Skeletal system:.

The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints. It can be divided into:

1.​ Axial Skeleton:

○​ Skull: Protects the brain.
○​ Vertebral Column: Supports the body and houses the spinal cord.
○​ Rib Cage: Protects the heart and lungs.
2.​ Appendicular Skeleton:
○​ Includes the limbs, shoulder girdle, and pelvic girdle, enabling movement.

1. Bones:

Bones are the primary structural units of the skeletal system. They come in various
shapes and sizes, each with specific functions.

Types of Bones and Their Functions:

There are five main types of bones, each with specialized functions:

1.​ Long Bones (e.g., femur, humerus): Act as levers for movement.
2.​ Short Bones (e.g., carpals, tarsals): Provide stability and support with limited motion.
3.​ Flat Bones (e.g., skull, ribs): Protect organs and serve as surfaces for muscle
attachment.
4.​ Irregular Bones (e.g., vertebrae): Have unique shapes for specialized functions.
5.​ Sesamoid Bones (e.g., patella): Reduce friction and modify pressure in tendons.

●​ Composition of bones: composed of a complex mixture of organic (collagen) and

inorganic (calcium and phosphorus) materials, giving them strength and flexibility.

2. Cartilage: is a firm but flexible connective tissue that provides cushioning and support at
joints.

Types:

○​ Hyaline cartilage: Found at the ends of bones in joints, providing smooth

surfaces for movement.
○​ Fibrocartilage: Tougher cartilage found in areas like the intervertebral discs,
providing shock absorption.
○​ Elastic cartilage: Flexible cartilage found in the ear and nose.

3. Joints: Joints are the points where two or more bones meet. They allow for a range of
motion, from the rigid joints of the skull to the highly mobile joints of the shoulder and hip.

Joints Classification
Classification by Structure

1.​ Fibrous Joints:

○​ Description: Bones are joined by dense connective tissue, allowing little or
no movement.
○​ Examples:
■​ Sutures: Found in the skull; immovable.
■​ Syndesmoses: Between the tibia and fibula; slight movement.
■​ Gomphoses: Teeth in their sockets.
2.​ Cartilaginous Joints:
○​ Description: Bones are connected by cartilage, allowing limited movement.
○​ Examples:
■​ Synchondroses: Hyaline cartilage joins bones (e.g., growth plates in
children).
■​ Symphyses: Fibrocartilage unites bones (e.g., pubic symphysis,
intervertebral discs).
3.​ Synovial Joints:
○​ Description: Bones are separated by a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid,
allowing free movement.
○​ Examples: Most joints in the body, including the knee, shoulder, and hip.

Types of synovial Joints:

■​ Hinge joints example (elbow and knee)

■​ Ball-and-socket joints example (shoulder and hip)
■​ Pivot joints example (atlantoaxial joint in the neck)
■​ Condylar or ellipsoid example: (the wrist joint)
■​ Plantar or gliding example: (intercarpal joints of the wrist)
■​ Saddle example:(carpometacarpal joint of the thumb)

Classification by Function

1.​ Synarthroses (Immovable Joints):

○​ No movement is permitted.
○​ Found in fibrous joints like sutures of the skull.
2.​ Amphiarthroses (Slightly Movable Joints):
○​ Limited movement is allowed.
○​ Found in cartilaginous joints like the intervertebral discs.
3.​ Diarthroses (Freely Movable Joints):
○​ Allow a wide range of motion.
○​ Found in synovial joints

4. Ligaments: Ligaments are strong, fibrous bands of connective tissue that connect bones
to other bones.

Function: They provide stability to joints, preventing excessive movement and maintaining
joint integrity.
5. Tendons:Tendons are tough, fibrous bands of connective tissue that connect muscles to
bones.

Function: They transmit the force generated by muscle contraction to the bones, enabling
movement.

6. Bone Marrow:Is found within the hollow cavities of some bones, (mostly long bones),
bone marrow is responsible for producing blood cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets).

7. Periosteum: Is the outer Layer of bone it is a tough, fibrous membrane that covers the
surface of most bones, providing nourishment and protection.

Physiological function of joints:

1. Support

The skeletal system provides a rigid framework that supports the body's soft tissues and
maintains its shape. For example:

●​ The rib cage supports the thoracic cavity.

●​ The vertebral column supports the torso and head.

2. Protection

Bones protect vital internal organs by forming protective enclosures:

●​ The skull encases the brain.

●​ The rib cage shields the heart and lungs.
●​ Vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
●​ The pelvis shields reproductive organs.

3. Movement

Bones serve as levers, and joints act as fulcrums. Muscles attach to bones via tendons, and
when muscles contract, they pull on bones to produce movement. This is a fundamental
aspect of locomotion and body mechanics.

4. Mineral Storage

Bones act as reservoirs for essential minerals, particularly calcium and phosphorus, which
are critical for various physiological functions:
 ●​ Calcium contributes to muscle contraction, nerve conduction, and blood clotting.
●​ Phosphorus is important for energy transfer through ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

When the body is in need of these minerals, the bones release them into the bloodstream
through a process called bone resorption, mediated by cells called osteoclasts.

5. Hematopoiesis (Blood Cell Production)

The red bone marrow, found in certain bones (e.g., sternum, pelvis, and proximal ends of
femur and humerus), is responsible for producing:

●​ Red blood cells (erythrocytes) for oxygen transport.

●​ White blood cells (leukocytes) for immune defense.
●​ Platelets (thrombocytes) for blood clotting.

This process is regulated by hormones like erythropoietin, which is produced by the

kidneys.

6. Energy Storage

The yellow bone marrow, predominantly found in the medullary cavity of long bones, stores
fat in the form of adipocytes. This fat serves as an energy reserve for the body.

7. Acid-Base Balance

Bones help buffer the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing
alkaline salts, such as calcium phosphate. This process helps maintain homeostasis.

8. Endocrine Regulation

The skeletal system is now understood to have endocrine functions. For example:

●​ Bones release osteocalcin, a hormone that influences glucose metabolism and fat
storage.
●​ The skeleton interacts with other systems, such as the kidneys, to regulate calcium
and phosphate levels.

Cellular Components of Bone Physiology:

Bones are dynamic, living tissues composed of several cell types:

●​ Osteoblasts: Cells that build new bone by secreting collagen and facilitating
mineralization.
●​ Osteocytes: Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix and communicate
mechanical demands to osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
●​ Osteoclasts: Cells that break down bone tissue during remodeling and resorption.
Bone remodeling is a constant process that allows bones to adapt to stress, repair
microdamage, and regulate calcium levels. This process is influenced by mechanical forces
(e.g., exercise), hormones (e.g., parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, and vitamin D), and age.
Physiology of Muscular System
The physiology of the muscular system involves the study of how muscles function to
produce movement, maintain posture, generate heat, and contribute to various other bodily
processes. The muscular system works in close coordination with the skeletal, nervous,
circulatory, and endocrine systems to perform its functions. It is composed of three primary
types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. Below, I will
outline the key physiological aspects.

Functions of the Muscular System

1.​ Movement​

○​ Skeletal muscles, attached to bones via tendons, contract to produce

voluntary movements such as walking, running, and grasping.
○​ Smooth muscles, found in internal organs, facilitate involuntary movements
like peristalsis in the digestive tract and vasoconstriction in blood vessels.
○​ Cardiac muscle, found only in the heart, contracts rhythmically to pump
blood throughout the body.
2.​ Posture and Stability​

○​ Skeletal muscles maintain body posture by making small, continuous

contractions to stabilize joints and the body during standing or sitting.
These contractions are often involuntary and involve muscle tone.
3.​ Heat Production (Thermogenesis)​

○​ Muscle contraction generates heat as a byproduct of metabolic activity.

This is particularly important in maintaining body temperature,
especially during shivering, which involves rapid, involuntary muscle
contractions.
4.​ Support of Soft Tissues​

○​ Muscles in the abdominal wall and pelvic floor support and protect
internal organs by forming a muscular layer.
5.​ Control of Body Openings​

○​ Sphincters, which are circular muscles, control the opening and closing
of body passages. For example:
■​ The esophageal sphincter regulates food entry into the stomach.
■​ The anal sphincter controls defecation.
6.​ Facilitation of Circulation​

○​ Cardiac muscle pumps blood through the circulatory system.

○​ Skeletal muscles assist venous return by compressing veins during
contraction, a process known as the muscle pump.
 Types of Muscle Tissue and Their Physiology

1. Skeletal Muscle

●​ Structure: Skeletal muscles are composed of long, cylindrical, multinucleated fibers

with a striated appearance due to the arrangement of actin and myosin filaments in
sarcomeres.
●​ Control: Voluntary, controlled by the somatic nervous system.
●​ Contraction: Skeletal muscle contraction follows the sliding filament theory:
○​ Excitation: A motor neuron releases acetylcholine at the neuromuscular
junction, triggering an action potential in the muscle fiber.
○​ Calcium Release: Action potential cause the release of calcium from calcium
gates
○​ Cross-Bridge Cycling: Calcium binds to myocytes that causes actin and
myosin sliding which causes simulation
○​ Relaxation: When stimulation ceases, calcium is pumped back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, and the muscle fiber relaxes.

2. Smooth Muscle

●​ Structure: Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped, uninucleated, and non-striated.

Found in walls of hollow organs (e.g., intestines, blood vessels).
●​ Control: Involuntary, controlled by the autonomic nervous system and hormones.
●​ Contraction: Smooth muscle contracts more slowly and efficiently than skeletal
muscle.Smooth muscle can sustain contractions for long periods without fatigue.

3. Cardiac Muscle

●​ Structure: Cardiac muscle cells are branched, uninucleated, and striated, with
specialized intercalated discs that contain gap junctions (allowing electrical signals to
pass) and desmosomes (providing structural integrity).
●​ Control: Involuntary, regulated by the autonomic nervous system and intrinsic
pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial (SA) node.
●​ Contraction: Cardiac muscle fibers generate rhythmic contractions without fatigue,
using calcium-induced calcium release for excitation-contraction coupling.

Energy Systems in Muscle Physiology

Muscles require energy (in the form of ATP) for contraction. The body uses three main
pathways to generate ATP:

1.​ Phosphagen System (Immediate Energy)​

2.​ Anaerobic Glycolysis (Short-Term Energy)​

3.​ Aerobic Respiration (Long-Term Energy)​

 Muscle Adaptation and Plasticity

Muscles can adapt to changes in activity levels:

1.​ Hypertrophy: Increased muscle size due to resistance training, caused by an

increase in the size of muscle fibers
2.​ Atrophy: Decrease in muscle size due to disuse, injury, or disease.
3.​ Endurance Training: Leads to increased mitochondrial density, capillary networks,
and oxidative enzymes, improving aerobic capacity.
4.​ Strength Training: Enhances the recruitment of motor units and increases the force
generated by muscles.

Integration with Other Systems

●​ Nervous System: Sends signals to muscles to contract (motor neurons) and

monitors muscle condition (sensory neurons).
●​ Skeletal System: Provides leverage and attachment points for muscles.
●​ Cardiovascular System: Delivers oxygen and nutrients to muscles and removes
waste products like CO₂ and lactic acid.
●​ Endocrine System: Hormones like adrenaline and insulin regulate muscle activity
and energy supply.