Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci.

14(2): 93–127, 2015

© The Biological Society of Ethiopia, 2015 ISSN: 1819-8678

DURABILITY OF ETHIOPIAN BAMBOO CULMS AND ALTERNATIVE

DAMAGE CONTROL MEASURES AGAINST BIODETERIORATING AGENTS

Getachew Desalegn1

ABSTRACT: High susceptibility of the bamboo stems (culms) to

biodeteriorating agents are among the major challenges in processing, value
addition, marketing and rational utilization of the bamboo resource in
Ethiopia. A study was conducted to investigate culms’ natural durability,
treatability of bamboo culms with and effectiveness of damage control
measures in controlling the biodeteriorating agents’ damage. Samples of
Arundinaria alpina culms were collected from Hagere Selam, Injibara, Tikur
Inchini and Masha sites. Oxytenanthera abyssinica samples were obtained
from Asossa, Dedessa and Pawe. Tanalith preservative, borax-boric acid
solution, used motor oil, kerosene and common table salt were used to treat
the bamboo stakes. Graveyard studies were conducted for five years at Pawe,
Bako, Adami Tulu and Addis Ababa research stations. The non-ground
contact test was conducted in Addis Ababa station under shade without direct
contact with soil, moisture, rain and sunlight. The results indicated that
bamboo culms were non-durable, having high treatability potential with the
control measures used in this study. Significant difference (P<0.01) was
found on damage caused by subterranean termites on the bamboo species
stakes obtained from different localities, control measures and field
(graveyard) stations. Mean damage on controls and treated stakes with
control measures caused by subterranean termites for all stations varied from
24 to 80%, while damage caused by fungi varied from 11 to 66%. This
indicated that termites caused the highest damage at all stations both on the
controls and treated stakes. The non-ground contact stakes were intact against
aboveground dwelling termites, beetles and fungi. Tanalith and used motor
oil treatments were found to be the most effective alternative control
measures in resisting biodegrading agents attack and prolonged bamboo
culms service life to more than five times compared with controls.

Key words/phrases: Arundinaria alpina, Control measures, Culms,

Graveyard stations, Oxytenanthera abyssinica, Stakes.

INTRODUCTION
Bamboo is a fast growing, high yielding and renewable perennial plant of
the world including Ethiopia. Globally, it has 1500 species and 1500
versatile socio-economic uses and environmental/ecological services. It
provides construction, food, fodder, handicrafts, furniture, musical
1
Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute, Forest Resources Utilization Research Directorate, Wood
Technology Research Centre, P.O. Box 2322, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. E-mail: [email protected]
94 Getachew Desalegn

instruments, flooring and versatile industry materials, environmental

benefits and other services (Liese, 1985; Janssen, 1995; LUSO Consult,
1997; Rao and Rao, 1998; Ensermu Kelbessa et al., 2000; Kassahun
Embaye, 2000; Ahmad and Kamke, 2003; Sastry, 2004; Bowyer et al.,
2005; Kigomo, 2007; Tesfaye Hunde, 2008; Biras and Tesfaye Hunde,
2009; Yigardu Mulatu and Mengistie Kindu, 2009; Anonymous, 2010a;
2010b; Gatóo et al., 2014; INBAR, 2014). According to archeological
evidences, bamboos appeared 200 million years ago and have been in use
for at least 6000–7000 years. They have played important socio-economic,
cultural, ecological and environmental roles in the development of human
societies. No plant is known in the tropical zone, which could supply so
many technical advantages as the bamboo (Sastry, 2004; INBAR, 2014).
Bamboo is one of the oldest building materials used by mankind and at least
1/3–1/2 of the human race uses bamboo in one way or another (Kumar et
al., 1994; Jayanetti and Follet, 1998; Yuming and Jiru, 1998; Ahmad and
Kamke, 2003; Sastry, 2004; Li, 2004; Anonymous, 2010a). Bamboo is
“green” building material and poor man’s timber since it is less expensive
than construction materials such as steel, cement and even wood (Kumar et
al., 1994). It is wood of the poor (India), friend of the people (China) and
brother (Vietnam) and there is no banquet without bamboo (Sastry, 2004;
Bowyer et al., 2005).
Bamboo’s growth is faster than any other plant on the planet (about 1.2 m
height in 24 hours period in Japan), even faster than Eucalyptus species
(Bowyer et al., 2005). Growth to full height and diameter is completed in
one growing season of 2–3 months’ time. It has a short rotation life and
maturity age of about 3–7 years for construction and furniture purposes and
can be harvested in 3–5 years versus 10–50 years rotations for most
softwoods and hardwood tree species. It attains annual biomass increment of
10–30% versus 2–5% for trees. It can be annually self-renewable and
harvestable if managed properly (Yuming and Jiru, 1998; Ahmad and
Kamke, 2003; Sastry, 2004; Bowyer et al., 2005; Gatóo et al., 2014).
Why are bamboo culms susceptible to biodeteriorating agents (termites,
beetles and fungi) and why does the need arise for effective protection
measures? Bamboo species culms in general consist of 50–70%
hemicelluloses, 30% pentosans, 20–25% lignin, other organic compounds
such as 2–6% starch, 2% deoxidized saccharide, 2–4% fat, 0.8–6% protein
and 0.5–4% silica, and minor amount of resins, waxes, organic salts and
tannins. The total bamboo comprises about 60% parenchyma, 40% fibers
and 10% conducting tissue (vessels and sieve tubes). The fibers contribute
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 95

60–70% of the weight of the total culm tissue. The main constituents of
bamboo culms are cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin, which amount to
over 90% of the total mass. The minor constituents of bamboo are resins,
tannins, waxes and inorganic salts. Compared with wood, bamboo has
higher alkaline extractives, ash and silica contents. However, none of the
extractives in bamboo have enough toxicity to reveal any natural durability.
On the other hand, the abundance of moisture, presence of large amount of
hemicellulose and starch (carbohydrates) which act as nutrients for the
biodegrading agents (white, brown and soft-rots, staining fungi, insects like
borers, powder post beetles and termites) make it more attractive and ready
food source, highly susceptible and vulnerable starting from the time of
harvesting (Tamolang et al., 1980; Liese, 1992; Yuming and Jiru, 1998; Li,
2004; Salam and Deka, 2007; Schröder, 2014). During utilization and
storage of bamboo in untreated conditions, more than 40% of it is destroyed
due to biological agents’ damage (Salam and Deka, 2007).
The natural durability of bamboo varies between 1 and 36 months,
depending on the species, climatic conditions and type of use. Durability
classification of bamboo culms thus falls in non-durable category with little
variation in durability among different species. Treated bamboo culms with
water-borne preservatives can serve as a construction material for about 10–
15 years outdoors and indoors; with ground and moisture contact
applications for 30–40 years, a service life increment of about 4–5 times
compared to the untreated bamboo culms (Tesoro and Espiloy, 1988; Kumar
et al., 1994; Janssen, 1995; Jayanetti and Follet, 1998; Kumar and Dobriyal,
1988; Younus-Uzzaman, 1998; Lahiry, 2001; Islam et al., 2002; Li, 2004;
Bowyer et al., 2005; Hall and Inada, 2008; Inada and Hall, 2008;
Anonymous, 2009a). Good chemical preservation can increase the natural
durability of bamboo to more than 50 years service life (Schröder, 2014). In
Ethiopia, the ceilings of Emperor Menilik II Palace at Entoto in Addis
Ababa that were constructed during 1889, may be from untreated split
bamboo culms, are still intact (personal observation and communication).
Bamboos are anatomically different from both hardwoods and softwoods in
their mode of growth and tissue organization. The outer wall is covered by a
thin and hard layer and less permeable than the inner layer. Due to these
differences in anatomical structure, bamboo behaves entirely differently
from wood during treatment with preservative (Kumar and Dobriyal, 1988).
The vascular bundles (vessels and thick-walled fibers) play an important
role in preservative treatment. The axial flow is quite rapid in green
bamboos, because of the end to end alignment of vessels. The degree of
96 Getachew Desalegn

penetration decreases as the distance from the conducting vessel increases.

The larger vessels (metaxylem) tend to get a larger amount of preservative
than the smaller vessels (protoxylem) (Kumar and Dobriyal, 1988).
Treatments that improve the durability of bamboos thus include traditional
(non-chemical) methods such as curing, smoking, white washing, soaking,
heating over open fire, harvesting of bamboo during low-sugar content
season, and chemical methods (non-pressure by fumigation, brushing,
soaking and spraying, butt treatment, green tank, dipping, Boucherie and the
pressure treating methods). Coal tar, crude table salt and Paris green were
used as preservatives for treating bamboo posts against subterranean
termites (Tesoro and Espiloy, 1988).
Thus, preserving bamboos increases the durability of the culms and
increases the lives of the products and structures they are used to produce. It
also increases the safety of any structure when bamboos are used as load
bearing members. If preserved bamboo is used as a structural component,
durability increases, it will fetch higher prices than non-preserved bamboos,
and need to be replaced less often which reduces costs and frequent
harvesting (Anonymous, 2009a). Techniques for application of
preservatives include non-pressure and pressure methods, depending on the
facilities available at or near the construction sites.
Protecting bamboo, wood and other forest products from biodegrading
organisms by treating them with the appropriate damage control measures
and application techniques has been imperative (Willeitner and Liese, 1992;
Shrivastava, 1997). Termites, beetles, fungi and other micro-organisms,
besides the economic damage, have great role in nutrient recycling by
decomposing wood, bamboo and other plant materials (Nicholas, 1985;
IOMC, 2000).
The income from sale of bamboo culms outweighs more than twice that of
the crops from the same plot of land and eucalypt wood lots (personal
observation) while farmers of the Shedem Kebele/locality in Bale Zone
generate 47% of their annual income from harvesting and selling of bamboo
culms (Arsema Andargachew, 2008). In many localities of Ethiopia such as
Injibara, Tikur Inchini, Hagere Selam, Asossa, Pawe, Bale, etc, rural
communities largely depend on raw bamboo culms. Bamboo at
Banja/Injibara, and districts surrounding Bahir Dar city contributed up to
38% of the annual cash income of households while at Masha it contributed
3.4% (Zenebe Mekonnen et al., 2014).
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 97

In Ethiopia, biodeterioration of bamboo is very fast (<1–2 years) and has

economic importance (personal communication with bamboo growers and
processors). The fast deterioration of bamboo culms has resulted in frequent
harvesting that in turn has imposed high pressure and depletion on the
remaining bamboo stock and commercial timbers of Ethiopia (Getachew
Desalegn and Melaku Abegaz, 2012; Getachew Desalegn and Wubalem
Tadesse, 2014; Hu, 2014). According to Getachew Desalegn and Melaku
Abegaz (2012), Getachew Desalegn and Wubalem Tadesse (2014), Zenebe
Mekonnen et al. (2014), utilization of bamboo in the country has been
limited mainly due to its fast deterioration but currently the demand has
increased.
Damage control measures to protect and rationally utilize this versatile
resource of the country are needed. Adopting engineered processing and
rational utilization techniques, including proper drying (seasoning) and
damage control measures of culms and other bamboo-based products
against biodegrading agents could be among the necessary measures
towards increasing its service life, value addition and rational utilization
thereby reducing the high pressure encountered on the indigenous tree
species such as Podocarpus falcatus, Juniperus procera, Hagenia
abyssinica, Cordia africana and Pouteria adolfi-friederici, and bamboo
itself.
Therefore, the damage control measures research on bamboo culms against
biodegrading agents was initiated as an important thematic and regional
research area in Ethiopia and Kenya and implemented by their respective
research institutes, namely, the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
under the previous Forestry Research Centre now Central Ethiopian
Environment and Forest Research Centre (CEE-FRC)/the previous Forest
Products Utilization Research Case Team now Wood Technology Research
Centre (WTRC), and Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI).
Arundinaria alpina and Oxytenanthera abyssinica were studied in Ethiopia,
while A. alpina and Dendrocalamus giganteaus were studied in Kenya. The
first year progress results on natural durability of the study bamboo species
stems (culms) of Ethiopia and Kenya, treatability with- and- performance of
control measures against biodeterioration were reported (Getachew
Desalegn et al., 2010; Nellie et al., 2010a; 2010b; Getachew Desalegn and
Melaku Abegaz, 2012; Getachew Desalegn and Wubalem Tadesse, 2014).
98 Getachew Desalegn

This article presents the five year results of the Ethiopian part only, unless
otherwise stated. This article has focused on subterranean and above ground
termites, beetles and fungal attack, natural durability of bamboo species
culms and performance of control measures at four different agro-ecological
zones and four stations in Ethiopia. Therefore, the general objective of this
study was to investigate natural durability of Arundinaria alpina and
Oxytenanthera abyssinica culms, performance of control measures and
application techniques against biodeteriorating agents’ damage, and select
appropriate control measures that can enhance service life and rational
utilization of bamboo and bamboo-based products and structures in
Ethiopia. The specific objectives of this research were to: (i) study natural
durability of bamboo species culms against termites (subterranean and
above ground dwelling), beetles and fungal degradation, (ii) test treatability
with control measures (absorption, penetration and retention) of A. alpina
and O. abyssinica species culms, (iii) investigate performance of damage
control measures (commercial and traditional), application methods
(pressure and non-pressure) on bamboo culms against termites, beetles and
fungal degradation, and (iv) select appropriate control measures that can
enhance service life and rational utilization of bamboo culms.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study species
The study species were the two indigenous bamboo species, namely,
Arundinaria alpina K.Schum. and Oxytenanthera abyssinica (A.Rich.)
Munro (Bambuseae). Synonyms of A. alpina are Yushania alpina
(K.Schum.) W.C. Lin and Sinarundinaria alpina (K.Schum.) C.S. Chao &
Renvoize. Synonyms of O. abyssinica are O. macrothyrsus K.Schum., O.
braunii Pilg., O. borzii Mattei. Vernacular and common names of A. alpina
are kerkeha (Amharic), lemana, shikaro (Oromo), anini (Awi); African
alpine bamboo, mountain bamboo (English), Bambou creux (French),
Mianzi, mwanzi (Swahili). Vernacular and common names of O. abyssinica
are shimel (Amharic), betre (Sodo Guragie), arkay (Tigregna and Amharic),
Shimela (Oromo), Savanna bamboo, Bindura bamboo, West African
bamboo (English), Bambu africano (Portuguese), Mwanzi (Swahili) (von
Breitenbach, 1963; Wolde Michael Kelecha, 1987; Hall and Inada, 2008;
Inada and Hall, 2008; Anonymous, 2012).
The two indigenous bamboo species cover over one million ha of land in
Ethiopia. Highland bamboo (A. alpina) is estimated to cover over 300, 000
ha and the lowland bamboo (O. abyssinica) covers between 700,000–
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 99

850,000 ha (about 85%) of the bamboo-covered land in the country. The

two species represent the highest (67%) bamboo resource in Africa. The
resource base in some areas has been under high pressure (improper
utilization), while in others under promotion (regeneration, development and
management). Bamboo based industries are emerging and have started
producing different engineered products. Due to its fast growth and shortage
of wood, bamboo has become economically important as an alternative
and/or supplementary to wood (Anonymous, 2010a). Major distribution
areas of highland bamboo are Injibara, Ambo, Gurage, Masha, Dawro,
Sidama and Bale while that of lowland bamboo are Pawe (formerly
Metekel), Asossa, Dedessa and Gimbi (Anonymous, 2012).
There are also more than 25 introduced bamboo species (such as Bambusa
balcoa, B. vulgaris, B. tudla, Dendrocalmus asper, D. brandisii, D.
hamitoni, D. membraceous, Guada amplexifolia and Phyllostachys
pubescens, etc. (Tesfaye Hunde, 2008; Yigardu Mulatu and Mengistie
Kindu, 2009; Alemu Gezahgne et al., 2011; Hu, 2014). Some of them
adapted and others are still under investigation for the species site-matching
and suitability for different applications. The natural durability and effective
controlling measures for culms and other products of these species have to
be complemented as well.
Harvesting of bamboo culms and sample preparation
The appropriate standards and other relevant publications applied in the
materials and methods section (…sample selection, determination of
moisture content and density, treating culms with control measures,
installation of culms stakes at field, evaluation of damage, data collection
and analysis…) were from different publications including standards and
books. The available lists of references followed while conducting all
activities, as cited and included in the references, were: Purslow, 1976;
Panshin and de Zeeuw, 1980; Nicholas, 1985; Gjovik and Gutzmer, 1986;
Melaku Abegaz and Addis Tsehay, 1988; Mishra, 1988; Willeitner and
Liese, 1992; Eaton and Hale, 1993; FAO, 1994; Kumar et al., 1994;
Highley, 1995; Shrivastava, 1997; Tesoro and Espiloy, 1988; Janssen, 2000;
ISO, 2001; SAS, 2004. Treatment processes found suitable in case of timber
(both in dry and green conditions) can also be applied to bamboos (Kumar
and Dobriyal, 1988).
The highland bamboo samples were harvested and collected from the
stations, specific localities and altitudes, namely, Hagere Selam (Meleya-
Fincha Sefere) (3000 m), Injibara (Banja Zone) (2300 m), Tikur Inchini
100 Getachew Desalegn

(Woldo-Indie) (2300 m) and Masha (Soleschiu) (2400 m). The lowland

bamboo samples were collected from Asossa (Komoshiga) (1540 m),
Dedessa (Aba-Sena) (1500 m), and Pawe (Agricultural Research Centre
compound) (1200 m). All samples were collected during low sugar content
dry period. Matured (3–5 years old) bamboo stems (culms) free from visible
defects and with good morphological qualities were selected and harvested
from the stated bamboo stands of the respective localities.
Culms were sized to sample billets/stakes of 1 m length (structural size) and
3–5 cm diameter (top and bottom) along the culms merchantable height and
transported to WTRC laboratory while green. The samples from Masha
station were all self-split after cutting and thus used only for the split tests.
The graveyard stakes were 1 m length and 3–5 cm diameter (top and
bottom). The non-ground contact and laboratory tests were the same
diameter as graveyard stakes and had 0.5 m and 3 cm length, respectively.
To designate the different stakes and treatments, aluminum stainless steel
identification codes were used. The numbers of stakes were 18 per control
measure/treatment, 90 stakes per graveyard station and a total of 360 stakes
in the case of graveyard tests, and 126 for the non-ground contact.
Treatments of bamboo culms
Alternative control measures/treatments (traditional and commercial) were
applied using chrom-arsenic free and environmental friendly Tanalith E
(Copper-azole) water-borne commercial wood control measure, borax
(Na2B4O7.10H2O-disodium tetraborate decahydrate) - boric acid (H3BO3-
Orthoboric acid) solution, used motor oil, common table salt, kerosene and
the untreated control (Anonymous, 2005a; 2005b; Archer and Lebow,
2006). Toxicity of Tanalith is LD50 (oral, rat) >500 mg/kg, and LD50 (skin,
rat) >2000 mg/kg (Anonymous, 2005a). Toxicity of boric acid, LD50 (oral,
rat) is 2660 mg/kg. The LD50 of table salt in rats is 3.75 g/kg (Anonymous,
2005a; 2005b).
Tanalith can provide excellent performance against the whole range of
destroying fungi and insects both in ground contact and non-ground contact
for hazard class 1–4, gives service life of 15–60 years and in marine
environments with hazard class of 5 guarantees for 15–30 years’ service life
(Anonymous 2005a). Copper provides protection against most decay fungi
and termites while the synthetic azole type co-biocide provides protection
against copper-tolerant organisms such as brown rot fungi (Anonymous,
2005b). For the treatments with used motor oil, a mixture of Shell Rimula
diesel oil 40 and Helix Ultra 40 engine oil in a ratio of 1:1 was used
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 101

(Jayanetti and Follet, 1998; Anonymous 2009b). Crude table salt with
ingredients of edible common salt, potassium iodized and permitted anti-
caking agent was used besides Tanalith and used motor oil.
Experimental design
The experimental design was split-plot design under complete randomized
(CRD) design. The study included one main plot factor (origin of stakes)
and two sub-plot factors (control measures and culm positions). The main
plot had six levels and it included stakes from Hagere Selam, Tikur Inchini,
Injibara, Asossa, Dedessa and Pawe. The four study stations (Addis Ababa,
Adami Tulu, Bako and Pawe) were taken as block factors for the combined
analysis of data. Control measures, one of the sub-plot factors in case of
graveyard tests had five levels and consisted of (i) Tanalith at 3%
concentration under solvent water, (ii) Tanalith at 6% concentration under
solvent water, (iii) a mixture of borax-boric acid under solvent water in a
ratio of 1:1:54, (iv) used motor oil, and (v) untreated control. The second
sub-plot factor (culm positions along height) involved three levels (stakes
from the bottom, middle and top sections). For the off-ground (non-ground
contact) tests, common table salt and kerosene were used in addition to
other treatments. For accelerated decay test, stakes were treated with
Tanalith E, borax-boric acid and used motor oil except the control.
Treatment of bamboo stakes
Stakes treatment with pressure method
Pressure treatment of stakes using Tanalith and borax-boric acid solution
was applied separately with the same Sweden Brand Rentokil pressure
impregnation machine and procedures (Tesoro and Espiloy, 1988;
Willeitner and Liese, 1992; Kumar et al., 1994). Non-pressure treatments of
stakes with hot and cold dipping method using crude table salt, soaking and
sap-displacement with kerosene were used only for the non-ground contact
tests.
Test categories of natural durability and control measures performance in
brief were: (i) outdoor (graveyard) tests having external construction
purposes, ground contact test with atmosphere and soil, (ii) indoor (above
ground/non-ground contact) tests having furniture and internal construction
purposes. Tests applied under shed without direct contact with atmosphere,
moisture/rain, sunlight and soil, (iii) laboratory (accelerated decay) tests
conducted to obtain quick results on biodeterioration so as to check and
compare with graveyard and non-ground contact conditions. Accelerated
 102 Getachew Desalegn

decay test results on inoculated Wolfipria cocos (fungus) have been earlier
reported (Getachew Desalegn and Melaku Abegaz, 2012).
Control measures treatment application techniques, namely, pressure and
non-pressure (hot-and-cold dipping, soaking and sap displacement) methods
were used to treat round and half split dry and green stakes separately.
Bamboo culms were air seasoned, except the culms used for sap
displacement (green) tests. Stakes for air seasoning were kept standing
upright under shed for two months until an average MC of less than 20%
was achieved. Moisture content was determined using the adapted formula
(Panshin and de Zeeuw, 1980; ISO, 2001).
Pressure treatment of bamboo culms was done to force the control measures
to be absorbed by the culms (Fig. 1). Tanalith (at 3% and at 6%
concentrations) and borax- boric acid (1:1 ratio) treatments were separately
used for pressure tests for 30-minutes for highland bamboo, relatively
hollow and 1 hour for lowland bamboo, relatively solid. The impregnation
pressure applied in both cases was 1 N/mm2. The stakes were then removed
out from the machine and air seasoned for a week to allow fixation of the
control measure into the culms and solvent evaporation.

Tanalith
preservative and
culms inside
Culms loaded on
bogie before
Tanalith preservative entering the
mixed with water impregnation
machine

Tanalith
preservative in
barrel

a. Rentokil Impregnation b. Bamboo culms loaded on bogie

Machine before entering the
impregnation machine

Fig. 1. Pressure treatments of bamboo culms (Photo: Getachew Desalegn).

Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 103

Treatability (absorption and retention) and permeability of stakes with

control measures (Figs. 1 and 2) were determined based on Willeitner and
Liese (1992) and FAO (1994). Control measure solution absorption rate
(kg/m3) was determined by subtracting saturated weight (kg) of stakes after
treatment from weight (kg) of air seasoned stakes before pressure treatment
and dividing by the volume of stake (m3). Retention of control measures
into stakes was determined by multiplying the amount of control measures
absorbed by the control measures strength/concentration (toxic capacity)
and expressed in kg/m3.
Extent of control measures permeability (penetration) into the culms was
determined (FAO, 1994) by cross-cutting two discs from treated stakes into
20 cm pieces, 20 cm inwards from both ends, measuring maximum and
minimum depth of chemical penetration (mm) and to obtain mean
penetration value (mm) dividing the summation of maximum and minimum
depths of penetration (mm) by two.
Non-pressure treatment of bamboo stakes
Hot-and-cold dipping treatment of stakes
Hot-and-cold dipping tank atmospheric pressure treatments were done by
submerging stakes in separate dipping tanks containing used/spent motor oil
of vehicles and table salt solution (Fig. 2a, b). Treatments were gradually
heated to 90°C. Stakes of A. alpina (hollow) were kept in the tank for 30
minutes and that of O. abyssinica (solid) for one hour. The stakes were
allowed to cool for 24 hours. The stakes were then removed from the
machine and air seasoned for a week to allow fixation of the control
measures into the culms.
Soaking treatments
Air seasoned round stakes of A. alpina and O. abyssinica were soaked
separately in a drum containing kerosene to a length of 30 cm from the
bottom portion and kept in the drum for 4 and 8 days, respectively. The
same was done for the half split stakes. The stakes were then removed out of
the machine and air seasoned for a week to allow fixation of the control
measures into the culms. Application of preservative by soaking is the
cheapest and simplest method of chemical treatment of bamboo for uses
where higher absorptions are required. This method requires very little
technical knowledge, simple equipment and minor investment. The process
gives satisfactory results if the samples are properly prepared, seasoned and
treated. Moreover, both dry and green samples can be treated by this method
104 Getachew Desalegn

(Younus-Uzzaman, 1998).

b. Hot-and-cold dipping
a. Hot-and-cold treatment with used motor
dipping treatment with oil
table salt
c. Fire under the hot-
and-cold dipping
tanks

d. Soaking split stakes with

kerosene

Fig. 2. Hot-and-cold dipping treatment of bamboo culms with table salt (2a), and use motor oil (2b, c) and
soaking split stakes with kerosene (2d) (Photo: Getachew Desalegn).

Sap displacement treatment

Freshly cut/green (89% MC) and round form culm stakes prepared to size
were immersed to 30 cm of the bottom part using kerosene held in an oil-
barrel and left standing in a barrel containing kerosene for four days. They
were then removed from the barrel and air seasoned for a week to allow
fixation of kerosene into the culms.
Split stakes treatment with pressure and non-pressure methods
Stakes prepared to size, split into half and air-seasoned were pressure treated
using Tanalith and borax-boric acid solutions separately and the 3rd batch
were soaked in kerosene for 4 and 8 days, respectively (Fig. 2d). Stakes
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 105

were then removed from the impregnation machine and soaking barrel and
air seasoned for a week to allow fixation of the control measures into the
culms.
Controls
Control (untreated) stakes were not treated with control measures but
received proper seasoning, moisture management and proper handling.
Controls provide information about the natural durability of the species.
Test stations
The tests included field/graveyard study, above ground (non-ground
contact) and accelerated decay (laboratory) tests. Accelerated decay test on
bamboo culms of Ethiopia was conducted in the Kenya Forestry Research
Institute (KEFRI) laboratory and reported (Getachew Desalegn and Melaku
Abegaz, 2012). The field tests were conducted in four agro-ecological
zones, at four graveyard sites (hereafter stations namely, Addis Ababa,
Bako, Adami Tulu and Pawe). Records collected using Global Positioning
System (GPS) (Table 1) were used to indicate the latitude and longitude
coordinates of the stations on the map of Ethiopia. Field stations were
located in hazardous areas of bamboo degrading agents (termites and fungi).
Table 1. Descriptions of graveyard stations.
Graveyard Latitude Altitude Total Mean Agro-ecologies** Major soil
station* and (m) annual annual type
Longitude rainfall temperature
(mm) (Min. and
Max.)
Adami Tulu, 75´N and 1645 766 12C and Hot to warm sub- Sandy
ARC 3842´E 27C humid gorges
compound agroecology- mid
rift valley
Addis Ababa, 857′N and 2228 1225 9.5C and Tepid to cool Vertisols-
FPURC 3845´E 22.5C humid mid- black soil
compound highlands

Bako, ARC 909N and 1628 1210.1 9C and Mid altitude sub- Nitosols-
compound 37 02E 34.4C humid mid- Red soil
highlands
Pawe, ARC 1119´N 1100 1000- 25C and Hot to warm most Nitosols,
compound and 1500 30C gorges vertisols and
3624′E Lvesols- red
and black
soils

*ARC- Agricultural Research Centre; FPURC- Forest Products Utilization Research Case Team.
**Source: Anonymous (2000).
106 Getachew Desalegn

Graveyard installation of stakes

Graveyard studies of stakes were conducted for five years (2009–2014) at
Pawe, Bako, Adami Tulu and Addis Ababa research stations. The off-
ground tests were conducted at Addis Ababa station under shade without
direct contact of soil, moisture, rain and sunlight. Graveyard tests were
designed to simulate actual field and service conditions of bamboo culms.
Pits were dug for the installation of stakes with 25 cm depth at a spacing of
25 cm between stakes and 50 cm between rows. Plots per station and
treatments were subdivided into 18 sections. Stakes were fixed randomly in
the prepared pits with their bottom parts up to 30 cm lengths (Fig. 3).

a b
.

c d
.
Fig. 3. Bamboo stakes field lay out and installation partial view at the different graveyard stations Stakes
at Bako Station (a); stakes at Adami Tulu Station (b); stakes at Pawe Station (c), stakes at Addis Ababa
Station (d) (Photo: Getachew Desalegn).

Position of all stakes in each test plot were pegged facing in one direction
following the position/direction of code plates and sketched to provide
reference for the respective/continuous data collection work. Graveyard
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 107

stations were fenced with barbed wire, seasoned and preserved wood. Stakes
for the off-ground tests were kept on shelves under shade with no direct
ground, sunlight, rainfall and moisture contact.
Stakes evolution against biodeteriorating agents damage and data
analysis
Data collection was carried out at 3rd, 6th, 9th and 12th months in the first
year, and thereafter at six months interval and up to year five. Resistance
and/or deterioration rate of each test stake and control measures against
subterranean termites and fungal attack was determined by visual
inspection/observation supported by sounding/acoustic and indenting
methods. Earthen tunnels, termites mud tubes, and exit holes or galleries on
the stakes were used in this study to signify the presence and damage of
subterranean termites. Fungal decay was characterized by colour changes,
softening, brashness, brittleness and the development of hyphal
growth/decayed external appearance (assessed visually) and in later stages
of decay culms shrunk and crack developed along and across the grain.
Fungal damage was indicated by hollow seen and/or dull sound heard while
jabbing the stakes with blunt end of the inspection knife and indenting with
thumbnail (Nicholas, 1985; Eaton and Hale, 1993; Shrivastava, 1997). This
was done to check for their natural resistance/durability, effectiveness of
applied damage control measures and application techniques.
Stakes after rainy season were carefully withdrawn from their pits one by
one; the presence and extent of attack by termites and/or fungi were
inspected, evaluated and recorded following the method used by Gjovik and
Gutzmer (1986) before re-installation into the pit. Graveyard inspection
continued until the underground parts of at least 50% of the untreated and/or
control measures treated stakes were completely degraded or fell down to
the ground (Gjovik and Gutzmer, 1986; IUFRO, 1972; cited in Willeitner
and Liese, 1992).
Biodeterioration rate was evaluated following (Purslow, 1976; Gjovik and
Gutzmer, 1986; Melaku Abegaz and Addis Tsehay, 1988; Willeitner and
Liese, 1992; Eaton and Hale, 1993; Highley, 1995; Getachew Desalegn et
al., 2003). This was done based on a nominal scale of 1–5, where 1-sound
(no decay and/or termite attack, 100% resistance); 2-local
(superficial/moderate attack,75% resistance); 3-slight attack (limited attack,
50% resistance); 4-severe and deep attack (25% resistance); and 5-failure
(complete attack, 0% resistance).
108 Getachew Desalegn

For convince of data analysis and presenting results, scaled values after the
data analysis were converted to percentage values and vice-versa. Stakes
mean damage values that became continuous values were used in the
standard ANOVA. Data were analyzed using SAS (2004), version 9
statistical software package for windows. Combined analysis using
multifactor ANOVA was done to determine damage by subterranean termite
and fungi and effectiveness of control measures. Least significance
difference (LSD) and Duncan's Multiple Range analyses were used to check
significance of the damage difference among biodeteriorating agents/mean
separation among treatments including the controls.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Major physiognomic characteristics of bamboo culms
Mean height and diameter of A. alpina sample culms were 8.4 m and 5.20
cm and that of O. abyssinica were 6.1 m, and 3.9 cm, respectively. Diameter
of stakes for bottom section along the culms height was 4.5 cm, middle 4.1
cm and top sections 3.6 cm. Internodes length of A. alpina and O.
abyssinica were 42.2 cm and 33.7 cm, respectively. Internodes length of the
Pawe site was relatively short (30 cm). Mean number of nodes per 1 m
length of both species culms was 3.
Physical characteristics
Moisture content of A. alpina and O. abyssinica
Mean green (initial) moisture content of A. alpina and O. abyssinica were
117.40% and 59.53%, respectively. Dried (seasoned) culms moisture
content of A. alpina and O. abyssinica were 12.40% and 15.40%,
respectively. Bamboo samples collected from Hagere Selam, Injibara and
Tikur Inchini had initial moisture content of 103%, 115% and 134%,
respectively and that of Asossa, Dedessa and Pawe bamboo culms had 56%,
54% and 69%, respectively. Seasoned moisture content of Hagere Selam,
Injibara and Tikur Inchini bamboo culms were 11%, 12% and 14%,
respectively, and that of Asossa, Dedessa and Pawe bamboo culms were
19%, 14% and 14%, respectively. According to Melaku Abegaz et al.
(2005), O. abyssinica of Mandura which is nearby Pawe has an initial and
final moisture content of 60% and 12%, respectively. Moisture contents of
the two bamboo species were in agreement with other reports which
indicated that the initial moisture content of bamboo ranged from 57 to
150% (Kumar and Dobriyal, 1988; Ahmad and Kamke, 2003).
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 109

Density of A. alpina and O. abyssinica

Density and moisture content are the major factors that can influence the
mechanical and other properties (Ahmad and Kamae, 2003). Density of A.
alpina and O. abyssinica culm walls at 12% moisture content were 615
kg/m3 and 673 kg/m3, respectively. Density of Hagere Selam originated A.
alpina culms at 12% moisture content was 630 kg/m3 and according to
Seyoum Kelemwork et al. (2008), A. alpina from Bore site, which is found
nearby Hagere Selam had the same density of 630 kg/m3. According to
Chew et al. (1992; cited in Ahmad and Kamke, 2003), Bamboo vulgaris has
the same density of 630 kg/m3 as that of A. alpina.
According to Seyoum Kelemwork (2012), the Asossa bamboo had density
of 535 kg/m3 and the Dedessa bamboo had a density of 615 kg/m3. This
indicated that O. abyssinica of Dedessa has the same basic density as that of
A. alpina of this study, while Pawe culms have a density of 658 kg/m3.
According to Melaku Abegaz et al. (2005), O. abyssinica of Mandura has
density of 720 kg/m3 at 12% moisture content. Density results of this study
were in agreement with other reports which indicated that seasoned density
of bamboo ranges between 300 and 900 kg/m3 (Kumar and Dobriyal, 1988;
Ahmad and Kamke, 2003).
Treatability of bamboo culms
Absorption/uptake and retention (kg/m3) in this case refer to the amount of
Tanalith E salt concentration in bamboo culms. Retention is more important
than absorption, since what is effective in controlling biodeterioration attack
is the retained amount. Mean absorption of Tanalith per volume of treated A.
alpina and O. abyssinica culms at 3% concentration was 525.4 kg/m3 and
504.2 kg/m3, respectively. Tanalith absorption of A. alpina stakes from
Hagere Selam site was 575.3 kg/m3, Tikur Inchini 528.6 kg/m3 and Injibara
472.2 kg/m3. Stakes of A. alpina from Hagere Selam site indicated relatively
high absorption (575.3 kg/m3) and Injibara low absorption (472.2 kg/m3).
Absorption of O. abyssinica stakes from Asossa site was 659.4 kg/m3,
Dedessa 733.4 kg/m3 and Pawe 119.7 kg/m3. Mean absorption of both
species culms along height for bottom position was 214.2 kg/m3, middle
655.6 kg/m3 and top section stakes was 674.5 kg/m3. Top and middle
sections absorbed relatively high and bottom the least.
The average control measure retention of A. alpina culms was 17.5 kg/m3.
Stakes of A. alpina from Hagere Selam site revealed relatively the highest
retention (19.3 kg/m3) and Injibara the least (15.3 kg/m3). Average control
110 Getachew Desalegn

measure retention capacity of O. abyssinica stakes was 17.1 kg/m3. Stakes

of O. abyssinica from Dedessa site revealed the highest retention (24 kg/m3)
and stakes from Pawe showed the least (5.5 kg/m3) control measures
retention capacity. Mean retention of Tanalith at 3% concentration for both
species along the culms height was 21.9 kg/m3 and the amount of control
measures retained at the bottom, middle and top sections of bamboo culms
were 8.1 kg/m3, 21.6 kg/m3 and 22.3 kg/m3, respectively. Top section culms
revealed the highest retention (22.3 kg/m3) and bottom sections the least
(8.1 kg/m3). This exhibited that both bamboo species were permeable to
Tanalith and other control measures treatments.
A maximum retention of 20.51 and 22.25 kg/m3 were reported for air
seasoned stakes of Arundinaria flaconeri and Sinobambus tootsik (Younus-
Uzzaman, 1998), respectively for water-borne copper-chrome-arsenate
(CCA) control measure. According to Younus-Uzzaman et al. (2001),
bamboo culms having 11–19 kg/m3 retention when treated with CCA salt, is
expected to have a service life span of 15–20 years both when used in the
open and in contact with the ground. The retentions of A. alpina and O.
abyssinica obtained in this study were comparable with the results of
Younus-Uzzaman (1998) and Younus-Uzzaman et al. (2001). Retention of
4–20 kg/m3 for water-borne control measures such as Tanalith has been
recommended to be adequate for various applications (Willeitner and Liese,
1992). Retentions of both study species and species by origin also fell
within the required retention limits.
Performance of traditional and commercial control measures
Durability and performance of traditional and commercial control measures
against subterranean termite and fungal damages were stated simultaneously
in terms of graveyard stations, duration of exposure, bamboo species, and
bamboo species origin, position of culms along height. Graveyard results in
this case refer to damage up to year five. The majority of the treated and
untreated culms at the 3rd month evaluation period indicated that culm
stakes at all stations were not significantly attacked by subterranean termites
and fungi.
Performance of control measures/treatments against controlling termites and
fungal damage significantly varied since the end of the 6th month and up to
year five exposure periods. At Pawe station, the 6th month exposure
indicated 42.5% termite damage for highland bamboo culms treated with
borax-boric acid, and 30% for the controls (Getachew Desalegn et al., 2010;
Getachew Desalegn and Melaku Abegaz, 2012). In Kenya, within sixth
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 111

month of field exposure, the A. alpina control stakes were degraded from
4.2% to 16%, and that of Dendrocalamus giganteaus from 12.5% to 33%
(Nellie et al., 2010a). In this case, the degradation of A. alpina in Ethiopia
was higher than in Kenya. This could be attributed to the biodegrading
agents and site differences. According to Hall and Inada (2008), seasoned
culms of A. alpina used in construction and fencing are susceptible to
infestation by the powder-post beetle (Dinoderus minutus). However, in
Congo, stems considered durable, houses and fences made from A. alpina to
last for more than 20 years (Hall and Inada, 2008). Fences made from O.
abyssinica seasoned culms were susceptible to termite and borer attack
(Inada and Hall, 2008).
The treated culms of this study have indicated relatively longer service life,
more than five times increment compared with untreated culms.
Biodeteriorating agents (termites, beetles, borers, fungi, etc) independently
and/or jointly destroy untreated bamboo culms within one month to three
years duration of harvest, storage and utilization, while preserved bamboo
based on intended place of utilization will give a service life of 10–40 years,
an increment of 4–10 times compared to the untreated bamboo (Tamolang
et al., 1980; Liese, 1985; Willeitner and Liese, 1992; Kumar et al., 1994;
Janssen, 1995; Younus-Uzzaman, 1998; Islam et al., 2002).
During the 5th year period, the highest (100%) termite damage occurred on
controls and borax-boric acid treated stakes installed at Pawe and Bako
stations. Highest fungal damage occurred on bamboo culms installed at
Bako (80%) and Adami Tulu (70%) stations (Table 2). In all the stations
except Addis Ababa, deterioration rate of subterranean termites and fungi
has increased significantly through time (3rd month to 5th year evaluations).
This could be attributed to the differences in agro-ecological and
biodegrading agents. The Addis Ababa station is located in relatively
highland (cold) altitude and thus bamboo stakes were less damaged than the
warm sites.
Compared to the 6th month, the damage from first to 5th year increased from
about twice to more than 13 times in case of subterranean termites and about
twice to more than 40 times in case of fungi (Table 2; Fig. 5). The extent
varied with species, species by origin, control measure, graveyard station
and duration of exposure. For instance, biodeterioration of Tanalith treated
stakes at 6% concentration, in the same five year of exposure period and
with station varies from 5 to 35% times in the case of subterranean termites
attack and 0 to 20 times in case of fungal attack.
112 Getachew Desalegn

Damage of the termite and fungi revealed that culms cut near the ground
surface or the underground parts were penetrated, excavated/hollowed,
damaged and filled with moist soil by termites and in some cases decayed
mutually by fungi as well. At Pawe and Bako stations, during the
rainy/moist periods, the above ground parts of bamboo culms were covered
with soil sheathing up to 50 cm along the culms height and damage by
termites and fungal infestation was observed. According to Wong and
Cheok (2001), when termites and fungi occur together they may become
associated (symbiotic relationship) in a way so that they influence each
other. When comparing the two bamboo species, natural durability of O.
abyssinica was better than A. alpina. The study bamboo species could be
classified as non-durable. On the basis of natural durability of bamboo
species culms, it can be classified as non-durable species (Kumar et al.,
1994).
Table 2. Mean deterioration (%) of bamboo culms up to five year graveyard exposure period.
Mean deterioration (%) of culms by graveyard station
Pawe Bako Adami Tulu Addis Ababa
Control measure
Treatments T F T F T F T F

Tanalith 3% concentration 95.0 65.0 92.5 60.0 52.5 42.5 27.5 2.5
Tanalith 6% concentration 32.5 15.0 35.0 20.0 22.5 10.0 5.0 0.0
Control 100.0 100.0 95.0 55.0 80.0 67.5 45.0 42.5
Used motor oil 87.5 72.5 97.5 52.5 57.5 52.5 25.0 20.0
Borax-Boric acid 100.0 80.0 100.0 70.0 70.0 22.5 47.5 17.5
T- subterranean termite; F-fungi

The controls and treated stakes with borax-boric acid solution, used motor
oil, and Tanalith at 3% concentration were highly affected (mean values
range from 88 to 100%) by subterranean termites at Pawe and Bako stations,
while the least deterioration (5%) occurred for Tanalith treated stakes at 6%
concentration at Addis Ababa station. Fungal damage ranged highest, 72.5
to 100%, at Pawe on used motor oil treated stakes, and controls and the least
0–10% at Addis Ababa and Adami Tulu stations were on Tanalith treated
stakes at 6% concentration.
The results indicated that mean subterranean termites deterioration of stakes
up to 5th year for both bamboo species, species by origin, positions along the
culms height and at all graveyard stations was 80% for controls, 79% for
borax-boric acid, Tanalith at 3% concentration and used motor oil treated
stakes were equally degraded to 67%, and 24% damage for Tanalith at 6%
concentration (Table 2). Mean fungal attack on bamboo culms was 66.25%
for controls, 49% for used motor oil, 47% for borax-boric acid, 43% for
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 113

Tanalith at 3% concentration, and 11% for Tanalith treated stakes at 6%

concentration. Damage of subterranean termites’ and fungi along the height
of bamboo culms was not significant (Fig. 5d). Bottom section culm stakes
resist both subterranean termites and fungal deterioration more than middle
and top sections.
Subterranean termites’ mean damage on Tanalith treated stakes at 3%
concentration at each graveyard station, in a descending order was Bako
84%, Pawe 83%, Adami Tulu station 57% and Addis Ababa 30%. Mean
damage of fungi on Tanalith treated stakes at 3% concentration at each
graveyard station was Pawe 66.5%, Bako 51.5%, Adami Tulu 39% and
Addis Ababa 16.5%. Highest subterranean termites’ damage (84%) occurred
at Bako and Pawe, and highest fungal attack (66.5%) at Pawe station. At
Adami Tulu station, the termite mound extended from time to time and
became very sticky around the stakes like cement concrete. At Pawe station,
the deterioration of the controls and borax-boric acid treated stakes was
100%, while fungal attack was estimated to be 15 to 100%.
The subterranean termites at Bako station were Microterms and
Pseudacanthoterms militarious while that of Adami Tulu, having the same
agro-ecology as that of Zeway, was dominated by subterranean and mound
building termite species, Marcoterms bellicosus (Zawde Berhane and Yusuf,
1974). Dominant mound forming termite species at Pawe were the genera
Macroterms and Odonototerms, both belonging to the family
Macrotermitinae (personal communication with Pawe ARC researchers).
The trend of termite attack at Pawe station was observed from inner to outer
parts and upwards (Fig. 4a), and at Bako from the bottom inner part to the
top direction (Fig. 4b).
Graveyard results up to year five revealed that there was significant
difference (P<0.01) in the mean biodeterioration damage of subterranean
termites between the bamboo species (A. alpina and O. abyssinica), by
origin (Hagere Selam, Injibara, Tikur Inchini, Asossa, Dedessa and Pawe),
among control measures (Tanalith at 3% and 6% concentration, borax-boric
acid, used motor oil and control), among application methods for control
measures (pressure, non-pressure and untreated controls), graveyard stations
(Pawe, Bako, Adami Tulu and Addis Ababa), and in the interactions among
species by origin and control measures; species by origin and graveyard
stations; control measures and graveyard stations. There was significant
difference (P<0.01) for fungal damage too, especially on control measures
and graveyard stations and in the interactions between control measures and
114 Getachew Desalegn

graveyard stations, species by origin and graveyard stations.

a b
Fig. 4. Trend of termite attack on bamboo stakes treated with borax-boric acid and installed at Pawe (a)
and Bako (b) stations (Photo: Getachew Desalegn).

The overall mean damage caused by subterranean termites for both species,
all species by origin, control measures and stations varied from 24 to 80%,
while mean damage caused by fungi varied from 11 to 66%. The results
indicated that bamboo species culms were non-durable. Among the studied
control measures, Tanalith and used motor oil were found to be most
effective in controlling biodegrading attack and prolonging the service life
of bamboo culms to more than five times service life time increment
compared to the un-treated control and borax-boric acid solution treated
stakes (Table 2; Fig. 5).
Least significant difference (LSD) and Duncan's Multiple Range/mean
separation analyses to check the mean damage difference among
biodeteriorating agents, indicated that the overall mean damage due to
subterranean termites and fungi for both bamboo species, stakes from
different origins, positions along the culms height, control measures and
graveyard stations was 67.5% and 42.5%, respectively (Fig. 5a, b, c, d).
Controls and borax-boric acid treated stakes were damaged more than
Tanalith and used motor oil treated stakes.
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 115

Fig. 5a. Mean deterioration (%) of bamboo culms at different graveyard stations 1st bar graph refers to
subterranean termite damage while the 2nd one refers to fungal damage.

Fig. 5b. Mean deterioration (%) of bamboo culms treated with different control measures 1st bar graph
refers to subterranean termite damage while the 2nd one refers to fungal damage.
116 Getachew Desalegn

Fig. 5c. Mean deterioration of bamboo culms by species origin 1st bar graph refers to subterranean termite
damage while the 2nd one refers to fungal damage.

Fig. 5d. Mean deterioration of bamboo culms along height 1st bar graph refers to subterranean termite
damage while the 2nd one refers to fungal damage.
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 117

Fig. 5e. Mean deterioration of bamboo culms through graveyard exposure periods 1st line graph refers to
subterranean termite damage while the 2nd one refers to fungal damage.

Application of different treatments to control subterranean termites attack

showed significant difference between used motor oil, Tanalith at 3% and
6% concentrations. The role of treatments to minimize the damage of fungi
showed significant difference between borax-boric acid and Tanalith
treatments (Table 2; Fig. 5). Results of the study indicated that Tanalith and
used motor oil were effective to control biodeterioration attack. The
Tanalith treatment of highland and lowland bamboo culms at 6%
concentration with pressure impregnation method was by far the best to
control both subterranean termites and fungal damage.
Compared to the controls and borax-boric acid treatments, control
measures/treatments such as Tanalith at 3% and 6% concentrations and used
motor oil treatments of this study have increased service life of bamboo
species culms by more than five times. However, the extent varies with
species, species by origin, control measure, and positions along the culms
height, graveyard locations and exposure periods.
118 Getachew Desalegn

Treated bamboo culms with water-borne preservatives such as Tanalith can

serve as a construction material for about 10–15 years out doors and in
doors; with ground and moisture contact applications for 30–40 years, a
service life increment of about 4–5 times compared to the untreated bamboo
culms (Kumar and Dobriyal, 1988; Tesoro and Espiloy, 1988; Kumar et al.,
1994; Janssen, 1995; Jayanetti and Follet, 1998; Yunus-Uzzaman, 1998;
Lahiry, 2001; Islam et al., 2002; Li, 2004; Bowyer et al., 2005; Anonymous,
2009a; Hall and Inada, 2008; Inada and Hall, 2008; Anonymous, 2009a).
Good chemical preservation can increase the natural durability of bamboo to
more than 50 years service life (Schröder, 2014).
Effectiveness of control measures for aboveground dwelling
biodegrading agents
The non-ground contact test stakes of all untreated controls and treated with
control measures (Tanalith, borax-boric acid solution, used motor oil,
common table salt, kerosene) using pressure and non-pressure methods
including sap displacement, dipping, soaking with kerosene for 4 and 8 days
were intact up to the last evaluation period of year seven against
biodeteriorating agents namely above ground dwelling termites, beetles and
fungi.
Both the graveyard and accelerated decay laboratory tests of this research
indicated that there was high damage when there were no control measures
applied indicating non-durability of bamboo and the importance of control
measures to increase its durability and service life.
Comparison of bamboo culms durability with timbers
Bamboo has been one of the competent species to replace wood, provided it
is well-handled and protected from biodegrading agents. In Ethiopia, people
have been using either wood or bamboo as construction and furniture
material. There has been no research finding/information on the natural
durability of bamboo culms and effective damage control measures in
Ethiopia. Comparison of natural durability of bamboo and timbers could be
useful to decide which one to use, when and for how long (service life).
The palace ceilings of Emperor Menilik II at Entoto in Addis Ababa that
were constructed during 1889 from split bamboo culms that may be
untreated, are still intact against biodeteriorating agents (personal
communication and observation).
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 119

Compared to the controls and borax-boric acid treatments, control measure

treatments such as Tanalith at 3% and 6% concentrations and used motor oil
treatments of this study have increased service life of bamboo species culms
by more than five times. However, the extent varies with species, species
by origin, control measure, and positions along the culms height, graveyard
locations and exposure periods.
The underground parts of some untreated timber stakes of Acrocarpus
fraxinifolius, Antiaris toxicaria, Apodytes dimidiata, Trilepisium
madagascariense, Milicia excelsa, Croton macrostachyus, Ekebergia
capensis, Fagaropsis angolensis and Polyscias fulva at Zeway station were
severely attacked and fell down to the ground line zone mostly by
subterranean termites attack during the first three to six months field
exposure periods (Getachew Desalegn et al., 2003; 2012). Eucalyptus
grandis, A. toxicaria, E. capensis and Podocarpus falcatus timber stakes at
Mersa were degraded and fell down during the 2nd year period (Wubalem
Tadesse and Getachew Desalegn, 2008). A. fraxinifolius, A. toxicaria, A.
dimidiata, C. macrostachyus, E. capensis, E. grandis, M. excelsa, Pinus
patula, P. fulva, Pouteria adolfi-friederici, Syzygium guineense and T.
madagascariense at Bako station were degraded and fell down due to
termite attack during the first year period (Getachew Desalegn et al., 2007;
2012).
All untreated control stakes of C. macrostachyus at Mersa, Bako and Pawe
stations were degraded and fell to the ground line during the first year
(Wubalem Tadesse and Getachew Desalegn, 2008; Behailu Kebede et al.,
2011), while Cordia africana fell during the 2nd year exposure period
(Wubalem Tadesse and Getachew Desalegn, 2008). Untreated Eucalyptus
deglupta timber at Meisso station was degraded and fell down at first year
(Getachew Desalegn, 2010; Getachew Desalegn et al., 2012). Some of the
control stakes of bamboo at Pawe, Bako and Adami Tulu stations fell down
at first year, while some others resisted 2.5 to 5 years. This revealed that
untreated bamboo species at the same duration (up to first year) were
comparable with the stated untreated timber species.
CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD
Performance of untreated stakes and effectiveness of stakes against
subterranean termites and fungal attack varied. The results revealed that
subterranean termites’ damage was higher than fungi for species, species by
origin, all control measures applied and at all graveyard stations. Compared
to the third month exposure period, the deterioration during the 6th month to
120 Getachew Desalegn

5th year significantly increased. The Addis Ababa station was less hazardous
since underground parts of all the untreated stakes were attacked to less than
50%, while the Pawe station was more hazardous since 100% of the controls
and borax-boric acid treated stakes were severely degraded by termites. The
overall mean damage on controls and control measures treated stakes caused
by subterranean termites for all species by origin, control measures and
stations varied from 24 to 80%, while damage caused by fungi varied from
11 to 66%. This indicated that termites caused the highest damage both on
the controls and borax-boric acid treated stakes.
Results revealed that natural durability of the study bamboo species at
different graveyards was non-durable. All bamboo culm stakes exposed to
the above ground dwelling termites, fungi and beetles were intact. Tanalith
and used motor oil treatments were more effective in controlling
biodegrading attack and prolonged the service live of bamboo culms by
more than five times compared with those of the borax-boric acid treatments
and the untreated controls. The overall results are promising, indicating the
paramount importance of bamboo culms control measures including proper
seasoning to increase service life of bamboo, bamboo-based products and
structures, and to promote maximum utilization of the bamboo resources as
alternative construction and furniture material.
The results will have practical application not only to the study areas (Pawe,
Bako, Addis Ababa and Adami Tulu) but also in areas with similar bamboo
species and agro-ecological zones. Results can be applied since there are
different locally available protection measures such as used motor oil of
vehicles with low price, small investment and some of the techniques of
preservation in this case, dipping and soaking can easily be applied with
little technical training and practical experience.
Recommended control measures to control/minimize damage of
biodeteriorating agents and increase service life of bamboo culms based
structures and products as way forward include: (i) felling of mature
bamboo culms during the dry period in order to lower the starch/sugar
content, (ii) harvested culms should be properly handled and seasoned as
soon as possible to the desired moisture content level using air. Kiln
seasoning is not recommended for round bamboo culms. Air seasoning shall
be done by placing bamboo culms in upright position and in a well-
ventilated yard, under shade to avoid direct wind or sun as quick seasoning
may cause splitting, (iii) applying proper control measures and application
techniques for long time service (>5 years) using pressure and effective non-
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 14(2): 93–127, 2015 121

pressure (hot-and-cold dipping) impregnation methods, (iv) bamboo culms

should not be used in hazardous areas for moisture and soil contact
constructions, other long-term and aesthetic applications without applying
appropriate and adequate preservation measures, and (v) use of more
environmental friendly and competent chrome and arsenic free commercial
control measures such as Tanalith E, and the cheapest locally available spent
motor oil of vehicles.
The different stakeholders of the country have to give proper attention to the
versatile bamboo resource. Research and extension institutions have to play
their significant role in providing best technologies and practices on
propagation, management, products processing and rational utilization.
Finally, intensive and extensive further applied research are recommended,
involving different commercial and traditional alternative controlling
measures, at different stations and prolonged time to fill the information and
technological gaps on durability, control measures, application techniques
and rational utilization of bamboo resource in the different agro-ecological
zones of Ethiopia where biodegradation and bamboo resource have
economic relevance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Bamboo Preservation Research Project was successfully implemented by
the Ethiopian Institute of Agriculture Research (EIAR), the previous
Forestry Research Centre now Central Ethiopian Environment and Forestry
Research Centre (CEE-FRC)/the previous Forest Products Utilization
Research Case Team, now Wood Technology Research Centre (WTRC) and
the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI). The Project was funded by
the ex-African Forest Research Network (AFORNET).
The author appreciates and acknowledges very much the guidance, technical
and financial support and assistance of the following during the research
period: Dr. Yonas Yemshaw, Dr. Ebby Chagala-Odera, Dr. Iba Kone, Dr.
Solomon Assefa, Dr. Alemu Gezahgne, Dr. Wubalem Tadesse, Dr.
Woldeyohanes Fantu, Olevia, Anne Opeyo, Tesfaye Hunde, Negash Mamo,
Dr. Deribe Gurmu, Dr. Sisay Feleke, Dr. Seyoum Kelemework, Shasho
Megeresa, Meke Wube, Eshetu Aeyle, Kebede Yimer, Awoke Tsehay, the
late Fitsum G/Wahid and Dr. Eshetu Ahmede; Co-researchers up to first
year of the Project: Melaku Abegaz, Gordon Onduru Sigu and Nellie
Caroline Mugure Oduor. Drivers of vehicles are acknowledged for their
driving assistance during the field study periods; ex-African Forest Research
Network (AFORNET) for the financial grant of the Research Project;
122 Getachew Desalegn

Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation for generously providing Tanalith

control measure; Kenyan Forestry Research Institute for conducting the
accelerated decay laboratory tests of the bamboo culm stakes originated
from and treated in Ethiopia; Agricultural Research Centres of Bako, Adami
Tulu and Pawe for providing trial plots for the research; Extraordinary
thanks to Gemechu Kaba and Worku Fekadu for their enduring assistance
(coping with hard times and all challenges) during sample selection and
preparation, treating stakes with control measures, laboratory and field data
collection.
Finally, thanks to all the coordinators, technical and supporting staff
members (finance, human resource, and property and vehicles
administration sections) of the Ethiopian Institute of Agriculture Research,
Wood Technology Research Centre, Central Ethiopian Environment and
Forest Research Centre, Forest Resources Utilization Research Directorate,
the Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute for their overall
technical, administration and logistics support during the five year research
period accordingly.
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