INTRODUCTION

The technology that has the greatest impact on the production system over the last
decades is computer technology. For any meaningful technological, or industrial
design, or manufacturing breakthrough in developing countries like Nigeria, it is time
to abandon the old traditional ways of manual preparation in favour of more consistent
and faster tool as Computer-Aided Design/Drafting/Manufacturing/Process
Planning/Computer Aided Engineering (CAD/CADD/CAM/CAPP/CAE), so that fast
accurate data drawings and manufactured products can be correctly obtained in good
time. Acceleration of industrial development of any nation depends on maximum
utilization of Industrial Automation and Computer Aided Engineering (CAE).

The trend in manufacturing call for the development of the following modern day
manufacturing systems. There are:
- Global competition in the manufacturing market;
- Customers now demanded high-quality goods, with low production cost
and timely delivery of manufacturing products.
- Increase in the variety of products produced, thereby choosing the product
life cycles to be shorter.

Manufacturing system entails a large number of interdependent activities consisting

of distinct entities such as materials, tools, machine, power, and human beings. It is a
complex system because it is comprised of many diverse physical and, human
elements. The choice are many, so the manufacturing engineers should be able to
select correct which one to choose, that will profit the whole manufacturing system.

COMPUTER – AIDED ENGINEERING (CAE)

Computer-aided engineering (CAE) is the use of computer software to simulate
performance in order to improve product designs or assist in the resolution of
engineering problems for a wide range of industries. This includes simulation,
validation and optimization of products, processes, and manufacturing tools.

CAE systems helps provide support to businesses. Computers are employed to aid
manufacturing process for better results. Some engineering application of Computer
Aided Engineering (CAE) are:
• Computer Aided Design [CAD];
• Computer Aided Design and Drafting (CADD)
• Computer Aided Manufacturing [CAM]
• NC, CNC, and DNC Machines
• Computer Material Handling System (Robotics)
• Computer Aided Plant Layout (CAPL)
• Computer Aided Design/Manufacturing (CAD/CAM)
• Computer Integrated Manufacturing [CIM]
• Computer Aided Process Planning and Control [CAPPC]
• Computer Aided Material Handling (CAMH)
• Computer Aided Quality Assurance (CAQA)
• Computer Aided Maintenance Management (CAMM)
• Computer Aided Costing (CAC)

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 • Computer Aided Quality Management (CAQM)
• Computer Aided Production Control and Management (CAPCM)
• Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE)
• Knowledge Based Expert System
• Artificial Intelligence.
• Virtual Reality (CAVR); • Mechatronics; and
• Automation.

CAE fields
CAE areas covered include:
• Stress analysis on components and assemblies using FEA (Finite Element
Analysis),
• Thermal and fluid flow analysis Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD),
• Kinematics,
• Mechanical Event Simulation (MES).
• Analysis tools for process simulation for operations such as casting, moulding,
and die press forming.
• Optimization of the product or process.

CAE phases
In general, there are three phases in any Computer-Aided Engineering task:
• Pre-processing – defining the model and environmental factors to be applied
to it. (typically a finite element model, but facet, voxel and thin sheet methods
are also used)
• Analysis solver (usually performed on high powered computers)
• Post-processing of results (using visualization tools)
This cycle is iterated, often many times, either manually or with the use of commercial
optimization software.

COMPUTER – AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

Computer Aided Design (CAD) is defined as the use of computer system to assist in
creation, modification analysis or optimization of design. Computer – based systems
are used for creating, modifying and communicating a plan or product design.
Activities performed by CAD include:
- Engineering design,
- Design analysis: and
- Design presentation.

Process design is characterized by an iterative procedure which consists of identifiable

steps or phase:
- Recognition of need – that a problem exists
- Definition of problem – specification
- Synthesis – conceptualized the component
- Analysis and optimization
- Evaluation – measuring the design against specification

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 - Presentation – documentation for example, drawing etc.

Below are benefits deriveable from the use of CAD system:

- Improved quality
- Designers can monitor the progress of a problem solution and terminate
the run or modify the input data as required.
- Reduction of rafting labour:
- Reduction of turn around time:
- The designer can make subjective decisions at critical branch points, which
guide the computer in continuing the problem solution:
- Reduction in the number of drawings required:
- Direct cost savings;
- High accuracy (to-one-millionth of a unit):
- Improvement in the general flow of information through a company:
- Provision of more reliability in design work by having relevant
information’s:
- The drawing speed increased up to three times faster drafters using
traditional tool:
- Evaluation of alternative design
- Use of standard libraries “copy repeats”
- Modification of the CAD is quick and easy;
- Generation of rotations, bills of materials, and materials and symbols be
placed on drawing savings valuable time: and
- Designers can immediately see and correct any gross errors in their
drawings or input statements.

COMPUTER – AIDED DESIGN AND DRAFTING (CADD)

The engineering drawing is the link between engineering design and manufacturing.
Design information is quickly communicated to manufacturing in the form of drawings
prepared according to prescribed drafting standards.

Drawing can be classified into two categories, viz

- Logic drawing: Electric circuit diagrams; process sheets, etc.
- Geometric drawings: Mechanical drawing: Architectural drawing, maps,
and printed circuit tools.

A typical CAD workstation consists of:

- The CPU
- One or more display screen
- Input devices
- Copy devices.

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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures, lines, charts, etc. using computers with
the help of programming softwares.

Computer graphics is made up of number of pixels.

• Pixel is the smallest graphical picture.
• Graphics include design of objects, animation, simulation, etc.

Types of computer graphics

1. Interactive computer graphics: User can interact with the image on the
computer screen. The example of these is when playing computer game in the
computer. Here user controls the image completely.
2. Non-interactive computer graphics: it is the computer graphics in which user
does not have any kind of control over the image. e.g. screen saver.

Software Engineering Environment

Software engineering environment also called computer aided software engineering
(CASE) tools – aim at making program development and construction efficient, without
loss of functionality.

The main task in developing interactive systems is specifying their rendering via
communication devices, their surface behavior, and their underlying functionality.

An interactive software development environment should allow:

i. Simple specifications of simple systems
ii. Declarative specifications of procedural aspects of interactive systems

Design specifications of the interactive system

i. General specification tools
ii. Tools for project management
iii. Tools for testing of complete interactive system.

The applications of computer-aided design and animation

1. Education and Training: Computer-generated model of the physical, financial
and economic system is often used as educational aids. Examples Zoom, Google
Meet, etc
2. Computer-Generated Maps: Town planners and transportation engineers can
use computer-generated maps.
3. GIS: Security, car hailing services, tracking.
4. Presentation Graphics: Example of presentation Graphics are bar charts, line
graphs, pie charts.
5. Computer Art: Computer Graphics are also used in the field of commercial arts,
advertising.
6. Entertainment: Motion pictures, music videos and television shows.
7. Visualization: It is used for visualization of scientists, engineers, medical
personnel, business analysts.
8. Printing Technology: used for printing technology and textile design. Entails 2-
D and 3-D printings.

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Packages for Computer-Aided Design and Animation:
Design and create 3D models using software such as AutoCAD, SketchUp, Cinema4D,
Fusion, SolidWorks and Maya
Apply animation techniques to create dynamic and interactive models using software
such as Blender, 3D Studio Max, and Unity
Create 2D animations and illustrations using software such as Adobe Illustrator,
Photoshop, and After Effects

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CAD SOFTWARE DESIGN
Software is defined as a set of written instruction, procedure and rules that direct the
operation of the computer. Software is another name for programs. A computer software
include the instructions which enable the computer hardware to carry out specific task.
It is the instructions that tell the computer how to process data.

The set of instructions that a computer follow to solve a problem is called a computer
program. Program stored in ROM are termed firmware, since they cannot be altered,
while the programs on files are software.

The two kinds of software are:

i. Application software; and
ii. System software.

Application software is known as “end users” software. It is used for useful work and
general purpose tasks, for example word processing. While system software is the
background software that helps the software and the computer, for example running
(“executing”) programs, storing data, programs, and processing data.

Software tools that have been developed to support these activities are considered
CAE tools. CAE tools are being used, for example, to analyze the robustness and
performance of components and assemblies. The term encompasses simulation,
validation, and optimization of products and manufacturing tools. In the future, CAE
systems will be major providers of information to help support design teams in
decision making.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD SOFTWARE

The characteristics of good software are enumerated below thus:
i. Efficiency: The program must result in the effective use of the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) in terms of both time and storage. It may be costly to
develop, and it is also related to the size or complexity. A well designed small
program may be more efficient than a large complex one.
ii. Simplicity: Must be very easy to use or user-friendly.
iii. Flexibility: This is the measure of degree of difficulty involved in modifying
software to conform to a new specification.
- Properly designed software will easily be amenable to future modifications
ore changes.
- Flexible software requires little maintenance.
iv. Readability: This is a measure of how easily user can comprehend the logic
behind the software.
- Requires proper documentation of the programming process within the
program
- Style and aesthetics are important: helpful to less much space as possible
between various parts of the program.
v. Portability: Deals with transfer of a program from one system to another; very
desirable in CAD.
- Most applications programs so far in CAD are machine dependent.

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 vi. Reliability: Measure of the functionality of the software with respect to desired
specifications.
- Very important aspect of software design, especially many
processes/operations that are software dependent deal with human life.
vii. Recoverability: Must not crash owing to an error made by user. Entry data
error must have some way of warning the user and continue to function. This
is recoverability of software. Recovery from error.

SOFTWARE COMPONENTS
The software components are divided into three parts:
i. Data;
ii. Algorithm; and
iii. Structure.

Data: are raw, unprocessed facts that are input to a computer system. It can also be
set whose members or elements are numerical values, names symbol and codes.
Algorithm: show how a set of data should be manipulated
Structure: is the organisation of software Good software provides a good
organisation of data algorithm.

Data Structure
Each data element may be one of 3 types: integer, real or logical.

Integer data: elements have integer numerical values.

Data elements of the real type consist of numerical value that includes decimal parts.
Logical type of data elements have logical values of “TRUE” and “FALSE”.

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COMPUTER AIDED DRAUGHTING
Computer aided draughting is the most widely used methods of CAD, used in the
creation of drawings.

Computer aided draughting system requires a basic capability to create 2-dimentional

geometry, and provide a set of entities which include points, lines, arcs, circle, conic
and curves. Here, dimension is very important.

CAD in Facility Design

A facility is a workspace where separate activity having work relationships with each
other is arranged in a layout. For example, in an industrial concern, a facility may
consist of one machine tool, or a group of machines which must operate as a unit

The major objectives of facility design are:

1. Facilitate the manufacturing process;
2. Minimize material handling;
3. Maintain flexibility of arrangement and of operation;
4. Maintain high turnover of work-in-process;
5. Hold down investment in equipment;
6. Make economical use of building cube;
7. Promote effective utilization of manpower
8. Provide for employee convenience, safety, and comfort in doing the work.

Facility management covers Space and Infrastructure that is composed of work like
planning, designing, construction, maintenance and many more.

Application of Computer Aided Design in facilities management

1. CAD software is equipped with several scenarios for processes like space planning,
asset management and ease of movement;
2. Helps in various works such as moving walls, merging spaces, and reallocating
assets or divisions;
3. Helps visualize real-time database information such as space, vacancy and
emergency escape routes that help with overall management;
4. Free to move around the workplace environment - CAFM helps to adapt and evolve
every change that space requires;
5. Helps and upgrade every industry type.

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COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM)
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is a natural extension of the technology of
Computer Aided Design (CAD). CAM is the use of software and computer-controlled
machinery to automate a manufacturing process. This includes process and production
planning, machining, scheduling, management, and quality control.

There are three components for a CAM system to function:

• Software that tells a machine how to make a product by generating tool paths.
• Machinery that can turn raw material into a finished product.
• Post Processing that converts tool paths into a language machine can understand.

The resulting integrated CAD/CAM system then takes the computer generated design,
and feeds it directly into the manufacturing system; the design is then converted into
multiple computer-controlled processes, such as drilling or turning.

Through the use of CAM:

1. A factory can become highly automated, through systems such as real-time control
and robotics.
2. A CAM system usually seeks to control the production process through varying
degrees of automation.
3. A high degree of precision can be achieved that is not possible with a human
interface.
4. The CAM system sets the tool path and executes precision machine operations
based on the imported design.
5. Some CAM systems bring in additional automation by also keeping track of
materials and automating the ordering process, as well as tasks such as tool
replacement, store management, etc.
6. It can be used to facilitate mass customization: the process of creating small batches
of products that are custom designed to suit each particular client.
7. Without CAM, and the CAD process that precedes it, customization would be a
time-consuming, manual and costly process.
8. CAD software allows for easy customization and rapid design changes: the
automatic controls of the CAM system make it possible to adjust the machinery
automatically for each different order.
9. The repetitive tasks in manufacturing industry are delegated to machines; the
human workers' job descriptions then move more towards set-up, quality control,
using CAD systems to create the initial designs, and machine maintenance.

CAM Technology Trends

Computer Aided Designing has evolved as one of the best computerized designing
methodologies that facilitates a wide array of manufacturing processes by transferring
the comprehensive diagrams to designs and easily to a manufacturing system.

Top design trends dominating the design industry now and in the coming years:
1. Upstart Technology- Enterprises and organizations of all sizes are indulging in
innovating and enabling Computer Aided Designing with new capabilities which
can be leveraged for better designing of products, machines, and other entities.

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2. Internet of Things- IoT refers to the network of connected devices which are capable
of interacting with their surroundings and collecting data.
3. Mobile Access to CAD
4. 3D Printed Buildings
5. CAD and the Cloud are expected to Grow Together

THE APPLICATION OF CAM

The ultimate application of CAM occurs when the various operations and routings
needed to allow production of the product are automatically from the CAD data, a
process commonly referred to as Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP). The
application of CAM can be divided into two broad categories:

Manufacturing Planning (Monitoring)

In manufacturing planning or monitoring, the computer is used indirectly to support
the production function, but there is no direct connection of interface between the
computer and the manufacturing process. The computer is used “of-line” to provide
information for the effectiveness of production activities.
The application of CAM in this category includes;
(i) Cost Estimating;
(ii) Computer–Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
(iii) Computerized Machinability Data Systems;
(iv) Computer-Assisted NC Part programming;
(v) Development of Work Standards;
(vi) Computer-Aided Line Balancing; and
(vii) Production and Inventory Planning.

Manufacturing Control
This is the second application of CAM and it is concerned with developing computer
system for implementing the manufacturing control functions. Manufacturing control
is concerned with managing and controlling the physical operations in the factory.
Process control, quality control, shop floor control, and process monitoring are all
included within the scope of this function.
Computer process control includes;
- Transfer line;
- Assembly system;
- Numerical control;
- Robotics;
- Material handling; and
- Flexible manufacturing system.

Also, shop floor control reverse to production management techniques for collecting
data from factory operations and using the data to help control production and
inventory in the factory.

Another classification of application of CAM centers around four main area;

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 (i) Numerical control (NC);
(ii) Process planning;
(iii) Robotics; and
(iv) Factory management

AN INTEGRATED CAD/CAM
CAD/CAM is a term which means Computer-Aided Design and Computer-Aided
Manufacturing. It is the technology that concerned with the use of digital computers
to perform certain functions in design and production process to improve productivity.
This technology is moving in the direction of greater integration of design and
manufacturing, two activities which have traditionally been treated as distinct and
separate function in production form. Ultimately, CAD/CAM will provide the
technology base for the computer-integrated factory of the future.

The figure below presents the scope of CAD/CAM in the operations of a

manufacturing firm and the product cycle. Except for engineering changes which
typically follow the product in all of the different activities in the product cycle.

Product Design Drafting

Concept Engineering

Order New
Customers Process
Equipment
and Market Planning
and Tooling

Quality Production Production

Control Schedulin g
Figure. Product Cycle (Design and Manufacturing)

ADVANTAGES OF USING CAM

Some advantages for using CAM includes;
(i) Communications improves by the direct transfer of documentation from
design to manufacturing.
(ii) Production is increased and more efficient.
(iii) Errors are reduced with the same data base used by design and
manufacturing.
(iv) Material handling and machine processing are more efficient.
(v) Quality control is improved.
(vi) Leads items are reduced, improving market responses and
(vii) Work environment is safer and more humans.

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 ADAPTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM
Adaptive control system is a logical extension of the CNC-mechanism - the cutting
speed and feed rates are prescribed by the part programmer.

Functions of Adaptive Control (AC)

1. Identification function: This involves determining the current performance of the
process or system.
2. Decision function: The decision procedure is carried out by means of a pre-
programmed logic provided by the designer.
3. Modification function: is concerned with a physical or mechanical change in the
system.

Application of Adaptive Control

Adaptive control can be beneficially applied where:
i. there are significant sources of variability in the job for which AC can compensate.
ii. the cost of operating the machine tool is high,
iii. the typical jobs involve steels, titanium and high strength alloys.

Benefits of Adaptive Control Application

(a) Increased production rates.
(b) Increased tool life.
(c) Greater part protection.
(d) Less operator intervention. The advent of AC machining has transferred control
over the process even further out of the hands of the machine operator and into the
hands of management via part programmer.

DESIGN OF MATERIALS HANDLING

The design of materials handling consists of two main elements:
1) Determination of the material flow parameters of the handling processes,
2) Design of materials handling equipment.

During the design the first step is to select a solution method which determines the
further steps of the process. The solution method defines the main handling
characteristics and the used operation types (lifting, clutching, etc.).

Classification of material handling system:

1. Mechanized
2. Semi-automated
3. Automated
4. Information-directed
Goals of material handling
Proper design of material handling will:
1. Reduce the unit costs of production,
2. Maintain or improve product quality, reduce damages, and provide for
protection of materials,
3. Promote safety and improve the working conditions,
4. Promote productivity,
5. Promote increased use of facilities
6. Control inventory.

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MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
The following are new technologies of manufacturing systems:
- Numerical Control Machine Tools (NC);
- Computer Numerical Control Machine Tools (CNC);
- Direct Numerical Control Machine Tools (DNC);
- Robotics;
- Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM);
- Artificial Intelligence; and
- Expert Systems.

The trend in manufacturing calls for the development of the following modern day
manufacturing systems. The reasons are:
- Global competition in the manufacturing market;
- Customers now demanded high-quality goods, with low production cost and
timely delivery of manufacturing products.
- Increase in the variety of products produced, thereby choosing the product life
cycles to be shorter.

Manufacturing system entails a large number of interdependent activities consisting

of distinct entities such as materials, tools, machines, power, and human beings. It is
a complex system because it is comprised of many diverse physical and, human
elements. The choice are many, so the manufacturing engineers should be able to
select the correct choice, that will profit the whole manufacturing system.

MANUFACTURING CYCLE
Manufacturing is a dominant activity in an individual organization. Like design, there
is no unique process for manufacturing. It all depend on products to be manufactured.
For example, we have manufacturing industry, tyre, fuel/chemical products, machines
tools, heavy vehicles such as earth moving equipment for farming and road
construction, food processing, canning/bottling plants such as breweries, foundries,
etc. Each has its manufacturing process with diversification within each group as in
the case of processes adopted by different company’s in the same industry.

As in design, the manufacturing process begins with a set of objectives which are set
by management. Such objectives may be;
(i) To develop and fabricate product;
(ii) To produce parts or products designated by the customer/client
(iii) To reproduce items that has been manufactured in the plant.

Manufacturing environment can differ with respect to;

1. Size of the plant.
2. Type of industry.
3. Type of production.
Regardless of manufacturing environment, the fundamental principles are the same
for all manufacturing concerns. Emphasis varies with respect to mode of
manufacturer’s specific problems, for example, mass production; emphasis would be
on process planning and methods.

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NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC) MACHINES
Numerical Control (NC) can be defined as a form of programmable automation in
which the process is controlled by numbers, letters and symbols. In NC, the numbers
form programme of instructions designed for a particular work part or job. When the
job changes the programme of instruction also changes.

Numerical Control (NC) is an automated method used to operate general purpose

machines from instructions stored on a roll of tape for future as well as present use.
The method can be used with or without a computer. Numerical Control (NC) is just
what the term implies- control by the numbers. The two words “control” and
“numbers” have brought about a revolution in manufacturing.

NC technology has been applied to a wide variety of operations, including drafting,

assembly, inspections, sheet metal press working and spot welding. However, NC
found it principal applications in metal machining process.

An operational NC system consists of three basic components. Thus,

• Program of instruction;
• Controller unit of machine control unit;
• Machine tool or other controlled process.

How an NC System Operates

NC system falls into two categories thus:
• Open Loop
• Closed Loop.

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COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC)
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is a NC system that utilizes a dedicated, stored
computer programme to perform some or all of the basic NC functions. The NC
machines have progressively developed into the multi-axis, multi-tooled and highly
efficient CNC machines of today. Most of the CNC systems uses micro-computer
based controller.

Principles of CNC Machines

Many machines used in manufacturing uses CNC control systems. It may be
categorised thus;
• Metal cutting (lathes, milling machines etc.).
• Metal forming (bending and folding machines, etc.).
• Metal joining (welding machines); and
• Component inspection (Co-ordinate inspection machines)

Compared to regular NC, CNC offers additional flexibility and computational

capability. New system options can be incorporated into the CNC controller simply
by reprogramming the unit. CNC is often referred to by the term “software NC.

The functions of CNC, which can be difficult for NC, are;

(i) Machine Tool Control: This is the process of converting the part program
instruction to machine tool motion using computer interface and series
system
(ii) In- Process Compensation: This is the process of the dynamic correction
of the machine tool motion for charges or errors which occur during
processing.
(iii) Improved Programming and Operating Features: There are improved
programming and operating features., such as Editing at part at the
machine graphic display various types on interpolation etc.
(iv) Diagnostics: CNC are required with diagnostics capacity to assist in
maintaining and repairing system.

Advantages of CNC
CNC has some inherent advantages over NC. Some are enumerated below thus;
• The use of part program tape and tape recorded once to enter the program into
computer memory.
• The tape can be edited at the machine site.
• It has the ability to convert all other units to metric system.
• It has a greater flexibility,
• Users can generate his own program, that is, user written programme.
• Total manufacturing system.

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DIRECT NUMERICAL CONTROL (DNC)
The Direct Numerical Control (DNC) can be defined as a manufacturing system in
which a number of machines are controlled by a computer through direct connection
and in real time. The DNC are not making use of tape reader like NC machines. It
used part programs which are transmitted to the machine tool directly from the
computer memory. It is possible to use one computer to control more than 100 separate
machines. It will provide instructions to each machine tool on demand. The control
commands can be communicated to the machine immediately the machine is of used
or to it. The DNC machine consists of four components thus;
• Central computer;
• Bulk memory, which stores the NC part programs;
• Telecommunication lines; and
• Machine tools.

ADVANTAGES OF DNC
Some of the advantages of DNC machine includes;
(i) Time sharing.
(ii) It has a greater computational capability,
(iii) It is located in a computer type environment.
(iv) It eliminates tapes and tape reader, which improved reliability.
(v) It is possible to post-processed the programs stored as culter location data
for any machine that is assigned to process the job.
(vi) It eliminates hard wire controller unit on some systems.

AUTOMATION
Automation is a technology concerned with the application of mechanical, electronic,
and computer-based systems to operate and control production. This technology
includes;
• Automation machine tools to process parts;
• Automation assembly machine.
• Industrial robots;
• Automatic material handling and storage systems;
• Automatic inspection system for quality control;
• Feedback control and computer process control;
• Computer systems for planning, data collection and decision making to
support manufacturing activities.

Types of Automation
There are three major types of automation viz;
(i) Fixed automation: In a system in which the sequence of processing or
assembly operation is fixed by the equipment configuration.
(ii) Programmable automation: The production equipment is design with the
capability to change the sequence of operation to accommodation different
product configurations.

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 (iii) Flexible automation: Is an extension of programmable automation. Is
capable of producing variety of products changeover from one product to
the next.

COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING (CIM)

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) system is primarily concerned with the
integration and management of the total manufacturing process. It is a system that
recognise and supplies computer services to each phase of the manufacturing cycle
independently, while at the same time maintaining a database that serves a single
source of data for all company activities and applications.

The term Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is often used interchangeably

with Computer-Aided Design and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAD/CAM).
Although the terms are closely related, CIM is interpreted to possess a slightly broader
meaning and in scope than CAD/CAM.

Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) includes all the engineering function of

CAD/CAM, but also includes the business function of applied technology for all of
the operational function and information processing functions in manufacturing from
order to receipt, through design and production to product shipment and service and
field support after sales.

The CIM concept is that all of the films operations related to production function are
incorporated in an integrated computer system to assist argument and or automate the
operations. It touches all the activities that support manufacturing, with the output of
the activity serving as the input to the next activity through the chains of events that
starts with the sales order and end with shipment of product.

Figure. Scope of CAD/CAM and CIM

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Customer orders are initially entered by the company’s sales force into computerised
order entry systems. The orders contain the specifications describing the products. The
specification serves as the input to the product design department. Computer
Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is a term used to describe a facility for manufacturing
a variety of products using computers to initiate, control and monitor the activities. It
is very difficult in reality to have completely automated facilities anywhere in the
world. But each company is progressing in obtaining this total CIM.

Advantages Of CIM
Some of the advantages to be derived for implementing a CIM approach are;
(i) It offers a complete flow of production and management information throughout
the entire organisation to all levels.
(ii) There is communication links with interfacing between all hardware and
software.
(iii) It is possible to standardize the software packages, achieving the transferability
of information from engineering applications to commercial applications and
vice versa.
(iv) It is also possible to respond quickly, both in quantity and type, to customer
demands.
(v) The output is more with a little workforce, and still able to maintain a high
quality.
(vi) It also assists in the minimization of stock levels, inventory and work in
progress.

Problems Associated with CIM

CIM implementation involves the total integration of all areas of a manufacturing
company from the top management level to the shop floor workers. Therefore, to
implement all what is associated with CIM, the following problems can be created;
• Some middle level and top management may lack some of the technical details
of CIM.
• There may be poor integration and flow of information between management
and their subordinate in their various departments.
• Understanding the market requirement and the integration of the need to the
products production before introducing to the market.
• Unwillingness to share vital information which can make the company to
progress.
• Incorrect and insufficient evaluation and the appraisal of implementer CIM
which can be due to lack of knowledge.
• The change of technology, which can make some of the instrument or
machines to become obsolete.

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERT SYSTEMS
Artificial Intelligence is the field of research, which simulates human thought
processes and actions. It can use or develop a computer system in simulating the
human thought processes and actions. The goal of artificial intelligence is not to
replace human intelligence, which is actually not replaceable. But it helps people to
be more productive than before.

In the past, people used intuition, reasoning and memory to solve the unstructured
problem. The computers used calculation power to solve structural problems. In
industry or in commerce, most organization have been able to computerize the tasks
once done by human being like clerks, or managers or in the production line. This is
the beginning of automation.

It is now to see the introduction of a new tool known as Artificial Intelligence (AI). It
attempts to develop computer system that can mimic or simulate human thought
processes and actions. The human thought and action includes;
- Reasoning;
- Learning from the past action;
- Human senses such as vision and touch;

It is however noted that although there are effort to do exactly what human being can
do, and that various tools have been developed that have practical application in law,
manufacturing, business, law, medicine and many other fields, they cannot perform
exactly like human being. Basically, there are three areas in which the human talents
and abilities has been enhanced with AI. Artificial Intelligence (AI) have become very
popular in Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP). Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a
computer capability that enables the computer to think and make decisions.

ROBOTICS
Robotics is the field of study concerned with developing and using robots. Robots by
definition are so many computer-controlled machines that mimic or imitate the motor
activities of humans. There are so many types of robot used in factories and in
assembly line which are programmed to do more than one task. It can also be used to
take some hazardous or dangerous, repetitive task always found in assembly line.

The combination of several different modern technologies into one machine is the
attributes of an individual robot. Microelectronics, electric motors, fluid power
systems, sensor technology and mechanical transmission are the basic development
in robot, which has contributed to its versatility and accuracy.

The most typical anthropomorphic or human-like characteristics of a robot is its arm.

The arm with its whole body can be programmed to carry out a specific production
tasks, like machine loading, spot welding, spray painting, and assembly.

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There are three types of robots, they are;

Industrial Robots
They are used in the factories to perform certain assembly line tasks. Some of the
examples of industrial robots are automobile plants to do welding, painting, and
loading. It can also be used in a garment industry; robot can cut pattern which create
pieces of fabric for clothing.

Perception Systems
This is where some robots imitate some of the human sense. Some recently developed
example is the robots with television-camera vision systems. It can also be used for:
- Guiding the machine tools
- Inspection products;
- Identifying and sorting parts; and
- For welding.

Some other kinds of perception systems rely on a sense of touch, like the ones used
on micro computer assembly lines which put parts into place.

Mobile robots
It is possible for some robots to act as transporters. They carry mail through an office,
following a programmed route. Other mobile robots acts as computerized carts to
deliver supplies and equipment at medical centres.

Robot Anatomy
The manipulation of an individual robot is constructed of a series of joints and links.
Robot anatomy deals with the types and sizes of the joints and links and other aspects
of the manipulators physical construction.

Joints and Links: there are different types of joints and links in use, some of their uses
are
- Linear joint;
- Orthogonal joint;
- Rotational joint;
- Twisting joint; and
- Revolving joint.

To establish the position of an object, the body and arm must be capable of moving
the object in;
- Vertical motion (z-axis motion)
- Radial motion (in-and out or y-axis motion)
- Right to left motion (x-axis motion or swivel about a vertical axis on the
base)

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Common Robot Configuration
There are five common configuration they are:
- Polar configuration;
- Cylindrical configuration;
- Cartesian coordinate robot;
- Jointed-arm robot; and
- Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA)

Benefits of Robots
The benefits derived for introducing robot are;
(i) Overcoming environmental hazards
problems;
(ii) Increased productivity;
(iii) Improved quality; and
(iv) Operational flexibility.

KNOWLEDGE – BASED (EXPERT) SYSTEMS

Knowledge-based system is a category of artificial intelligence programmes that
makes use of information gathered from previous projects. Professionals who are well
skilled and expert in particular field of specialization like, Production, Medicine, Law,
Accounting, other Engineering fields, are generally very scarce and are well paid for
acquiring such acknowledge.

If one has the ability to capture the knowledge of human expert and made it accessible
to everyone through a computer programme, definitely the price will be very high.
The expert has the ability to create their own computer programme using their
knowledge and what they know. This is what is known as expert systems or
knowledge-based.

Expert system can therefore be defined as computer programs that provide advice to
decision makers who would otherwise rely on human experts. The programme differs
from the normal programmes in the sense that;
- Conventional programmes are used to perform routine tasks on data.
While the;
- Expert system programmes are used to provide advice on very specialized
tasks that typically require a human expert.

Instead of using a database, expert system use knowledge bases. It involves the use of
specific facts, rules to relate these facts, and user input to formulate recommendations
and decisions. Many expert systems use so called fuzzy logic which allows users to
respond to questions in a human like way or used to allow users human like input.
The following areas have enjoyed expert system like medicine, chemistry,
photography, geology, military science. Expert systems are created using a
programming language or a shell. Shell is special kinds of software that allows a
person to custom-build a particular kind of expert system.

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VIRTUAL REALITY
Supposing, it is possible for you to create and virtually experience any new form of
reality you wish, you can explore the impossibility is rapidly becoming possible with
the use of artificial intelligent tool known as virtual reality. Virtual reality can also be
called artificial reality or virtual environments. The hardware used in virtual reality
includes;
• Head gear and gloves;
• Ear phones; and
• Three-dimensional stereoscopic screens.

It can be used to simulate important experiences or tracing environments such as:

• Flying
• Surgical operations;
• Spaceship repair; or
• Nuclear disasters clean up.

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