimulated emission = B21 Uγ N2 ……(3)
Fig 1: Induced absorption
• Under thermal equilibrium B12 Uγ N1 = A21 N2 + B21 Uγ N2 …….(4)
𝐴 𝑁 1
• Uγ = 21 2 𝐵12𝑁1
𝐵21 𝑁2 −1
𝐵21 𝑁2
𝐴21 1
• Uγ = hν …….(5) where N1/N2 = e (h ν /kT)
𝐵21 𝐵12 𝑒 kT −1 Fig 2: spontaneous emission
𝐵21
8𝜋ℎ𝜗3 1
From Planck’s radiation law 𝑈 = ………..6)
𝐶3 ℎ𝜗
𝑘𝑇
𝑒 −1

𝐴21 8 πhν3 𝐵12

Compare equation (5) and (6) = and =1 Fig 3: stimulated emission
𝐵21 𝐶3 𝐵21
𝐴21 1
Energy Density Uγ = hν
𝐵21 𝐵12 𝑒 kT
−1
𝐵21
Mention the general conditions for laser action and also explain briefly the basic requirements for
generating a LASER light.

(i) Conditions for Laser

Presence of metastable states: An atom can remain in the excited state for a limited
time of about 10-8s. However, there exist such excited states in which the lifetime
is greater than 10-8s. These states are called as metastable states.
Population inversion: For lasing action to occur there should be more number of
atoms in the higher state than the lower state. Over a period of time atomic density
in the higher level decreases. The process of achieving back higher atomic density
in the higher level is known as population inversion.

(ii) Requisites of a Laser system

Energy Source (Excitation Source) : Which will rise the system to an excited state.
Active medium: Which when excited achieves population inversion. It may be a
solid, Liquid or gas.
Optical Cavity: Consisting of two mirrors facing each other. The active medium is
enclosed in this cavity. One of the mirrors is 100% reflective and the other is
partially transparent to let the some of the radiation to pass through. The optical
cavity is made use of to make the stimulated emission possible in more number of
atoms in the active medium. This naturally increases the intensity of the laser
beam.
Explain the construction and working of Semiconductor Laser:
Construction: Its a heavily doped semiconducting diode. P-type is formed by
doping GaAs with Zn and n-type is formed by doping with Te. Size of the diode is 1mm.
Thickness of the junction varies from 1 – 100 μm. The diode is connected in forward bias.
Working : Because of very high doping on n- side, the Fermi level is pushed in to the conduction
band and electrons occupy the portions of the conduction band that lies below the Fermi level
and on p-side, the Fermi level lies within the valence band and holes occupy the portions of the
valence band that lies above the Fermi level.
 A suitable forward bias is applied to overcome the potential barrier. As a result
electrons from n-region and holes from p-region injected into the junction.
 The current begins to flow following which there will be a region in junction in which
the population inversion can be achieved.
 Initially concentration of electrons in the energy levels at the bottom of the conduction
 band will be less than that of energy levels at top of valence band. So that the recombination of electrons and holes result
only in spontaneous emission.
 When the current exceeds the threshold value, population inversion is achieved in the active region which is formulated
in the junction.
• At this stage the photons emitted by spontaneous emission triggers stimulated emission, over a large number of
recombination leading to build up laser.
ℎ𝑐
• The wavelength of the laser emitted by the GaAs laser source is given by λ = 𝐸 = 8400Å where Eg is the energy gap of
𝑔
the semiconductor(1.4ev)
Obtain the expression for Numerical Aperture :
• n1, n2 and n0 are the refractive indices of core, Cladding and medium surrounding the
optical fiber. AO represent incident ray and ‘θ0’ angle made by AO with axis of the
fiber .This ray is refracted along OB inside the fiber with angle of refraction θ1. The ‘θ1’
is called critical angle of propagation.
• From Snell’s law, at O nosinθ0 = n1sinθ1 ------ (1)
𝑛1
Sinθ0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1
𝑛0
• Again Snell’s law at B; n1Sin(90-θ1) = n2sin90
cosθ1 = n2 / n1
𝑛1 𝑛2 2
Sinθ0 = 1−
𝑛0 𝑛1 2
𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
Numerical Aperture (NA) = Sinθ0 =
𝑛0
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒊 < 𝑵. 𝑨 is the condition for propagation
Types of optical fibers based on modes of propagation:

Step Index Single mode Step index Multimode Graded Index Multimode
Core diameter is 8 – 10 μm Core diameter is 50 – 200 μm Core diameter is 50 – 200 μm
Cladding diameter is 60 – 70 μm Cladding diameter is 100 – 250 μm Cladding diameter is 100 – 250 μm
Laser is the source Laser or LED is the source Laser or LED is the source
Core region will be having uniform Core region will be having uniform Refractive index of core region
refractive index as well cladding refractive index as well cladding also. decreases in radially outward direction
also. and cladding will be having uniform
refractive index.
Supports single mode propagation Supports multi mode propagation Supports multi mode propagation
Used in submarine cable systems. Used to provide data link between central Used in telephone trunk between
offices which has lower band width. the central offices.
Attenuation or Fiber loss and types of Attenuation:
• The loss of strength suffered by optical signal when it propagates through the fiber is called attenuation or fiber loss.
• Absorption:This arises due to absorption of photons associated with optical signal. Intrinsic absorption:- The absorption
of signal photons by basic core material itself is called intrinsic loss..
• Extrinsic absorption:- These are due to the absorption of light energy (photons) by the impurities present in the fiber.
• Scattering: There is structural inhomogeneity and imperfection present in the fiber which enters into the fiber during
fabrication of the fiber. This leads to sharp variations in the refractive index of the material which are smaller than
wavelength of the signal. When signal travels in the fiber, the photons may get scattered by these smaller particles. This
type of scattering is same as “Rayleigh scattering”
• Radiation losses (Bending losses): The radiation losses occur due to bending of optical
fibers. Two types of bending are observed in optical fibers. They are macro bending and
microbending of the fiber.
• Macrobending: Bending of the fiber having radii, more than radius of optical fiber is called Macrobending. These
bendings generally occur while turning the fiber around the corner or while wrapping the fiber.
• Microbending: Microbending occur due to small scale fluctuations in the linearity of the fiber. The bendings are occur due
to non uniformities in the manufacture of the fiber or by the lateral pressure to which the fiber might have subjected during
cabling the fiber.
State and explain De-Broglie hypothesis. Derive an equation for de Broglie wavelength by analogy.
• “ Since nature loves symmetry, if the radiation behaves as particle under certain Derivation de-Broglie wavelength by Analogy :
circumstances, then one can even expect that entities which ordinarily behaves as De-Broglie developed a theory in terms of light
particles to exhibit properties attributable to only waves under appropriate quanta (Photon). According to this theory,
circumstances”. This hypothesis is known as de-Broglie hypothesis.

• De- Broglie proposed that the wave length λ associated with a particle of momentum p is Light considered as a wave of frequency ν and its
given a λ = h/p energy is given by E = hν ……(1) and Light
considered as a particle of mass m, its energy is
• De-Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electron:
given by E = mc2………(2) Where ‘c’ is the
• Consider an electron (mass m, charge e) accelerated from rest through a potential V. The velocity of the electromagnetic radiation in free
kinetic energy K of the electron equals the work done (eV ) on it by the electric field space.
• E=eV ------ (1) From equations (1) and (2)
mc2 = hν
1 𝑝2
• We know that kinetic energy of electron is K =
2
𝑚𝑣 2 =
2𝑚
----- (2) (linear but ν = c/λ
momentum p = mv) so mc2 = hc/λ mc = h/λ
mc is the product of mass and velocity
• From eq.s (1)&(2) p = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉
⸫ mc = p (momentum) p=mc= h/λ
• According to De-Broglie λ = =
ℎ ℎ for a particle of mass ‘m’, moving with a velocity
𝑝 2𝑚𝑒𝑉
‘v’ the momentum ‘p’ is given by p=mv= h/λ
• Substituting the constant values of h = 6.626 × 10−34 Js, m = 9.11 × 10−31 kg and e = 1.602 λ = h/p
× 10−19 C λ is called as the de-Broglie wavelength.
1.226
λ= nm.
𝑉

• Where, V is the magnitude of accelerating potential in volts.

State Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle and using this prove that the electrons does not exist inside the nucleus.
“In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of a particle , the product of
the corresponding uncertainities inherently present in the measurement is greater than or equal
to h/4π”.
ΔxΔp ≥ h/4π or ΔEΔt ≥ h/4π or ΔLΔθ ≥ h/4π
Application of Uncertainty Principle - Proof of Non-existence of free electron in the nucleus:
The radius of nucleus of any atom is of the order of 10-14 m and the diameter is 2x10-14 m. If any electron is confined within the
nucleus then the uncertainty in its position (Δx) must not be greater than 2x10-14 m.
According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,
ℎ
Δ𝑥. Δ𝑃𝑥 ≥
4𝜋
the uncertainty in momentum is Δp > h / (4π Δx), where Δx = 2x10-14m
Δp > 2.63x10-21 Ns.
This is the uncertainty in the momentum of electron and then the momentum of the electron must be in the same order of magnitude.
We know that the mass of the electron is m = 9.1 x 10-31 kg.
If the electron has to exist in the nucleus then its energy must be

𝑃2 2.63 × 10−21 2
𝐸= ≥ −31 = 3.80x10−12 J = 23.7 × 106 𝑒𝑉 = 23.7 𝑀𝑒𝑉
2𝑚 2 × 9.1 × 10
if an electron has to exist within the nucleus it must have energy equal to or greater than 24 MeV. The experimental results on β decay show
that the maximum kinetic energy an electron can have, when it is confined within the nucleus is of the order of 3 - 4 MeV. Therefore, the
electrons cannot exist within the nucleus.
Set up one dimensional time independent Schrodinger wave equation:
Ѱ = Aei(kx - ωt) …………..(1) Let the space dependent part is ѱ= Aeikx
d2 Ѱ −iωt d ѱ
2
Ѱ=ѱ e-i ωt , differentiating
Ѱ twice , with respect to x then dx2 = e .........(2)
dx2
d2 Ѱ 2 iωt
Again differentiating Ѱ twice , with respect to time then dt2 = −ω e− ѱ ……………(3)
d2 y 1 d2 y
The travelling wave equation is given by dx2 = 𝑣 2 dt2
d2 Ѱ 1 d2 Ѱ
By analogy the wave equation for de-Broglie wave can be written as dx2 = 𝑣 2 dt2 ………….(4)
iωt d2 ѱ 1 2 iωt d2 ѱ ω2
Substituting equation (2) and (3) in equation (4), we get e− dx2 = 𝑣 2 −ω e− ѱ, ⸫ dx2 = − 𝑣 2 ѱ
= 2πν and v = νλ , 1 −1 d2 ѱ
We know that ω Substituting these values in the above equation we get, λ2 = 2 ……………(5)
4π ѱ dx2
1 2 𝑝2 ℎ2 1
Its kinetic energy = 2 𝑚𝑣 = 2𝑚 , But p = h/λ , then Kinetic energy = 2𝑚 λ2 …………….(6)
1
Substituting equation (5) in equation (6) for λ2 , equation (6) becomes
−ℎ2 1 d2 ѱ
Kinetic energy = 2 …………..(7)
8π m ѱ dx2
Let the particle be in a field, and its potential energy is V, then total energy of the particle is
E = kinetic energy + potential energy
−ℎ2 1 d2 ѱ
E = 8π2 m ѱ dx2 + 𝑉
−ℎ2 1 d2 ѱ d2 ѱ −8π2 m
2 = 𝐸 − 𝑉, = 𝐸 − 𝑉 ѱ,
8π m ѱ dx2 dx2 ℎ2
2
d2ѱ 8π m
⟹
dx2
+ ℎ2
(𝐸 − 𝑉)ѱ = 0 This is the one dimensional time independent Schrodinger wave equation
Derive the expression for energy eigen functions and eigen values for a particle in one dimensional potential well of
infinite height.
Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ inside a potential well Substitute the ‘k‘ value in equation (2) E=
𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐
of width ‘a’ moving along x-direction. The potential inside the 8𝑚𝑎2
box can be considered as zero and outside the well potential is Above equation represents the Eigen value eqn.
infinity. Inside the well (V=0), the Schrodinger wave equation Eigen Function: This wave function ‘ψ’ has to satisfy the
+∞
can be written as condition that −∞ | Ѱ|2 dτ =1
Thus using the boundary conditions, we can write
𝐝𝟐 𝛙 𝟖𝛑𝟐 𝐦 +∞ 2 2 𝑛𝜋 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1
+ ℎ2 𝐸 𝛙 = 𝟎 …………………(1) −∞
𝐷 𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑎
−ℎ2 d2 ѱ W.K.T Sin2θ = (1-Cos2θ)/2
8π2 m dx 2
= 𝐸ѱ 𝐷2 𝑎 𝐷2 𝑎 𝑛𝜋
Then [ 0
𝑑𝑥 d] - [ 0
Cos 2 x dx] = 1
2 2 𝑎
𝟖𝛑𝟐 𝐦
2 𝐸 = K ……………(2)
H ѱ = E ѱ, Let 2 𝑎
ℎ D2 =1
𝟐 2
𝐝 𝛙
Thus equation (1) can be , 𝑑𝑥 2 + K2 ѱ = 0…………..(3)The 2
D=
general solution of the above equation can be written as 𝑎

Ψ = C Cos (kx) + D Sin (kx) ……………. (4) ψn =

2
Sin
𝑛𝜋
x------------ (7)
at x = 0, ψ = 0, i.e. 0 = C Cos0 + D Sin0 𝑎 𝑎

Then, C = 0 Therefore ψ = D Sin (kx)

……………….(5)
at x = a, ψ = 0, i.e. 0 = D Sin (ka) (Since C=0) or D Sin(ka) =
0,
this is valid for k = nπ/a, where n = 0,1,2,3,…..
𝑛𝜋
Therefore ψ = D Sin 𝑎 x ……………..(6)
Define phase velocity, group velocity and wave velocity. Derive the relation between vg and vp ; 𝒗𝒈 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒗𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 ; and
also phase velocity, particle velocity and velocity of light
Phase velocity:
The velocity of the individual wave in a wave packet is called phase velocity of the wave and is represented by Vp.
Group Velocity: The velocity with which the wave packet propagates is called Group velocity. It is the velocity with which
the energy transmission occurs in a wave. Group velocity = dω / dk
Wave velocity:
The wave velocity is defined as the velocity associated with the disturbance propagating in the given medium.

Relation between group velocity (vg) and phase velocity (vp)

𝝎 𝒅𝝎
We know that 𝒗𝒑 = and 𝒗𝒈 =
𝒌 𝒅𝒌
𝝎 = 𝒌𝒗𝒑
𝒅𝒌𝒗𝒑 𝒅𝒗𝒑
𝒗𝒈 = =𝒌 +𝒗𝒑
𝒅𝒌 𝒅𝒌
𝒅𝒗𝒑 𝒅𝒗𝒑 𝒅𝝀 𝟐𝝅 −𝝀𝟐 𝒅𝒗𝒑
𝒗𝒈 = 𝒗𝒑 + 𝒌 = 𝒗𝒑 + 𝒌 = 𝒗𝒑 +
𝒅𝒌 𝒅𝝀 𝒅𝒌 𝝀 𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝝀
𝒅𝒗𝒑
𝒗𝒈 = 𝒗𝒑 − 𝝀 𝒅𝝀
Relation between the particle velocity of a matter wave and is its group velocity:
𝒅𝝎
𝒗𝒈 = …………………………(1)
𝒅𝒌
𝟐𝝅𝑬
Where 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝝂 = 𝒉
𝒅𝝎 =
𝟐𝝅
𝒅𝑬………………….(2) Relation between phase velocity, particle velocity
𝒉
and velocity of light
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅𝒑
Also, 𝒌 = = Since de Broglie wave is associated with a moving
𝝀 𝒉
𝟐𝝅 particle therefore, it is very much essential to know
𝒅𝒌 = 𝒅𝒑 that if both the particle and wave associated with them
𝒉
Substituting in eq (1) travel with the same velocity or with different
velocity.
𝟐𝝅
𝒅𝑬 vp = ω/k = 2πυ/(2π/λ) = λν = (h/mv)(mc2 /h)
𝒗𝒈 = 𝒉
𝟐𝝅 ∴ vp = c2 /v
𝒅𝒑
𝒉
𝒅𝑬
𝒗𝒈 = 𝒅𝒑………………………..(3) As the velocity of material particle is always less than
Kinetic energy is given by the velocity of light c, it means that the propagation
𝑷𝟐 velocity of de Broglie wave is always greater than c.
𝑬= Thus it seems that both the particle & de Broglie wave
𝟐𝒎
𝑷 associated with the particle do not travel together with
𝒅𝑬 = 𝒅𝑷 the same velocity & the wave would leave the particle
𝒎
behind. However, these difficulties can be ruled by
𝒅𝑬 𝑷 considering that a moving material particle is
𝒗𝒈 = = = 𝒗𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 equivalent to a wave packet rather than a single wave.
𝒅𝑷 𝒎
Starting from normalized wave function discuss the probability densities, Eigen functions, and Energy Eigen values
for ground , first and second energy state for a particle confined in a potential well.
Eigen functions, probability densities and Energy Eigen values:
𝑛2 ℎ2
The energy Eigen value of a particle in a potential well of infinite height is given as 𝐸 = 8𝑚𝑎2
2 nπ
The normalized Eigen wave function of the particle in one dimensional potential well is given as, ψ𝑛 = Sin x
𝑎 𝑎
ℎ2
Case1) n = 1 ground state and the Zero point energy 𝐸0 = 𝐸1 = 8𝑚𝑎2
2 π
The Eigen function for ground state is ψ1 = Sin x
𝑎 𝑎
The wave function ψ =0, at x=0 and x=a and maximum at x = a/2
The probability density | Ѱ|2 is maximum at x=a/2 and zero at the walls(x=0, x=a) as shown in fig1.
4ℎ2
Case 2) n=2 is the first excited state and the energy is 𝐸2 = = 4𝐸1
8𝑚𝑎2
2 2π
The Eigen function for the first excited state is ψ2 = Sin x
𝑎 𝑎
Wave function ψ=0 at x=0, a, a/2.
Wave function ψ is maximum at x=a/4 and x=3a/4
9ℎ2
Case 3) n=3 is the second excited state and the energy is 𝐸3 = 8𝑚𝑎2 = 9𝐸1
2 3π
The Eigen function for the first excited state is ψ3 = Sin x
𝑎 𝑎
Wave function ψ=0 at x=0, a/3, 2a/3. And Wave function ψ is maximum at x= a/6, a/2, 5a/6
Define Fermi Factor and Discuss the variation of Fermi factor with temperature and energy.
Fermi energy: The energy corresponding to the highest occupied levels at zero degree absolute is called the Fermi energy, and the
energy levels is referred to as Fermi level.
Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material in thermal equilibrium.
1
The probability f(E) that a given energy state with energy E is occupied at a steady temperature T, is given by 𝑓 (𝐸 ) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
Let us consider different cases of distribution as follows. 𝑒 𝐾𝑇 + 1
1. Probability of occupation for E < EF at T=O
When T= O and E < EF, 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = = =1
Therefore f (E) =1, for E < EF 𝑒 −∞ + 1 0 + 1

Therefore, at T=O, all the energy levels above Fermi level are occupied.
2. Probability of occupation for E > EF at T=O 1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = ∞ = = =0
When T= O and E > EF, we have for the probability, 𝑒 + 1 ∞ + 1 ∞
Therefore f (E) = 0, for E >EF.
i.e at T=O, all the energy levels above Fermi levels are unoccupied.
3. Probability of occupation at ordinary temperature:
The value of f(E) becomes ½ at E= EF. This is because, for E = EF,

(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) 0 1 1 1
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 =𝑒 =1 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
= =
1+1 2
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 + 1
Enumerate the failures of classical free electron theory and assumptions of quantum free electron theory of metals.
Failures of classical free electron theory:
1. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:
It has been experimentally observed that for metals, the electrical conductivity 𝜎 is inversely proportional to temperature T,
1
𝜎𝑒𝑥𝑝 = ………………(1)
𝑇
1
Whereas according to CFET, 𝜎𝐶𝐹𝐸𝑇 = ………………(2)
𝑇
From (1) and (2) it is clear that the prediction of classical free electron theory is not agreeing with experimental observation.
2. Dependence of 𝜎 on electron concentration:
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
According to classical free electron theory, the electrical conductivity 𝜎 is given by 𝜎 = where n is the electron concentration. i.e. free electron
𝑚
theory suggest that 𝜎 is proportional to electron concentration n.
Metal Electron concentration(n)/ m3 Conductivity (𝜎) Siemens/ meter
Ag 5.85*1028 6.30*107
3. Dependence of 𝜎 on specific heat: Cu 8.45*1028 5.88*107
𝟑
The molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is given by 𝑪𝒗 = 𝑹………..(1)
𝟐
According to experiments, Specific heat of metal 𝐶𝑣 = 10−4𝑅𝑇 (2 )
From (1) and (2) it is clear that the prediction of classical free electron theory is not agreeing with experimental observation.

Assumptions of Quantum free electron theory:

1. The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed energy values are realized in terms of a set of energy levels.
2. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occurs as per Pauli’s exclusion principle.
3. The free electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confined within its boundaries.
4. The attraction between the free electrons and the lattice ions, and the repulsion between the electrons themselves are ignored.
Mention the postulates of quantum free electron theory. Explain merits of quantum free electron theory.
Assumptions of Quantum free electron theory:
1. The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed energy values are realized in terms of a set of energy
levels.
2. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occurs as per Pauli’s exclusion principle.
3. The free electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confined within its boundaries.
4. The attraction between the free electrons and the lattice ions, and the repulsion between the electrons themselves are ignored.
Merits of QFET:
1. Specific heat constant volume (Cv)
According to QFET, the expression for specific heat is given by
2𝑘 2𝑘
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 Taking 𝐸𝐹 ≅ 5𝑒𝑉 for metals, we get ≈ 10−4
𝐸𝐹 𝐸𝐹
−4
𝐶𝑣 = 10 𝑅𝑇 This value is in excellent agreement with the experimental value.
“Hence, the QFET successfully explain the specific heat property of metals”
2. Dependence of electrical conductivity (𝝈) on temperature (T)
1
According to the QFET , 𝜎∝
𝑇
“Hence the QFET successfully explain the dependence of σ on T”
3. Dependence of electrical conductivity (σ) on electron concentration (n)
According to QFET,
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆
𝜎= ∗
𝑚 𝑣𝐹
𝜆
From the above equation, it is clear that, depends both on the n and .
𝑣𝐹
𝜆
Therefore, though the value ‘n’of for divalent metals is higher than monovalent metals, the will be material specific value which affects the
𝑣𝐹
overall conductivity of the given metal.
“Hence the QFET successfully explain the dependence of σ on n”
Derive the expression for internal field in one dimensional array of atoms in liquid and solid dielectric materials
Let us consider a 1-D atomic array of dipoles separated by distance‘d’.
Let ‘E’ be the applied field. Therefore, 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 ′
Therefore, the internal field at ‘x’ is given by
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + (𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 +. . . . . . . . . . . . . )………………(1)

The field produced by a dipole (say A1) found out by resolving the field into two components Er and Eθ in polar form.
1 2𝜇 cos 𝜃 1 2𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐸𝑟 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝜃 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
1 2𝜇
Here r=d and θ=0, 𝐸𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜀 3 & 𝐸𝜃 = 0
0 𝑑
1 2𝜇 𝜇
Field produced by the dipole A1 is, 𝐴1 = 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝜃 = 4𝜋𝜀 3 =
0 𝑑 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑑3

1 2𝜇 𝜇
Similarly field produced by A2 is , 𝐴2 = 4𝜋𝜀 3 =
0 𝑑 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑑3
Therefore, field produced on x by A1 and A2 dipole is
2𝜇 𝜇
𝐸1 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 = 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑑3
= 𝜋𝜀 3 ………………(2)
0𝑑

Similarly, field produced on x by B1 and B2 dipole is

2𝜇 𝜇
𝐸2 = 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 = 2𝜋𝜀0 (2𝑑)3
= 𝜋𝜀 3 ………………….(3)
0 (2𝑑)
And field produced on x by C1 and C2 dipole is
2𝜇 𝜇
𝐸3 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 2𝜋𝜀0 (3𝑑)3
= 𝜋𝜀 3 ………………………………(4)
0 (3𝑑)

𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
Therefore, the internal field is 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + 𝜋𝜀 3 + 𝜋𝜀 3 + +……
0𝑑 0 (2𝑑) 𝜋𝜀0 (3𝑑)3
∞
𝜇 1 1 1 𝜇 1
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + + + + . . . . . . . = 𝐸 +
𝜋𝜀0 𝑑 3 13 23 33 𝜋𝜀0 𝑑 3 𝑛3
𝑛=1
∞ 1
But 𝑛=1 𝑛3 = 1.2
1.2𝜇
∴ 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 +
𝜋𝜀0 𝑑 3
If αe is electronic polarizability μ= αe Ei
1.2 𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 +
𝜋𝜀0 𝑑 3
𝑬
𝑬𝒊 =
𝟏. 𝟐 𝜶𝒆
𝟏−
𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒅𝟑
This is the expression for internal field.
Derive Clausius – Mossotti Equation:
Consider a solid dielectric material with dielectric constant Er. If ‘n’ is the number of atoms/unit volume and ‘µ’ is the
dipole moment of the atoms in the material.
Therefore, the dipole moment / unit volume P = N µ ………(1)
The field experienced by the atom is an internal field Ei. αe is the electronic polarizability of the atoms.
The dipole moment µ = αe Ei………(2)
Then dipole moment / unit volume = NαeEi (3)
Dipole moment / unit volume is nothing but polarization (P)
P = N αe Ei……….....(4)
𝑃
𝐸𝑖 = 𝛼 ……………(5)
𝑒𝑁
𝑃
Also, 𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝐸 𝜀𝑟 − 1 . Hence, 𝐸 = 𝜀 ………… (6)
0 (𝜀𝑟 −1)
Considering the Lorentz relation for 3D array of atoms,
Ei = E + 𝑷/ 𝟑Є𝟎………. (7)
Substituting the equations (5) and (6) in (7) we get
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 1 1
= + = +
𝛼𝑒 𝑁 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) 3𝜀0 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) 3
1 1 3 + 𝜀𝑟 − 1
=
𝛼𝑒 𝑁 𝜀0 3(𝜀𝑟 − 1)
3𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 +2 𝜀𝑟 −1 𝛼𝑒 𝑁
= => = This is the clausius Mossotti relation
𝛼𝑒 𝑁 𝜀𝑟 −1 𝜀𝑟 +2 3𝜀0
Expression for Concentration of electrons in intrinsic semiconductors:
In semiconductor all the energy levels in the valence band are completely filled and those in the conduction band are
completely empty at 0K.
At room temperature free electrons from valence band excite to conduction band due to thermal energy. The
concentration of electrons in conduction band is given by
∞
𝑛𝑐 = 𝐸 𝑔 𝐸 𝑓 𝐸 𝑑𝐸………(1)
𝑐 ∞
𝟒𝝅 𝟑 𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑪
𝒏𝒄 = 𝟑 𝟐𝒎∗𝒆 𝟐 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝒙 𝟏/𝟐
𝒌𝑻 𝟏/𝟐
𝒆−𝒙 𝒌𝑻𝒅𝒙
𝒉
𝟎
𝟒𝝅 𝟑 𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑪 𝝅𝟏/𝟐
𝒏𝒄 = 𝟑 𝟐𝒎∗𝒆 𝟐 × 𝒌𝑻 𝟑/𝟐
𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝒉 𝟐

The number of electrons in conduction band per unit

volume of a material is called electron concentration and
is given by
𝟑
∗
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑪 𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑪
𝒏𝒄 = 𝟐 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 = 𝑵𝒄 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
∞ 𝒉𝟐
4𝝅 3 𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑪 𝑬𝑪 −𝑬
Where, me* is the effective mass of electrons; k is the
𝒏𝒄 = 3 2𝒎∗𝒆 2 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝑬 − 𝑬𝒄 1 2𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝒅𝑬
𝒉 Boltzmann constant
𝑬𝒄
Ef is the Fermi level; Ec is the energy in conduction band;
h is Planck’s constant
 Expression for intrinsic carrier concentration:
For intrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons in conduction band is equal to the number of holes in
valance band.
ne=nh=ni.
The product of electron and holes concentration for a given material is constant at a given temperature.
Therefore, in intrinsic semiconductor
𝑛𝑒 × 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖2
3 3
∗ ∗
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇 2 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇 2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
𝑛𝑖 2 = 2 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 × 2 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
ℎ ℎ
3
2
2𝜋𝑘𝑇 ∗
3
∗ 2
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
𝑛𝑖 =4 𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 × 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
ℎ2
3
2𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
∗ 2
𝐸 −𝐸
− 𝑐𝑘𝑇 𝑣
𝑛𝑖 2 =4 ∗
𝑚 𝑒 𝑚ℎ 𝑒
ℎ2
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑣 = 𝐸𝑔
𝟑 𝑬𝒈
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝟑 −
𝒏𝒊 = 𝟐 𝟐 𝒎∗𝒆 𝒎𝒉∗ 𝟒 𝒆 𝟐𝒌𝑻
𝒉
This is the expression for intrinsic carrier concentration
Q18. Explain Meissner’s Effect. Explain Type – I (Soft) and Type – II (Hard) superconductors using M-H graphs..
“When a weak magnetic field is applied to the superconducting material and then cooled below the
critical temperature, then magnetic flux will be expelled out of the superconductor”. Thus the super
conductor show perfect diamagnetism. This effect is reversible and the specimen returns to its normal state when its
temperature raised above its critical temperature.
The magnetic field inside the specimen
B = m0 ( H + M )
H = Applied magnetic field and M = Magnetization in the specimen
According to Meisner effect, when the specimen is in superconducting state, it has B = 0 Thus H = -M , Therefore
Magnetic susceptibility = (M/H) = -1. This shows perfect diamagnetism.
Type 1 Type 2
1. Exhibits complete Meissner effect 1. Exhibits partial Meissner effect
2. Only one Critical field 2. Two critical fields namely lower and upper
3. No vortex state is present 3. Vortex state is present
4. Low critical temp. (<10K) 4. High critical temp (>10K)
5. Low critical magnetic field 5. High critical magnetic field
6. Cannot be used to prepare high field magnet 6. Can be used to prepare high field magnets
7.
 Define Critical temperature and critical magnetic field. Explain briefly BCS theory of superconductivity.
Critical Temperature (Tc) : Temperature at which the resistivity of the material drops to zero is called as Critical Temperature(Tc) or Transition temperature
Ex : Hg = 4.2 K , Pb = 7.2 K, Nb = 4.5 K, Yitrium Barium Copper Oxide = 92 K etc.
Critical field OR Critical Magnetic field
It is defined as the magnetic field required to switch the material from superconducting state to normal state and is denoted by HC.
When once the applied magnetic field is removed, the material will regains its superconducting property, provided T < Tc.
Thus the material will remains in the superconducting state below HC and , above HC the material will be in the normal state
Temperature dependence of critical magnetic field HC :Magnitude of HC depends on temperature.
If H0 the critical magnetic field at T = 0 K and HC the critical magnetic field at T0K, then
BCS Theory of Superconductivity
1. It is a quantum mechanical theory to explain superconductivity. According to this theory, Superconductivity is due to the formation of
cooper pairs
2. “Cooper pairs are the pair of electrons formed by the interaction between electrons with opposite spin and momentum in a phonon field”.
3. Flow of current in a superconductor causes attraction between electron and positive ions. Due to this, the positive ion gets displaced from
its position.
4. When a second electron reaches this distorted position, it also experience attractive force.
5. Thus we have attraction between two electrons that takes place via lattice.
6. This pair of electrons forms cooper pair.
7. In a given superconductor, each cooper pair causes the formation of many number of such pairs, causing the formation of cloud of cooper
pairs.
8. Due to the orderly motion of these cooper pairs in group, and less collision with the lattice, large current is produced.
9. when the temperature exceeds Tc, there is no formation of cooper pairs and the superconductivity destroys.
State Moore’s law and explain its end.
 Differentiate between classical and quantum computing:
Classical Computing Quantum Computing
1. . It is based on the classical phenomenon of electrical 1. It is based on the phenomenon of Quantum Mechanics,
circuits being in a single state at a given time, either on or off. such as superposition and entanglement, the phenomenon
where it is possible to be in more than one state at a time.
2. Information storage and manipulation is based on “bit”. 2. Information storage and manipulation is based on
Quantum Bit or “qubit”.
3The circuit behavior is governed by classical physics. 3. The circuit behavior is governed by quantum physics or
quantum mechanics.
4. It uses binary codes i.e. bits 0 or 1 to represent 4. Quantum computing use Qubits i.e. 0, 1 and superposition
information. state of both 0 and 1 to represent information.
5. CMOS transistors are the basic building blocks of 5. SQUID or Quantum Transistors are the basic building blocks
conventional computers. of quantum computers.
6. In conventional computers, data processing is done in 6. In quantum computers, data processing is done in
Central Processing Unit or CPU. Quantum Processing Unit or QPU, which consists of a number
of interconnected qubits.
Define single and two qubits.
Single Qubit: A single-qubit has two computational basis states. In the z-basis these are ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩. Single qubit gates act on
individual qubits and are represented by unitary matrices. Examples: Pauli-X gate, Y gate, Z gate, Hadamard Gate.
Two qubit : A two-qubit system has 4 computational basis states denoted as ∣00⟩, ∣01⟩, ∣10⟩, ∣11⟩.
Multiple qubit gates act on two or more qubits simultaneously, allowing for entanglement and interactions between qubits.
Examples: C-NOT, SWAP, PHASE.
Explain Hadamard and phase gate (s-gate )
Mention the Pauli’s matrices. Discuss the operations of Pauli’s matrices on ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩ states.

• Pauli Matrices: set of 3, 2x2 matrices, which are unitary and Hermitian.
σx2 = σy2 = σz2 = I
 Explain the CNOT(Controlled NOT) gate and C-Z gate with four different input states with the truth table.

• A gate which operates on two qubits is

called a Controlled-NOT (CN) Gate.
The gate which has two input qubits namely control and target. If the control
qubit is 0, then the target qubit is not altered. If the control qubit is 1, then the
target qubit is inverted. The control qubit remains unaltered in both the cases.
• Truth table: Action of CNOT gate Circuit diagram
input Output 1 0 0 0 𝐼00 > 𝐼00 >
I00> I00>
0 1 0 0 𝐼01 > 𝐼01 >
I01> I01> =
I10> I11> 0 0 0 1 𝐼10 > 𝐼11 >
I11> I10> 0 0 1 0 𝐼11 > 𝐼10 >
Explain the Orthogonality and orthonormality

If the scalar product of the two vectors is zero then

the two vectors are orthogonal and the property is
called Orthogonality.