SOLAR INSTALLATION SYSTEMS

SOLAR INSTALLATION SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES
By the end of the TOPIC learner should be able to;
a) List the various parts of a photovoltaic systems
b) Explain the functions of each part of a voltaic system
c) Illustrate the layout of a voltaic system

DEFINITION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

It is the combination or interconnection of various components of solar technology with an
aim of producing electrical energy from sunlight.
THE COMPONENTS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
1) Solar module
2) Charge Controller
3) Battery
4) Inverter
5) Cables
6) Loads

THE FUNCTION OF THE PARTS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

Figure 1: Photovoltaic system connection

1) Solar modules are employed to capture the suns energy and supply DC power
to the system. Panels and modules are connected together into PV strings to
form a solar PV array.

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2) Solar PV Charge Controllers protect batteries by blocking reverse current and

preventing battery overcharge. More advanced Charge Controllers can also
monitor battery temperature using sensors, optimizing the voltage to
compensate, protecting the batteries.

3) Solar Batteries are used to store DC power generated by the Solar PV Panels.
Using solar batteries ensures that power is available when the PV array isn't
generating power. The size, type and amount of batteries in a system is
determined by the number of ampere hours of (backup) power required and to
be kept in reserve. The correct sizing of batteries is an essential factor in the
performance of any Off-Grid PV system. It is the characteristics of the solar
batteries which will determine the length of time you will be able to operate
between charges. Battery capacity is measured in ampere Hours (Ah). A series
of batteries is called a battery bank.

4) Solar PV Power Inverters convert the DC electricity provided by the solar PV

panels and modules into AC electricity for use in the building and for export via
the national grid. Inverters are specified to maximize the PV output from the
array whilst minimizing power losses. Solar power inverters are sized and chosen
taking into account the power capability of each module, the operating
temperatures and the number of modules in each string (voltages).

5) Solar PV Cables & Connectors are used to connect the various components
and are sized and selected to perform at their best based on; the current they
will carry, the operating temperatures where they will be used and the
environments where they will be installed (outside, in hot areas, underground
etc).

6) Loads are the current consuming devices that include lighting fittings, TV sets,
radios, computers, among others. The rating of the loads must be known well in
advance during the system design.

THE OPERATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

The basic power element of a PV system is the solar cell. Typical solar cells are made of
crystalline silicon, a material of the semiconductor revolution. The photovoltaic
effect in silicon and other semiconductor materials arises from the internal electronic
structure and the electric fields that can be introduced. One way is to use two or more
thin layers of two different semiconductor materials. Another way is to introduce
different doping atoms (atoms that have one more or one less valence electron than
the host material) into two different thin layers of a structure using the same
semiconductor material. A junction formed between two of these layers creates an
internal voltage.
Sunlight striking the solar cell liberates electrical charged carriers (Holes and Electron)
within the cell. The electric charges are separated by the internal (Junction) voltage to

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produce an electric current. Metal contact grids (lines) on the top and bottom surfaces
of the cell enable the current to flow through an external circuit to produce electrical
power; electric power is the product of voltage and current resulting in electricity
available directly from sunlight.

A typical crystalline silicon cell produces a little more than one watt of power. More
power can be produced by interconnecting several solar cells and encapsulating them
in a single package called a PV module. Modules may in turn be grouped together and
interconnected to form arrays. The DC power from PV array can be used to power DC
load or passed to a power conditioning subsystem (PCS) that converts DC to power AC
load. In this simple manner, one can combine cells, modules, arrays and PCS to design
PV systems that will provide any desired power output from few watts to many
megawatts.

THE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

The following are the basic methods of photovoltaic configuration;

♦ Systems without batteries

♦ DC system with battery

♦ AC system with battery storage

♦ Combined AC and DC system

1) Direct (Direct Coupled) DC System without batteries
The simplest photovoltaic system is made up of an array connected directly to a load.
If the array includes more than one module, bypass diodes are used (Figure 4.5).

Figure 2: Direct (Direct Coupled) DC System without batteries

Applications requiring the most power during the sunniest part of the day are ideal for
this type of system. Pumping water for irrigation or to a storage tank, running a fan for
ventilation, or operating a pump to collect solar heat are examples of appropriate
applications. Lighting and other loads which are rarely used during the daylight hours
would probably never be supplied with power by a system of this type.

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2) DC system with battery/Regulated DC system

Most systems do not have self-regulated modules. Furthermore, many systems require
some way to prevent damaging the batteries from charge levels which are too high or
too low.
A charge controller, sometimes called a charge regulator, is used to keep the batteries
from being overcharged. An optional feature of many controllers is a load cutoff. This
turns off some or all of the loads whenever the batteries' state of charge gets too low
(Figure 4.6).

Figure 3: Regulated DC system

3) AC System with battery storage

If the AC load must run during periods when the photovoltaic array cannot supply
power, battery storage and a charge controller must be included.

Figure 4: AC System with battery storage

The combined inefficiencies of the batteries and the inverter reduce overall system
performance. Nevertheless, AC applications exist which will require the complexity and
expense of this type of photovoltaic system.

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4) Combined AC/DC System

A good compromise is to supply every possible need with a DC device, and use AC
only for those loads for which there is no alternative (Figure 4.8).

Figure 5: Combined AC/DC System

This compromise allows the most effective use of the energy available from the
photovoltaic array, while satisfying the load requirements.
PV systems applications
Lighting
Powering domestic electrical and electronic appliances
Refrigeration
Powering basic office/business equipment
Water pumping
Technically no limitation
Benefits and Limitations
Free fuel - sunlight
Sunlight readily available in good quantities in Kenya
Eliminates use of Kerosene for lighting
Provides immediate access to electricity in rural areas
Modularity
Raises standards of living in rural communities
Environmentally friendly
Limitations

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Cost
Specialist technology - specialized training needed
Suited to low power and energy needs

SOLAR CELLS AND MODULE TERMINOLOGY DEFINITIONS

1. Solar cell
Is the smallest basic solar electric device which generates electricity when exposed to
light.
Is a semiconductor device that converts the energy of sunlight into electric energy. Also
called photovoltaic cell.

2. Solar module /Solar panel

Is a packaged interconnected assembly of photovoltaic cells forming a photovoltaic
module, or Is a group of connected solar cells or is a device which is used to convert
energy contained within the sun’s rays into electricity or Solar panels are devices
consisting of solarcells that convert light into electricity.

3. Solar array
A photovoltaic array is a linked collection of photovoltaic modules, which are in turn made
of multiple interconnected solar cells. By their modularity, they are able to be configured to
supply most loads.

4. Short circuit Current (Isc)

This is the current flowing freely through an external circuit that has no load or resistance;
it is the maximum current possible.
This is the current measured in full sunlight, when an ammeter is attached to the positive
and negative leads of the module. This is maximum current that the module is capable of
producing.

5. Open Circuit Voltage (Voc)

This is the voltage measured in full sunlight, when a voltmeter is attached to the positive
and negative leads of the module. This is maximum voltage that the module is capable of
producing.

6. Current at Maximum Power (Ipmax)

This is the current flowing at maximum power

7. Voltage at maximum Power (Vpmax)

This is the voltage at maximum power

8. Maximum power (Pmax)

This is peak power that a solar module can give.

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9. Module rating (standard test conditions)

THE FORMATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL USED IN P.V TECHNOLOGY

Semi – conductor material is a solid crystalline substance whose electric conductivity is
intermediate between that of a conductor and that of an insulator. An n-type semiconductor
has loosely bound electrons that are relatively free to move about inside the material. A p-
type semiconductor is one with holes, or positive traps, in which electrons may be bound.
The holes may appear to migrate through the material.

THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT AND SOLAR CELLS FORMATION

The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which a PV cell converts sunlight
into electricity. Sunlight is composed of photons- packets of solar energy. These photons
contain different amounts of energy that correspond to the different wavelengths of the solar
spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected or absorbed, or they may pass
right through. The absorbed photons generate electricity. See figure 1 below.

Figure 1: Photovoltaic effect

The energy of a photon is transferred to an electron in an atom of the semiconductor device.
With its newfound energy, the electron is able to escape from its normal position associated
with a single atom in the semiconductor to become part of the current in an electrical circuit.
Special electrical properties of the PV cell a built-in electric field provide the voltage needed to
drive the current through an external load.

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THE CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF SOLAR CELL/PV CELL

When light hits a surface, it may be reflected, transmitted, or absorbed. Absorption of light is
simply the conversion of the energy contained in the incident photon to some other form of
energy. Typically, this energy is in the form of heat; however, some absorbing materials such
as photovoltaic (PV) cells convert the incident photons into electrical energy. A PV panel has
one or more PV modules, which consist of connected PV cells. Figure 5.1 shows the schematic
structure and operation of a PV cell.

Figure 2: PV cell structure and operation schematic

Typically, a silicon PV cell contains two layers. The top layer consists of a thin sheet of
phosphorus-doped (negatively charged or n-type) silicon. Underneath this sheet is a thicker
layer of boron-doped (positively charged or p-type) silicon. A unique characteristic of these
two layers is that a positive-negative (PN) junction is created when these two materials are
in contact. A PN junction is actually an electric field that is capable of creating an electrical
potential when sunlight shines on the PV cell. When sunlight hits the PV cell, some of the
electrons in the p-type silicon layer will be stimulated to move across the PN junction to the n-
type silicon layer, causing the p-type layer to have a higher voltage potential than the n-type
layer. This creates an electric current flow when the PV cell is connected to a load. The voltage
potential created by a typical silicon PV cell is about 0.5 to 0.6 volts dc under open-circuit, no-
load conditions. The power of a PV cell depends on the intensity of the solar radiation, the
surface area of the PV cell, and its overall efficiency.

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THE IV CURVES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR CELL

To ensure compatibility with storage batteries or loads, it is necessary to know the electrical
characteristics of photovoltaic modules. As a reminder, "I" is the abbreviation for current,
expressed in amps. "V" is used for voltage in volts, and "R" is used for resistance in ohms. A
photovoltaic module will produce its maximum current when there is essentially no resistance
in the circuit. This would be a short circuit between its positive and negative terminals. This
maximum current is called the short circuit current, abbreviated I(sc). When the module is
shorted, the voltage in the circuit is zero. Conversely, the maximum voltage is produced when
there is a break in the circuit. This is called the open circuit voltage, abbreviated V (oc). Under
this condition the resistance is infinitely high and there is no current, since the circuit is
incomplete. These two extremes in load resistance, and the whole range of conditions in
between them, are depicted on a graph called an I-V (current-voltage) curve. Current,
expressed in amps, is on the vertical Y-axis. Voltage, in volts, is on the horizontal X-axis (Figure
3).

Figure 3: Typical Current- Voltage Curve

As you can see in Figure 5.1 above, the short circuit current occurs on a point on the
curve where the voltage is zero. The open circuit voltage occurs where the current is
zero.
The power available from a photovoltaic module at any point along the curve is
expressed in watts. Watts are calculated by multiplying the voltage times the current
(watts = volts x amps, or W = VA).
At the short circuit current point, the power output is zero, since the voltage is zero.
At the open circuit voltage point, the power output is also zero, but this time it is
because the current is zero.

There is a point on the "knee" of the curve where the maximum power output is
located. This point on our example curve is where the voltage is 17 volts, and the
current is 2.5 amps. Therefore, the maximum power in watts is 17 volts times 2.5
amps, equaling 42.5 watts.

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The power, expressed in watts, at the maximum power point is described as peak,
maximum, or ideal, among other terms. Maximum power is generally abbreviated as
"P (mp)"or Pmax/Peak power. Various manufacturers call it maximum output power,
output, peak power, rated power, or other terms.
The current-voltage (I-V) curve is based on the module being under standard
conditions of sunlight and module temperature. It assumes there is no shading on the
module.

Standard sunlight conditions on a clear day are assumed to be 1000 watts of solar
energy per square meter (1000 W/m 2or 1kW/m2). This is sometimes called "one sun,"
or a "peak sun." Less than one sun will reduce the current output of the module by a
proportional amount. For example, if only one-half sun (500 W/m 2) is available, the
amount of output current is roughly cut in half (Figure 5.2).

Figure 4: A Typical Current-Voltage Curve at One Sun and One-half Sun

For maximum output, the face of the photovoltaic modules should be pointed as
straight toward the sun as possible.
THE FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE OUTPUT OF SOLAR MODULES
1. Effect of Module shading
Partial module shading has a serious effect on module power output. For a typical module,
completely shading only one cell can reduce the module output by as much as 80% (Figure
5.3). One or more damaged cells in a module can have the same effect as shading.

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Figure 5: A Typical Current-Voltage Curve for an Unshaded Module and for a Module with One
Shaded Cell
This is why modules should be completely unshaded during operation. A shadow across a
module can almost stop electricity production. Thin film modules are not as affected by this
problem, but they should still be unshaded.

2. Effect of temperature on Modules

Module temperature affects the output voltage inversely. Higher module temperatures will
reduce the voltage by 0.04 to 0.1 volts for every one Celsius degree rise in temperature
(0.04V/0C to 0.1V/0C). In Fahrenheit degrees, the voltage loss is from 0.022 to 0.056 volts per
degree of temperature rise (Figure 6).
This is why modules should not be installed flush against a surface. Air should be allowed to
circulate behind the back of each module so its temperature does not rise and reducing its
output. An air space of 4-6 inches is usually required to provide proper ventilation.

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Figure 6: A Typical Current-Voltage Curve for a Module at 25°C (77°F) and 85°C (185°F)
Eventually, the required voltage is higher than the voltage at the module's maximum power
point. At this operating point, the current production is lower than the current at the maximum
power point. The module's power output is also lower.
To a lesser degree, when the operating voltage is lower than that of the maximum power
point, the output power is lower than the maximum. Since the ability of the module to produce
electricity is not being completely used whenever it is operating at a point fairly far from the
maximum power point, photovoltaic modules should be carefully matched to the system load
and storage.
Using a module with a maximum voltage which is too high should be avoided nearly as much
as using one with a maximum voltage which is too low.
The output voltage of a module depends on the number of cells connected in series. Typical
modules use 30, 32, 33, 36, or 44 cells wired in series.
The modules with 30-32 cells are considered self-regulating modules. 36 cell modules are the
most common in the photovoltaic industry. Their slightly higher voltage rating, 16.7 volts,
allows the modules to overcome the reduction in output voltage when the modules are
operating at high temperatures.
Modules with 33 - 36 cells also have enough surplus voltage to effectively charge high
antimony content deep cycle batteries. However, since these modules can overcharge
batteries, they usually require a charge controller.
Finally, 44 cell modules are available with a rated output voltage of 20.3 volts. These modules
are typically used only when a substantially higher voltage is required.
As an example, if the module is sometimes forced to operate at high temperatures, it can still
supply enough voltage to charge 1 2volt batteries.
3. Resistance of the system

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If the module is charging a battery, it must supply a higher voltage than that of the battery. If
the battery is deeply discharged, the battery voltage is fairly low. The photovoltaic module can
charge the battery with a low voltage, shown as point # 1 in Figure 5.5. As the battery reaches
a full charge, the module is forced to deliver a higher voltage, shown as point # 2. The battery
voltage drives module voltage. See figure 7 below.

Figure 7: Operating Voltages during a Battery Charging Cycle

Eventually, the required voltage is higher than the voltage at the module's maximum power
point. At this operating point, the current production is lower than the current at the maximum
power point. The module's power output is also lower.
To a lesser degree, when the operating voltage is lower than that of the maximum power point
(point #1), the output power is lower than the maximum. Since the ability of the module to
produce electricity is not being completely used whenever it is operating at a point fairly far
from the maximum power point, photovoltaic modules should be carefully matched to the
system load and storage.
Using a module with a maximum voltage which is too high should be avoided nearly as much
as using one with a maximum voltage which is too low.
The output voltage of a module depends on the number of cells connected in series. Typical
modules use 30, 32, 33, 36, or 44 cells wired in series.
The modules with 30-32 cells are considered self-regulating modules. 36 cell modules are the
most common in the photovoltaic industry. Their slightly higher voltage rating, 16.7 volts,
allows the modules to overcome the reduction in output voltage when the modules are
operating at high temperatures.
Modules with 33 - 36 cells also have enough surplus voltage to effectively charge high
antimony content deep cycle batteries. However, since these modules can overcharge
batteries, they usually require a charge controller.

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Finally, 44 cell modules are available with a rated output voltage of 20.3 volts. These modules
are typically used only when a substantially higher voltage is required.
As an example, if the module is sometimes forced to operate at high temperatures, it can still
supply enough voltage to charge 12-volt batteries.
4. Power rating of the module
5. Type of module - some technologies degrade with time
6. Location of the site and season
7. Intensity of sunshine
8. Cloud cover and dust on module
9. Proper installation

ASSIGNMENT
Explain the difference between Photovoltaic effect and Photoelectric effect

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DIFINITION OF DIODE
Diodes are electrical devices which only allow current to flow in one direction. A diode is used
to stop this reverse current flow.

Figure 1: Diode
Because diodes create a voltage drop, some systems use a controller which opens the circuit
instead of using a blocking diode.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BLOCKING DIODE AND BY PASS DIODE.
Blocking Diode
It is a diode device used to stop reverse flow of the current from the batteries through the
photovoltaic array that occur at night.
By pass Diode
It is a diode that allows the current from other modules to flow through in the right direction if
one module or cell in a series if a string fails.
If one module or cell in a series string fails, it provides so much resistance that damage may
occur to the module. By pass path around the disabled module will eliminate this problem.

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Figure 2: Three Modules Connected in Series with a Blocking Diode and Bypass Diodes
THE SOLAR MODULE FORMATION
For the mono and polycrystalline silicon cells, once properly prepared and treated with anti-
reflected coatings, the solar cells are soldered together in series i.e. front to back and then
mounted between glass and plastic.

Encapsulation and sealing for environment protection

This is the method by which mono and polycrystalline solar cells are sealed between glass and
plastic. The cells are sealed at high temperature between layers of glass and plastic (EVA
plastic) in such a manner that air or water cannot enter and corrode the cells.

Mechanical strength
Glass and plastic provide mechanical strength to the module

Mounting frame
A casing is made of metal or plastic frames to protect the edges of the module. The frame
may have holes drilled on it for easy mounting and a connection point for earthing.

THE VARIOUS METHODS OF SOLAR MODULES CONNECTION

There are two main methods of solar modules connection;

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1. Parallel connection
Modules wired in parallel link positive terminals together and negative terminals together. The
outcome is that the current of the panels/modules is added together. The voltage remains the
same. For example, three modules which produce 15 volts and 3 amps each, connected in
parallel, will produce 15 volts and 9 amps (Figure 5.6).

Figure 3: Three Modules Connected in Parallel

If the system includes a battery storage system, a reverse flow of current from the batteries
through the photovoltaic array can occur at night. This flow will drain power from the
batteries.
2. Series connections
Modules wired in series link positive terminals with negative terminals. The outcome is that
the voltage of the panels /modules is added together. The current remains the same. For
example, if the same three modules are connected in series, the output voltage will be 45
volts, and the current will be 3 amps.
If one module in a series string fails, it provides so much resistance that other modules in the
string may not be able to operate either. A bypass path around the disabled module will
eliminate this problem (Figure 2). The bypass diode allows the current from the other modules
to flow through in the "right" direction.
Many modules are supplied with a bypass diode right at their electrical terminals. Larger
modules may consist of three groups of cells, each with its own bypass diode.

THE VARIOUS TYPES OF SOLAR CELLS OR P.V CELL

There are three types of solar cells/ P.V cell;
1. Monocrystalline cell

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A Monocrystalline panel consists of a number of solar cells connected together to form a

grid. Monocrystalline Solar cells are made using thin wafers of silicon cut from a single
crystal. Silicon wafers are expensive to produce but are very efficient conductors. When
comparing panels, a Monocrystalline panel is likely to be the most expensive and the most
efficient panel in terms of energy generation per sqm or per panel.
Efficiency
Have an efficiency of 11-15 % i.e. if solar radiation is striking the cells at 90 o with an
intensity of 1000W/M2. They have a long life up to 720 years.

2. Polycrystalline
A Polycrystalline panel is made in much the same way as the Monocrystalline panels
mentioned below except the wafer is cut from a block of silicon crystal made up of many
crystals. A Polycrystalline Panel will be slightly less efficient and slightly cheaper to buy
than Monocrystalline. Have multiple colour patterns. Have an efficiency of 9-13% and have
a long life.

Polycrystalline
3. Amorphous

Amorphous cells are made by spreading a thin film of silicon onto a material, amorphous
cells have the added benefit of being flexible. They are less expensive to produce but their
efficiency is lower than their crystalline counterparts.

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Efficiency
They have efficiency of between 3 and 6% hence must be 3 to 4 times the crystalline type to generate the same
power. They degrade over time.
MODULE ORIENTATION
The module/array should be oriented towards the equator i.e
a) To face NORTH for a site in the SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

b) To face SOUTH for a site in the NORTHERN HEMISPHERE.

TYPES OF MODULE MOUNTS
There are Four Main types of Module Mounts
a) Pole Mounts
b) Roof Top Mounts
c) Ground Mounts
d) Wall Mounts

POLE MOUNTS
This type consists of a long metallic pole with the base buried in the ground at a depth of at
least 1 meter so that it is stable and doesn't fall during the rainy season. The stability can be
enhanced by using cement or hardcore filing. For security purposes the module mount on the
pole should be at least 3m as a precaution against theft and vandalism.
ROOF TOP MOUNTS
This is a method that uses racks to mount the module/array to the roof structure. To fix a
mount on a roof, drill some holes for bolts and or screw preferably to the beam.
NOTE:
a. To avoid humidity and heat accumulation between the roof and the mount, allow for at
least 10 cm for air flow.
b. The holes for bolts, screws & nails should be on the ridges of corrugated or square
profile roof structures to avoid water leakage

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c. Umbrella washers should be used with the fastening devices as an added precaution
against water leakage
d. The mount should be strong enough to withstand strong winds
e. The mount should be tilted and orientated (as explained earlier) for maximum insolation
and self-cleaning.
Advantages
The mounts are safe and secure

Disadvantages
Difficult to access for cleaning purposes
The angle of tilt and orientation is largely dictated by the roof construction and may not
give the desired(maximum) output
Liable to get dust, bird droppings and shadows if not well sited

GROUND MOUNTS
These are used for arrays of four or more modules e.g for water pumps or large home systems
where there is no other suitable place. The modules are secured to racks fixed in concrete
foundations and may be fenced of to protect the array from animals and curios people
Advantages
Large number of arrays with many modules can be mounted
Easily accessible for cleaning
Can be orientated and tilted accurately
Can be automated for tracking for maximum output (particularly in large PV systems)
Disadvantages
Requires extensive area
Liable to mechanical damage and vandalism in a restricted or protected area.

WALL MOUNTS
These are similar to the pole mount but in this case the pole is fixed to the wall and not in the
ground. There are two versions of the wall mount:
1. Straight pole fixed to the wall and goes through the roof to the mount.

Advantages
Balanced – minimal stress on the wall

Simple, easy to construct and mount

Disadvantages
A hole has to be made in the roof or other projecting structure which could lead to water
leakage if not well sealed.
2. Pole fixed to the wall mount and offset/displaced some distance from the wall
Advantages

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It is not necessary to make a hole in the roof

Disadvantages
The wall has to be strong enough to withstand the stress created by the overhanging
weight of the mount
The mount is more expensive, complex and difficult to mount

MODULE MOUNT MATERIALS

The module mount is in the open and exposed to the weather conditions. Therefore, the
recommended materials for its construction are weather proof. These are:
Aluminum frames
Stainless steel fastening devices (bolts, nuts, screw etc.)
Steel frames with protective coating like red oxide and paint
Wooden frames with protective coating e.g. varnish- although the frame has a relatively
short life span.

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