IntroductIon to ArtIfIcIAl

IntellIgence (AI)

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly evolving field in

computer science that focuses on creating intelligent
machines capable of performing tasks that typically require
human intelligence. The development of AI systems has
transformed multiple industries, including healthcare,
finance, manufacturing, and entertainment. This unit will
provide a comprehensive introduction to AI, its history, types,
intelligent agents, and problem-solving techniques.
1. Overview of AI
Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human
intelligence processes by machines, especially computer
systems. These processes include learning, reasoning,
problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI
systems are designed to replicate the cognitive functions of
humans, such as the ability to learn from experience, adapt
to new information, and make decisions.
Scope of AI
The scope of AI is vast, encompassing various subfields,
including:
• Machine Learning (ML): A subset of AI that focuses on
algorithms and statistical models to enable computers to
learn from data.

• Natural Language Processing (NLP): Enables computers

to understand, interpret, and generate human language.

• Computer Vision: AI that enables machines to interpret

and make decisions based on visual data, such as images
and videos.

• Robotics: The design and operation of robots that can

carry out tasks autonomously or semi-autonomously.
 • Expert Systems: AI programs that mimic the decision-
making abilities of a human expert in a specific field.

• Neural Networks and Deep Learning: AI models that

attempt to replicate the human brain’s structure to
process information.

Applications of AI
AI is applied in a wide range of real-world problems, such as:
• Healthcare: AI systems are used for diagnosis,
personalized treatment recommendations, drug
discovery, and robotic surgery.
• Finance: AI models assist in fraud detection, stock
market analysis, and customer service automation.
 • Transportation: Autonomous vehicles use AI for
navigation, decision-making, and safety.
• Customer Service: Chatbots and virtual assistants
powered by AI are commonly used in customer service
to handle queries and provide recommendations.
2. History of AI
The history of AI can be traced back to the 1950s, and it has
evolved through various stages, from early theoretical
concepts to modern applications.

Early Developments
• 1950: Alan Turing introduced the Turing Test, a measure
of a machine’s ability to exhibit intelligent behavior
equivalent to or indistinguishable from that of a human.
• 1956: John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel
Rochester, and Claude Shannon organized the
 Dartmouth Conference, which is considered the birth of
AI as a formal academic discipline.
• 1950s-1960s: Early AI research focused on symbolic
reasoning, where machines performed tasks based on
rules and logic. Early programs included the Logic
Theorist and General Problem Solver.
Key Milestones
• 1970s-1980s: Expert systems, such as MYCIN and
DENDRAL, marked a significant milestone by using
knowledge-based systems to solve complex problems in
specific domains.
• 1990s: The development of machine learning algorithms
and neural networks led to more sophisticated AI
systems. In 1997, IBM’s Deep Blue defeated the world
chess champion Garry Kasparov, showcasing the power
of AI in strategic games.
• 2000s-present: The focus shifted towards deep learning,
reinforcement learning, and AI applications in
autonomous systems, natural language processing, and
robotics. AI systems such as Google’s AlphaGo defeated
top human players in the game of Go, and AI-driven
virtual assistants like Siri and Alexa became household
names.
3. Types of AI
AI can be categorized based on its capabilities and
functionality. These categories help in understanding the
scope and potential of AI systems.
a) Narrow AI (Weak AI)
Narrow AI, also known as Weak AI, refers to AI systems
designed to perform a specific task or a limited set of tasks.
These systems are highly specialized and can outperform
humans in their designated areas. However, they lack general
reasoning abilities and cannot perform tasks outside their
predefined scope.
Examples of Narrow AI include:
• Facial recognition systems.
• Voice assistants like Siri and Alexa.
• Recommendation systems on streaming platforms like
Netflix.
b) General AI (Strong AI)
General AI, or Strong AI, refers to an AI system that possesses
the ability to perform any intellectual task that a human can.
General AI would have the ability to learn, understand, and
apply knowledge across a wide range of tasks, showing
flexibility and adaptability similar to human cognition. This
type of AI remains a theoretical concept, as current AI
systems are far from achieving human-like general
intelligence.

c) Super-intelligence
Super-intelligence refers to a level of AI that surpasses
human intelligence in every field, including creativity,
problem-solving, and emotional intelligence. Superintelligent
AI would potentially be capable of autonomous self-
improvement and decision-making. While still speculative,
superintelligence raises philosophical and ethical concerns
about its potential impact on society.

4. Intelligent Agents
An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity that perceives
its environment and makes decisions based on its
observations to achieve specific goals. Intelligent agents are
fundamental to AI systems, and they operate by perceiving
inputs, processing data, and taking actions to maximize
performance.
Types of Intelligent Agents
• Simple Reflex Agents: These agents operate based on
condition-action rules. They react to specific
environmental conditions without memory or learning
capabilities. For example, a thermostat adjusting the
temperature based on the current room temperature.

• Model-based Agents: These agents maintain an internal

model of the world based on their previous actions and
observations. They use this model to make more
informed decisions. A robot navigating through a maze
using a map of its surroundings is an example.

• Goal-based Agents: These agents have specific goals or

objectives and take actions to achieve them. They
consider future states and plan their actions to reach the
 desired goal. For instance, a navigation system in a car
that plans the shortest route to a destination.

• Utility-based Agents: These agents are designed to

maximize a utility function, meaning they make
decisions based on preferences and optimal outcomes.
For example, a financial trading agent that maximizes
profits based on market data analysis.

5. Problem Solving in AI
Problem solving is a key area of AI research, and it involves
formulating, analyzing, and solving problems efficiently. The
ability to solve complex problems is essential for creating
intelligent agents that can adapt to dynamic environments.
a) Problem Formulation
Problem formulation refers to defining a problem in a way
that an AI system can understand and solve. It includes:
 • Defining the initial state: The starting point of the
problem.
• Defining the goal state: The desired outcome of the
problem-solving process.
• Defining the actions: The operations that can be
performed to transition from one state to another.
• Defining the state space: The set of all possible states
the agent can reach by performing actions.
b) State Space and Search Techniques
The state space represents all possible configurations of a
problem. Searching through the state space is essential to
finding the optimal solution. Several search techniques are
used to explore the state space:
• Uninformed Search: Also called blind search,
uninformed search algorithms explore the state space
without any knowledge about the goal. Examples
include:
o Breadth-First Search (BFS): Explores all possible
states level by level.
o Depth-First Search (DFS): Explores as far down a
path as possible before backtracking.
• Informed Search: Also known as heuristic search,
informed search algorithms use domain-specific
knowledge to guide the search process. Examples
include:
o A Search*: A widely used algorithm that combines
the benefits of both BFS and heuristic search to find
the optimal path.

• Local Search: This technique involves searching for the

best solution by iteratively making local improvements.
Examples include:
o Hill Climbing: A heuristic search method that makes
incremental changes to reach a local maximum.
o Simulated Annealing: A probabilistic technique
used to avoid local optima by allowing worse moves
with a certain probability.

•
 • Adversarial Search: In multi-agent environments,
adversarial search techniques are used where agents
compete against each other. Examples include:
o Minimax Algorithm: Used in games like chess to
find the optimal move by assuming that the
opponent also plays optimally.

Conclusion
Artificial Intelligence is a dynamic field that holds significant
promise for the future. Its history shows a steady progression
from theoretical foundations to practical applications across
various domains. Understanding the types of AI, intelligent
agents, and problem-solving techniques provides a strong
foundation for studying and working with AI systems. As the
field advances, AI will continue to solve increasingly complex
problems, bringing profound changes to society and
technology.