IJl'II I I

t~I fAP'fl~H, 1.1

THEl{MODYNAMIC S
I..J.l. Introdu ction:
'L'h,~ s11hjucl, lh.er,r,,,Jtlyn(uni,:H d onl H witl1
I . ,,,wrgi,•s /J<>:-:s,'s.w:r.l hy g ,i1c;e:; ,1,nd uapourH,
2. C< )llVt' rsion uf' en,<'l'/J.Y in form.<: of' lwat. and work and
:!. the,:,• relation shiJJ with proprfftie s of' sy,qtem,.
The subject: applied lhernio dynami cs dca lH wjth Hpcc.:ial
applicat ions lik e
L energy transfer as power generati on,
2" energy transfer as refrigera tion and
3. energy transfer as gas compression .
The subject heat power enginee ring deals with the study of
1. heat energy supplied to a working substanc e by burning
a fuel and
2. convers ion of this heat energy into useful work.
Heat engine is a machine which converts heat energy into
mechan ical work.
Exampl es: l. Interna l combustion engines like petrol
engines , diesel engines , gas engines and gas •turbines .
2. Externa l combus tion engines like steam engines and
steam turbines .
Some of the terms used in this subject and their definitio ns
are given below:
1.1.2. Mass, force and weight:
(a) Mass (m): Mass is a measure of quantity of niatter. 1riass of
a given body will not change from place to place. It is represen ted
by the symbol 'm'. In S.I units, it is measure d in 'kg'.
(b) Force (F): According to Newton 's second law of n1otion,
force is proport ional to mass and accelera tion. It is represe nted
by the symbol 'F '.· In S.I. units, it is measur ed in 'Newton· (N).

I 1.1
 F= m· g
m• g
F= - ~~ New ton .
gc
whe re, m - Ma ss (kg )
g -Ac cel era tion due to gra vity (m/ s 2) = 9.81 m.Js 2
l_ - Con stan t of pro por tion alit y
gc
For ce is me asu red in New ton (N) . New ton
is def ined as the
force req uire d to acc eler ate one kg ma ss at
1 m/s 2 .
For ce, F = -m --'=
-g
-Ne wto n
gc
1 New ton =_! _ x (1 kg) x (1 mJs 2 ) = kg - m
gc gc- s2

··· g c -- 1 kg - m In
. S .I . lllll·tS
N- s 2

:. j F = m · g \. New ton ..
· gc =l kg -m 2
J
( N- s
(c) We igh t (W): We igh t is def ined as the
force acti ng on the
ma ss of a bod y due to gra uita tion a) acc eler
atio n .
At a par ticu lar loca tion , wei ght is pro por tion
al to mas s.
But the wei ght of a giv en mas s diff ers from
plac e to plac e (since
acc eler atio n due to gra vity cha nge s fro1n plac
e to plac e).
We igh t is den oted by the sym bol W.
In S.I. uni ts, it is exp ress ed as N (Ne wto n)
or kN
We igh t of a giv en mas s of bod y is exp ress ed
by
W = m · g (or) W = m · g New ton ( · .
1
gc · gc = l kg - ; J
N- s
yvh ere, m - Ma ss of the bod y (kg)
g - Acc eler atio n due to gra vity (1n/s 2 )
The wei ght s of a giv en n1ass (1n) will var y at.
two differen t
pla ces . The se wei ght s can be cmn par ed by
W 1 ==m •g1; W2 =m, ·g2
W1 C1
or, --
W2 . g2
1.2
1.1.3. Density (p):
The density of a given substance is defined as the mass it
possesses per unit volume ol the substance . It is denoted by the
symbol 'p' (rho). In S.I. units, it is represented as kg/m 3 .
Mass m 3
p = Vol ume = V kg/m .
Density is also known as specific mass or mass density.
Density of water is 1000 kglm 3 .
1.1.4. Specific Weight (w):
Specific weight of a substance is defined as the weight it
possesses per unit volume ol the substance. It is denoted by the
3
symbol Y or w. In S.I. units, it is expressed as N/m 3 or kN/m .
W N/m3
w = Weight =
Volume V
Density and specific weight are related as given below:
3
w = p -g N!m
2
where, g - Acceleration due to gravity (m/s )

Specific weight of water is 9810 Nim 3.

1.1.5. Specific Volume (v):
Specific volume of a substance is defined as the volume
occupied by unit mass of the substance . It is denoted by the
3
symbol 'v'. In S.I. units, it is expressed as m /kg.
v =Volume= V m3 /kg.
Mass m
'
1.1.6. Specific gravity (s ): _
Specific gravity of a substance is defined as the ratio of the
density (or specific weight) of that substance to the density (or
specific weight) of a standard substance.
For liquids, the standard substance -chosen is water. For
gases, air or hydrogen is used as standard substance.
The symbol for specific gi:_avity is 's'. Since it is the ratio
·of the same units it has no units and it is a mere nuniber.
_ Density (or specific weight) of the given substance
s - Density (or specific weight) of standard substance
· • Density (or speci·fiic , re1· Oa-ht) of netrol ·
1
S~ee1fic grav1ty of petrol= •y r: - --·
Density (or specific weight) of watPr
◄
t.u
')
 . Dens ity lor specific wei ght) o( nitro ge n
·spec ific gravi ty of mtro gen = Dens ity (or specific weig ht) of a ir
Specific grav ity of wate r is unit y.
1.1.7. Pres sure (p):
The pres sure is defin ed as force per unit area. The symb
ol
for pres sure is <p ' .
p = Forc e = F N/m2
Area A
Unit s of pres sure : The unit of pres sure in S.I unit s 1s 2
N/m . It
1s also expr esse d in Pasc al (Pa).
1 Pa= 1 N/m 2 .
Another unit for pres sure is Bar . The bar has wide use
as
an l!Ilit of pres sure.
1 Bar = 10 5 N/m 2 = 100 kN/m 2 = 100 kPa .
Yet anot her unit for pres sure is Torr . This unit is used
after the nam e of Itali an scien tist Torricelli. The pres sure
exer ted
by 1 mm of merc ury is called 1 Torr .
Atmo sphe ric pres sure (p atm): This is pres sure exer ted by
the air
on the earth)s surface . Its valu e at Main Sea Level is 1.01
325 bar
or a baro metr ic heig ht of 760 mm of merc ury. It is writ
ten as
'ata'.
Atm osph eric pres sure = 1.01325 bar
= 101.325 kN/m 2 or kPa
= 101325 N/m 2 or Pa
= 760 mm of Hg.
= 10.34 'm' of wate r .
Gauge pres sure (pg): This is the
pres sure recorded by a pres sure.
r 0
Gauge pressure
gaug e. Even thou gh unde r the 2::
influ ence of atmo sphe ric pres sure , _ ~ (w,j_ _ _ _ _ __.___ __._
_ __
gene rally all the gaug es read .2 :S
'zero ' . H ence, t h ey actu ally <C(/)~ Vacuum pressure
mea sure the difference betw een ct o B
the fluid pres sure and the
atmo sphe ric pres sure . Absolute pressure
at B
Absolute zero of pressure
Fig . 1. I Pressu re relationship

1.4

b
 .
Vacuu m pressure (pg): The pressure which is below atmospheric
pressure is known as vacuu m pressure or negative pressure. This
is also recorded by a gauge called vacuu m, gauge.
Absolu te pressu re (pabs): Absolute zero of pressu re will occur only
when there is perfect vacuu m. The pressure measu red from this
level (absolute zero pressure) is . known as absolute pressure.
Absolute pressu re = Atmospheric pressu re + Gauge pressu re
= Atmospheric pressu re - Vacuum pressu re
Pabs =Patm ±pg
l.l.80 Temp eratu r.e (t):
Temp eratur e is defined as a measu re of velocity of fiuid
partic les. It is a prope rty which determ ines the degree of hotne ss
or the level of heat intens ity.
The tempe rature of a body is measu red by an instru ment
known as thermo meter. This is based on zeroth law of
therm odyna mics.
The tempe rature is measu red using (a) Celsius tempe rature
scale and (b) Absolute tempe rature scale,
(a) Celsius tempe rature scale: This scale is used by scient ists
and engine ers for all intern ationa l scale. The ice point of water
is taken as arbitr ary zero point on the scale. The boiling point
of water is design ated as 100°C. The distan ce betwe en these two
points - is divided into 100 equal •units. Each division
repres ents l°C.
(b) Absolu te tempe rature scale: The · zero readin g on the
centig rade scale , is chosen arbitra rily. Absol ute zero of
tempe rature is the zero below which
the tempe rature of any substa nce -C K
canno t fall . It is taken as - 273°C .
The tempe tature measu red from the
absolute zero of temp~rature (- 273 °C) 100° 373
is called as absolu te tempe rature , oo 273K
·T he absolu te tempe rature is
9
give~ in Kelvin scale (K)
Celsius scale may be conve rted
into Kelvin scale as follows: -273°C OK
T=t+ 273 K Fig. 1.2. Temperature relationship

1.5
 .
e t -- Temperature on Celsius scale (°C) and
w h er,
T = Temperature on Kelvin scale(K)
If a thermometer reads l00°C, then, the absolute temperature is
100 + 273 = 373 K. .
For all calculations, we use only absolute temperatures.
I.1.9. Standard temperature and pressure (S.T.P.) :
The standard atmospheric condition is given below:
Standard temperature = 15°C .
Standard pressure = 760 mm of mercury
2
= 101.325 kN/m
1.1.10. Normal temperat~e and pressure (N.T.P~):
For convenience, the properties of gases are generally given
on a standard basis of temperature and pressure. This is called
as normal temperature and pressure (N.T.P. ) The N.T.P. values
are given below:
Normal temperature = 0°C
Normal pressure = 760 mm of mercury
= 101.325 kN/m 2.
I.I.II. Volume (V):
. ~olume is the space occupied by a gas. It is associated Vvritb
cu?1c measure. If the volume of a gas increases, then the as is
, said to have been expanded If the volume of a d g
then th · ·d · gas ecreases
e gas is sai to have been compressed. '
The symbol for volume is 'V.
The unit of volume is .'m3' Som ti .
in 'litres' or c.c. (cubic centime~e) e mes it may be expressed

1000 c.c. = 1 litre = 0.001 m 3

1. 1.12. Heat:
Heat is the energy crossin th b -
to the temperature di'I+'. g e oundary of a sy stem. due
· . uerence betwee th
surroundings. Heat exists when th . n e systems and
18
out of a system. When the heat t ere e~ergy transfer into or
. exist and only the result of h tansfer 18 over, heat does not
exists. ea transfer (change in volume)
Heat and temperature a .
transfer to take place, there 8{;ul~n:rely different. For heat
between the two systems. · e temperature difference

1.6
I Heat tran sfer iR rep re~en ted by th ,; HymboJ (Q'. fo S.I
units, it is expr esse d in ,Joul~ H (,1) rJT kilo ,fou] ,_;H ( k,J J,
.

If a certa in m.asR of the Huh8tanc(~ (m) iH bf;at /:d fr<Jm

r1fJ
t hr;r, f 11;<;.t.
initi al temp eratu re (T 1) to a ffo a l tcmp en.1.tur0 ('/1'/,) }
tran sfer is given by
(J = 1n C · (T2 ·- T1) = m · C · dT ,fo u 1Ni
wher e, C -- Spec ific h eat of thr: 8uhHtancc: r.J/kgK; .
t,in?
If Q is posi tive heat is 8Upplierl to th,,~ .(:y.c;t,:m, (bf;;;_
1

proc ess).
;n ;i
If Q is nega tive, heat is rejec ted fr(Jm, thf.: .';_y,fkm f ,;,u>I
proc ess).
1.1.13. Spe cific hea t capa city (C J:
The specific heat capa city or heat capa cjty r;f 0 ~uL~ t;J.nt;t~
ra fa£: '1r
is defined as the quan tity of heat tran sfer requ irwl to
th,r0ugh
lowe r the temp eratu re of the unit mass (;j' the 8Ub r-:tan~;e
j,q gj•r(;;r,
one degree. This is deno ted by th e symho] 'C'. Its un.it
as J/kg K or kJ/k gK.
t1rf;
Spec ific h eat for liqui ds and ~olid s vary with remp erc,J
g a,-;ert
and they do not diffe r muc h for dif1en:nt procesH-B8. But ("Dr
specific heat differs for d iffer ent proce sse.r. :.
Spe cific hea t capa city at cons tant volu me [CvJ: It J8
df:finu.1
r the
as, the quan tity of heat tran sfer requ ired to raiae or lowe
degre-r;
temp erat ure of unit mas s of {he subs tance thro ugh one
sym br,J
whe n the volu me rema ins cons tant. It iH denuted by th£;
vrJlUmB
Cu or Ku· Whe n a gas is heat ed or cook:d at con stan t 1

the heat tran sfer is given by,

Q = m · Cv · (T2 - T1 J kJ
whe re, Q - Hea t tran sferr ed (JvJ)
m ·_ Mas s of the gas (kg)
Cu - Spec ific h eat capa city at con8tant vo] ume (yvJ/kgK 1
T 1 - Initi al temp eratu re of the gas (KJ
T2 -Fin al temp eratu re of the: gas (K )
]: It i~;
Spe cific hea t cap acit y at con stan t pres surf~ [CP
defined as the quan tity of heat tran sfer required to ra ise
r;r lower
the temp erat ure of unit mas s of the substance through
one degrer:
syTn.bo.I
when the pres sure is kept cons tant . It i~ deno ted hy tht=:
cpor KP .
A.T - 2 1.7
 When u gas is hcotcd or cool<~d ut con 1-J tant
,
prt!!-H; un,
, 1
L
1,Jj (•
heat tramdc r is given by ·
'1' I .,
Q = rrt · C•P · (.1,.,,2 · ·. 1) rJ
cP and Cu arc proper ties of a substan ce. They arc~ not
constan t. They vary with pressu n) and temper ature. For-
calcula tions, averag e values are assume d within the tempc~rature
range being conside red.
CP is greater than Cu: When a gas is heated at constant
pressur e, the volume of the gas increases. Work is done by the
· gas in expand ing. Hence consta nt pressu re heatin g gives a higher
value for the specific heat than the consta nt volume method .
Thus, for any gas CP is always greater than Cu.
The ratio of two specific heats (G~ / Cu) remain s constan t and
it is denoted by the symbol ' y '. It is also called as adiabatic
index.
C
y = .::..I!_
Cv
For air: CP = 1.005 kJ/kgK ; Cv = 0. 718 kJ/kgK ; y = 1.4
1.Ll4o Work (W):
When the point of applica tion of a force moves in the
directio n of force, work is done.
Work done is given by,
W = Force x distanc e moved
W=Fx d ·Nm.
where ,F- Force (N)
d - Distan ce moved (m)
In S.I. units, work is expres sed in Nm (or J), kNm (or kJ).
1.1.15. Mecha nical work:
Consid er a gas enclose d in a
piston and · cylinde r
arrang ement as shown in fig, 1.3. Let the gas expand from
state 1 to state 2.
Let,
p - Intensi ty of pressur e of the gas on the piston (N / 1n 2)
·A - 2
Area of cross-s ection of the pistion (m )
then,
Force on the piston, F = p • A Newto n.
Consid er a small distanc e 'dx' moved by the piston. The -
work done in moving this small distanc e 'dx is given by
1

1.8
 dW = Force x dis tan ce= p · A · dx
dW = p . dV C. ·.dV =A . · dx = Ch ang
e in volume)
Work done du rin g thP.
process 1 to 2 is given by,
·2 2
CD
f dW = f p · dV
I
I
1 1 I
I
2 I
W1 _ 2 = f p · dV Nm ' --t---
1
1 I
He nce for an y pro ces s -ld VI -
(he ati ng , cooling, exp ans ion an d Vo lum e-
compression), the · me cha nic al wo rk
is given by,

W=
2
f p · dV Nm or J .
r--,tp
I p::i

1 1
-
-,d x1 -

- ---
L _::J
1
Th is equ ati on is kn ow n as
wo rk eqq ati on for a non-flow Fig . 1.3. Expansion work
process.
If W is pos itiv e, work is done by the
sys tem (gas) an d the
process is cal led exp an sio n process
.
.If W is negative, wo rk is done on
the sys tem (gas) an d it
is cal led com pre ssi on process .
It can be no tic ed tha t, the are a un
dia gra m giv es the wo rk done du rin der the cur ve in p -V
g the process.
LL 16 . Po we r (P) :
Po we r is the ra.te at wh ich the wo rk
un its , it is exp res sed in Wa tt or kil is per for me d. In S.I .
ow att .
Power, P = Wo rk done/Second = Wis
W att (W)
1 Nm/s = 1 J/s = 1 W
1 kNm/s = 1 kJ/ s = 1 kW
1 kW -s = 1 kJ; 1 kW - hr = 36 00
kJ
Ll .17 . Th erm od yn am ic· sys tem , Sll
lToundings an d bo un da ry:
Sys tem : A the rm od yn am ic sys tem
is def ine d as an y space or
ma tte r or group of ma tte r on wh ich
and energy conversions is ma de :· the stu dy of ene rgy tra nsf er

1.9
 Surroundings: Everything outside the system which affects the
behaviour of the system is known as surroundings.
Boundary: The system and surroundings are separated by the
system boundary. The system boundary may be real or
imaginary.
1.1..18. Types of thermodynamic systems:
Thermodynamic systems may be classified as follows:
1. Closed system 2. Open system and 3. Isolated system.
1. Closed system: In a closed
system) heat and work transfer Energy entering
takes place, but there is no m,ass Surrounding1/ Boundary
transfer. 11ass of this system .,.---+,i-- Energy

remains constant. The -svstem.,, ~ I· ~ Leaving

boundary _is determined by the -~ ""O
I C
""O
C I C
space that the matter occupies. :::> . :::>
EL-~---_j o
Example 1: Piston and cylinder :::> ~ t:
:::>
arrangement, shown in fig. 1.4. <.I) l-'-"-'-~~"-4,Ll.:.L4,""'-"-'I (/)
This _system has fixed mass. Heat . Cylinder
energy may be supplied to the
system. Volume of the system
may be changed by the piston
movement. Work transfer takes Fig. 1.4. Piston and Cylinder
place by the movement of the
boundary of the system.
Example 2: A thermal power ______ / Boundary
plant with boiler, turbine, r ------1
condenser and pump as shown
in fig. 1.5. In this system, heat : Boiler I
transfer takes place at boiler I I
I
and condenser. Work transfer I Pump 5~3 1
takes place at pump and I ----l___ Con denser
0 1
turbine. But the mass of the L__ ---- ------ J
system is not crossing the
boundary. Fig. 1.5. Thermal power plant

2. Open system: In an open 8 st

place in addition to heat Y em mass transfer also takes
b d f th transfer and work transfer. The
oun ary o e open system is called l . .. .
mass and energy transfer th contra volume. Dunng the
change. ' e system boundary may or may not

1.10
Example 1: An compresso r shown
in fig. 1.6. In this systen1, air is Low Pressure High Pressure
taken into the machine and out of ai~i~ __ _ air out
-7
the machine continuou sly. Work
I
transfer also takes place. Hence ~ I (/)
this system is known as two flow -~ 1 I~
boundary open system. -g I
51 ~----- -1 I~ 15
Example 2: Air coming out of a """
:51 I =1
t::
compresse d air tank (Fig. 1. 7). In (f)
I (f)
1
this system, compress ed air is 1 I
coming out of the tank and not 1
Work in
entering. This system is known as L ___ _
one flow boundary open system. Boundary
Example 3: A steam boiler alone
in a thermal power plant.
Fig . 1.6 Air com pressor
(Fig. 1.8). In this systen1 , water
Air out · !
Steam

Fig . 1.7. Compressed air tank Fig . 1.8. Steam boiler

enters the boiler and comes out as steam. Hence n1ass transfer
takes place. Energy transfer (heat transfer) also takes place by
supplying heat to water.
Example 4: A gas turbine Fuel in
plant as shown in fig. 1.9.
In this syste~ air enters Air in-
into the compressor.
Exhaust gases cross the
boundary of the system.
There is heat transfer in the Compresso r r - - -- - ~ Turbine
combustion chamber. Work
transfer takes place 1n
con1pressor and turbine. Exhaust

3. Isolated system: An Fig. 1.9. Gas turbine µlant

isolated system is not CC-Combustion cl1arnber

1.11
influc;n cud liy tJw 1➔ urnHJndint~H . In r1,n itinlaled N,YHlr~rrt th(trr~ is. no
1
maHH (1r heal or t,oork lro,1t JJf'r~r lahr' .'J plav:. ThiK j K ~n1 im::,_gin&ry
i;ysh!m . I•~ntin: uni v, :nm may tH ; Ha id aK an <;½:,nnpJ,: (1f thiH
syHt um .
I..J. l.9. Thcrm odyna mjc media:
Th,:rmodyrrnmicH dealH with th,: UH;rgy iranHfor t/4; ,1nd
from a mc<l ium or media. Jl cncc: Hu : ri atun~ rJf 1J1(: mr;dium <Jr
mc~cJia, chmwn for a th crm()dy.nami c HyHt,:m ii; mor.; t import ant.
Table'. 1.1 . Therm<Jdynamic Hy R t✓<;m and m1.;djr.J.

Thermo dynami c Systern Medium r1r Media u,;ed

Stc~om power plant Watf:ff (in ]jq11id an d var;r,ur
\
I
I
form)
2. Intern al combustion (;ngineH \Afr, fw.d
I
3. Air compr esRori-; 'A·
I Jr
4. Refri ger ator s IVapours of amm()nrn., fr0rm ;
) etc.
-- - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - -
1.1.20. Prope rty and state of a system :
Property: Propert y iR any characteristic of' the substan ce wh u:h
can be observe d or measur ed, when the system r ema1n;-; in an
equilibrium state.
Exampl es: Pressur e, t ernpera ture,
volume, entropy etc .
State: It is the cunditio n of the system at (l)
,._
.::J
any particu lar momen t. The state is (fJ
.I f) p,.
identified by a statem ent of propert ies Q)
,._ L
0...
such as pressur e, volume, temper ature;
etc., of the system . To specify the state V1 V2
of a system atleast two propert jes are Volum e-
require d . Fig. 1.10. State of a system
A system und ergoes a change from state 1 to state ( 2 ) du e
to heat or work tran sfer. In the p-V diagram (Fig. 1.1 0) let ,
PI, V 1 -- Pressu re and v.olume at state 1 r esp ecti vely,

p 2, V2 -- Pressu re and volume at st ate 2 respecti vely.

1.12
t.1.21. :Inten sive nnd. extc11 ti.ive proport'i os:
The proportios of o system may be claHHifi ,~d aK
(u) Intensive or intrinsic proper t irn, an d
(b) Extensive or extri nsic prope rticH
Intensive properties: They · are independ ent on maR8 of the
systen1. If we consider a part of the sy:-itcm, theHc pr operties
re1nain san1e.
. Examples: Pressure, t em.per aturc, specific volurne, etc.
Extensive properties: They are dependen t on the rn ass of the
system. If we consider a part of the syst em, these propertie s will
have lesser value.
Examples : Total volume, total energy, weight, etc .
Consider a box containin g a gas as
shown in fi1g. 1.11 (a) m,~
T
Let p,
L - -- .!...-:....-:-
'V
1
(a~) _ _ ___,

m - Mass of the gas (kg) · m!2, V/2, m/2 , V/2,

V -Total volume of gas (m 3 ) p, T, V p, T, V
(b)
p - Pressure of the gas (N/m 2 ) Fig. 1; 11 . Intensive and
-T-Temp erature of the gas (K) extensive properties
v - Specific volµme of the gas (m 3 /kg)
Let this box is equally divided by a partition as shown in
fig. 1.11 (b).
Now, the pressure, temperat ure and specific volume have
the original values· in both the portions of the box and hence they
are intensive proper-ties.
But, the values of total · volume and total energy are
reduced to half of their original values and hence they are
extensive propertie s.
1.1.22. Thermod ynamic process:
' _ · A thermody namic process is the change of state undergone
by a gas (or working substance ). This change of state is due to
energy flow.
During a process,. the propertie s of -a gas such as pressure,
volume, temperat ure, etc., changes. There may be energy
transfers sue~ as heat transfer or work transfer. The initial and 1

final st~te points can be marked on a property diagram if the .

propert~es at all states are known. Fig. 1. l 2 shows a process on
p - V diagram. The system changes its state from 1 to 2. If the I
1.13
inte rm edia te stat es a., b, c c.u c
ta1 own , the path foll owed t~y. ~h e-\
syst em can be tr acc_d by Jtnn1:ng 1
1 - a, - b - c - 2 by a hnc as shown .
'!'his line repr esents the proc(~SB
und ergone by the syst e1n. p 2
'l'he different then nod yna n1ic •
processes are given· below .
1. Con stan t volun1e proc ess
2. Constan t pres sure pr oces s,
3. Con stan t te1n pera ture Fig . 1.12. Proce ss
proc ess,
4. Reversible adia bati c or isen trop ic proc ess,
5. Polytropic process,
6. Hyperbolic process
7. Free expa nsio n process and
8. Thro ttlin g process.
These processes are deal t in deta il in cha pter 1.2.
Ll.23o Cycle:
A thermodyna1nic syst em [e.g., gas in an eng ine cylin
der}
may und ergo a series of oper atio ns or proc esse s and
retu rn to its
original condition . This is kno wn as a cycle or cyclic
process,
All the ther mod ynam ic prop ertie s are sam e at the
s~art
and at the end of a cyclic process. For a cycle a ther
mod ynam ic
syst em _shou ld undergo a min imu m of two proces·s es.
[Fig. 1.13]

3
1 1

l
Cl)
l,...,

:::J ~
CJ) :::J
CJ) CJ)
CJ)
Cl)
l,..., Q)
CL 2 ct 2

Vo lum e- Vo lum e- Vol um e--

Fig , 1.13. · Cycles

Therrrwdynamic ·cycle may be of two type s (a) Closed

and (b) Ope n cycle . cycle
.

1.14
 I
(a) Closed cycle: In a closed
c!'cl~ syat em, the working substance
is rec irc ula ted again and
a closed cycle gas tur bin e ~1::.
m the system. Fig. 1.14 shows

2r-- --- -. 3 2,__ __,

3

. 1 4 4

Vo lum e- Vo lum e-
Fig 1 15. O pep eyeIe
Fig · 1.14. Closed cycle . .
(b
;te n cyc :
le_ In an ope n cyc le system , the working substance
is~ . Fig. 1.15 shows an
e austed to at~ osp her e after expansi9n
open cycle gas tur bin e pla nt.
1.1.24. Po int an d pa th functions:
quantities pressure
The
volume, temperature, heat, work, ek.:
can be grouped un der two classes 1
nam ely po int and pat h functions.
Le t a gas undergo a .change
from sta te 1 to sta te 2. (Fig. 1.16)
P1
I
~
P 1, V1 - Pre ssu re and volume of gas
respectively at sta te 1. ~ p 2
~ 2
P2, V2 - Pre sur e and volume of gas
a:
respectively at sta te 2. V1
Ch ang e in pre ssu re, dp = p 2 - p 1 Vo lum e-
Ch ang e in volume, dV = V2 - V 1
Point & Path functions
Th e two points 1 and 2 may be Fig. 1.16.
hs of ~h ich thr ee are
connected by an infinite num ber of pat
It can be noticed tha t
shown. (l - a - 2; l - b - 2 and 1 - c - 2).
nge in pre ssu re or cha nge in volume is the same irrespective
cha
1 to 2.
of the pa th followed by the system from
i.e., dp = p 2 - p 1 and dV = V2 - V1.
functiQns or state
Th ese qu ant itie s are known as po int
each sta te of equilibrium
functions. Th ey hav e a single value at
the system.
and the y are considered as properties of
re, entropy etc.
Examples: Pre ssu re, volume, tem per atu
1.15
 d :~ h4 I\ iV1 n hv
1
. ' .'\t· l'i\
f'l\n

\\\n'kd1HW d1tt•itq; t h, 1
pt'1i\' P :-4H h
~l \' :,1 • \1 1 t.
\\/,,rk1hH\c' dm·itq~' t lw pr1il't'Ht{ l l' ~>, bi 1~iv1,n lrv., t lw .\,·,
. ( !\
,' ~! \',, \' 1 I.
'l'l\\l~\ wurk (l't\l\ ~ltT difft r~ fol' dift't t'l'nt prcH'.l' SH( lt is
1 1
1
~

dl'lh'fhkn t Pll t hP pr( H't' ~!-1 nr pn th I~ 11 l1)Wc ' d h~r t.lw :--y~ t t' l\1 . Work
t.rnn~d~ 1 r i ~~ known n~ 1><rth /imrtinn .
N.\'11' 111plc·s: \~l,H'k trnn:-dt t', lJ,,Ht t rrnrnfh· l'1.{' .
1

Tlwy nn' nut- n,n~idt'rl'd ns prop, rt.il :4 of n ~:v:-; tC'm . ,_'I

1 1

lJ .26. ~~nN·g)1:
~:1wq~: is dt'iinc\d ns th(' c·oprt<'dy of' a suh~tnntc or hody to
dn wdrk. \Ve c:mnot. ~Pl' t'H('.r~y, hut. ih~ prvs('.lH'(' c:1n lw felt by 1.lw
d,m~tt\ in pr\1p('rt.ir~ of tlw s:vskm. E1wrgy c~m lw clnssifit d :1.s 1

1. Stored ('l\l'q~y nnd 2. 'l'rnnKit L'l1L'r.gy.

$ tm't'd t'11<'n~:,1: Thi~ enl'q~y i~ l'.nntn.inc•d ·within tlw syst\' rn
lH,und:.u-il'S, IE~xamplt':-: Pntl'ntinl l'tH'rg·y, ki nt'tic energy, intt'rna l
t.'ncrgy dt.l
7'nm sit tllt)l~)·: Thi8 e1wrgy crot,~<.'8 thl' boundnry of a system,
l'E."xa mplt s: Heat en er gy, work t'nergy, dectricnl energy etc. ]
1

Potential <~nergy: lt, is the <mc1-gy1 possessed, by a body or system

becmaw of its height above the earth 's su,face.
Potc:ntinl e1wrgy, .P.E = '1V : Z Joules = m • g • Z Joul es
For unit mass, P .E = g • Z t.Tlkg
where m - .Mass of the body or system (kg)
Z - Height of the body or system from datu1n (111)
. . 1
g -: Acceleration due to gravity (111/s"")
J{,:netic energy: Kinetic energy of a body or systein is th e cnerg\'
posses$ed by virtue of its ,notion.
r! ·
I\.lnetic energy, K.E = - - - Joules \V · C...,·>
0rr
"iS .
2
m · rf · c~ i)
ni · C
=~ - ==
2
Joules
. c2 .
For unit n1ass, K ..E = - J/kcY
2 h

1.16
 where W ·- Weight of tl b .
"' le ody or syste·m (N)
'."I C - Velocity of th<! bod . or 8. , . ,
Flow cn er<rv · It is ti . Y YHtcm (mis)
• , .• . h ., • , ..; ie energy associat d ·1 .
ac,o~s the boundarie s of a s , . . . e . unt i the flow of mass
required to advanc"' a flt ·ct ·? s lern. It represents the work
\,; u . against th · -t· .
An I ) .. . . · · e ex1 s ing pressure.
. y vo um e of .fluid entering or
leaving . a systen1·· nn1st · d.1spl ace an
:i .

equa 1 volun1e of fluid ahead of its lf .

X
() ·d
I er
t t
o en er or leave the system
Moven1ent of mass can be
e . in
.
l1ieve
- d. p -
o~ly at. the expense of work.
ac
Hence
d1splac1ng mass must do work on the
the - - - - Flow

- - - - ' ;x:;----..1..__ _

inass being displaced . This work is Fig . 1.17 Flow Work

known as fiow work.
Co~sider a fluid flowing through a i e of uniform
cross-sect ion area (Fig. 1.17). PP

Let A - Area of cross-sect ion of the pip·e (m 2)

P - Intensity ofprebsur e of the fluid (N/m 2 )
C - ·Velocity of the fluid (mis)
Then flow work (flow energy) is given by
F.E · Force x distance moved = p . A . C
F.E=px VNm
where, V - Volume of the fluid flowing (n1 3/s).
For unit mass, flow energy is given by,
F.E =p · v Nm/kg ·or J/kg.
Internal energy (U): Internal energy of a gas is the heat energy
stored in the gas at a given temperature. It is denoted by the
letter 'U'. Mathema tically,
U=m · Cv · t kJ
where m - Mass of gas (kg)
Cu - Specific heat at constant volun1e (kJ/kgK)
t - Tempera ture of the gas (°C)
Change in internal energy (11U): When heat is supplied to a
certain mass of gas
(a) the temperat ure of the gas may increase or,
(b) the volume of the gas may increase doing external work or, .
(c) it inay do both. (i.e., may increase temperature and volun1e) .

1.17
 · The result will depend upon the conditions under which
the gas is heated. If this heating is accompanied by increase in
teinperature, the internal energy of the gas increases . i.e., some
of the heat supplied is stored in the form of heat energy thus
increasing the temperatu re. (The remainde r of this heat is
converted into mechanical work thus increasing the volume). The
increase of heat energy stored in the gas due to the rise· in
temperature is known as increase of internal energy or change in
internal energy. The change in internal energy is represented by
the letter t:iU. Mathematically 1

t:iU = m · Cv · (T2 -Ti) kJ .. . (1)

where m - Mass of the gas (kg)
Cv - Specific heat capacity at constant volume (kJ/kgK)
T 1 - .Initial temperatu re of the gas before heating (K)
T2 - Final temperatu re of the gas after heating (K)
· The above equation (1) holds good for any method of
heating or cooling of the gas. When a ·gas is heated, the internal
energy of the gas increases. Internal energy of the gas decreases
when it is cooled.

1.1.26. Total energy (or) Total internal energy:

Energy which remains within the boundary of a system is
called total internal energy or total energy of that system. Total
energy includes potential ~ner.gy, kinetic energy, internal energy
and other . farms of energies \ such as magnetic energy, electrical
ene'rgy, chemical energy etc. Total energy is given by

E = U +K.E. +P£o + ...

1.1.27. External energy:
. When a gas is heated, heat energy is supplied to the gas .
A part of this heat is converted into mechanic'al work increasing
the volume. Remaining is stored .in the gas to increase the
internal energy of the gas. The part of heat energy converted into
mechanic al work is known as external energy.

For any process, external energy (work) is given by,

W = Pressure of the gas x Change in volume
w ·=p · dV kNm .o rkJ.

1.18
 LI.28. Enthalpy : ,
Interna1 energy ([!) , pressure (p) a~d volume ( ~1 ) -~re
roperti es of a syst01n. We co1nc ac~·oss_ very ?~ten the comb1natJ.on
~f the terms U + p . V. This comb1n~ati.on of 1nte~na_l energy and
flow energy is known as enthalpy of the syste~ . .It 1s denote~ by
the Jetter 'H' . Enthalpy is also a _p~·o~erty of the syst em s1nce
[J, p and V are properties. Mathe1na tically,
Enthalpy, H = u·+ p · V k,J
Specific enthalpy, h = u + p · v kJ/kg
Enthalpy has a particula r significance in some processes.
Steam tables and some thermody namic tables (NH3, CO2) give
only the values · of enthalpy and not internal energy. In these
cases internal energy can be calculated by the equation.
u =h - p .V kJ/kg
Enthalpy is also a function of temperat ure. Enthalpy of a
substance is given by,
H=m · CP · t kJ
where, m - Mass of the substance (kg)
C - Specific heat at constant pressure of the substanc e
P . [kJ/kgK]
t - Tempera ture of the substance (°C)
1.1.29. Law of Conse·r vation of Energy:
.It states that, energy can neither be created nor destroyed ,
but it may be converted from one form into another form . i.e., the
total energy in any energy system remains constant .
Energy _entering a system = Energy leaving the system
The following are some examples of energy conversio n from
one form into another form without change in total energy.
1. Potential energy is converted into kinetic energy when
water flows down in a vertical pipe from an overhead tank.
2. Kinetic energy is converted into heat energy through
friction, when brake is applied to a moving automobi le.
3. Electric energy is converted into heat energy in an electric
. heater. ,
When this · law is applied to gases in thermody namics, it
s~ates that, the total heat transferr ed in a system must be equal
to the sum of external workdone and the change in internal energy.
Heat transf~r = Workdon e + Change in-intern al energy
Q = W +L1U. ·

1 _1q
 LI.3 0. E:quilibrium of a sys tem :
r\ s·vstem .is said to be in equ ilib rium., if it doe s not
tend to
;u:dt~rgo dn.y change of state on its own accord. Any furt
her cha ng~•
mus t be prod uced only by exte rnal mea ns .
1.l.31. The rmo dyn am ic e qui libr ium :
The nno dynamic equ ilibr iun1 incl ude s ther mal equ ilib
rium ;
mechanical equ ilib rium and chem ical equilibriun1.
The rnta:l equilibrium: A syst em is said to be in ther
mal
equi libri un1 if it has sa,ne ten1pera ture at all par ts
of the syst em
J,fe cha ni.ca l .. equ ilib rium : A syst em is said
to, be in
mechanical equ ilib rium if it has sam.e pres sure thro
ugh out the
syst em .
Chemical equilibrium: A syst em is said to be in che
mic al
equ ilibr ium > if it does not undergo any che mic al
reaction .
1.1.32. Zeroth law of the rmo dyn am ics:
It stat es tha t, whe n two syst ems are separately in ther mal
equilibrium with a third system) then they them selv
es are in
then nal equilibrium with ea.ch other.
Ref erri ng fig. 1.18.
Sys tem s A and B are rn
ther mal equ ilib rium with eac h
othe r. Sys tem s A and C are in
ther mal equ ilib rium with eac h
other. If B and C are bro ugh t into
con tact , no cha nge in phy sica l
prop erti es take s place. Hen ce Fig. 1.18 . Zeroth law of
B and C are at the sam e tem pera ture ¢ thermodynamics

i.e., Ban d C are in ther mal equ ilib rium wit h eac h
~th er.

Ll.3 3. First law of the rmo dyn am ics:

It ~tates that , when a syst em und ergo es a cycle, the
netw ork
tran sfer _is equal to the net hea t tran sfer . According
to this ·1aw,
the tota l ene rgy of a syst · ll .
_ em_1n _a its forn1 rem.ains con stan t.
Mat hem atic ally ,

~W==~Q

or' ~Q - f W == 0
 Consider a system und ergoing a
cyclic process (a - b -· c - d - a ) as sh own
in figure 1.19. This syst e1n und ergoes u
process 'a - b - c' from the original state \
'a'. The systen1 again returns to the
original state 'a' by another process . ~ w,
Thus all the properties are restored t o ~
its original values . Ar.ea within the loop ~
'a - b - c - d - a' gives the net work done a..
(W) by the system: There is no change -----V m_e___ __
- ol_u_
in properties of the system, hence there Fig. 1.19. Cycli c process
· is no change in the value of stored
energy (kinetic and potential energy of molecules).
This law when applied to a process gives,
U1 +Q=U2 +W
or, Q=W+U2 -U 1 =W+flU kJ
where, Q - Heat transferred (kJ)
. !lU - Change in internal energy (kJ)
1.1.34. Corallaries of First Law of Thermodyn amics:
1. If a closed system is isolated from its surrounding s, there
is no change in internal energy of the system .
For the isolated system: Q = O; W = O
By I law of thermodynamics Q = W + /J.U
O= 0 + /J.U
or, ~U = O; i.e., U2 = U1
2. A perpetual motion machine (Pl.IM) of the first kind is
impossible .
A perpetual motion machine of the first kind will deliver
work continuously without any input. · In this case,
Q = 0 (No heat input)
:. W Il?-ust be equal to zero.
But JlMM of the first kind delivers work continuously
which is impossible. It creates energy without any input and thus
violates the first law of thermodynam ics. Hence a perpetual
motion machine of the first kind is impossible.
1.1.35. Second law of thermodyn amics:
The second law is stated in several ways. The two common
statements are Kelvin planck statement and Clausius statement.

1.21 .
 , -,J . ,tntement: (:i) . !t
l\'elvin pJan1.,_( s .. ·'' 'nr' on. cyclu: p ruces.~, Who~' t,,
u.; tmpoN:-; ih[e
. ~ . gt ne WO / f r, r; b L. L . (. ()r l
·(. ,ct a heat en.. .- I ,
cons., l . . . ·onvert all I w t . I eat energy supp .tee to zt lruo rt,,
l ·.Y
ll l pOSC lS to C " .,
P· t of work.
equal a.moun (or)

· I t nguie . W Ill·cl"" is working ·

on cyclic · ·8 t r1r
proces
(ii ) No zea · e .~. ll '7·action of th e heat en ergy supplied , i
tl·i a n a s1na
con vert nw,_-e · · .
1 1
• • ·z .
larae part of it is n ecessan .Y re;er:ted .~.
/ • . •lr,
it into useful wo, k A b
4
heat.
H t Onv erted into us eful work .
ea C
Total heat supplied . IS ca1]
ed
The ratio of
I .z. efficiency
. . of th e encnne
b ... and it is .always less• than Unity ·
t ierma . . 1. 120 shows a heat engme working on a cyclic
Explanation . . F g, ·
It simply receives
. heat (Q) from a heat source
d' h and
process. W) 1 to heat received. Accor mg to t e first
delivers work (
Of th modynanncs sue
e~ua h type of heat · encnne
b...
is possible,
•
since
law law does
the er no t give . any r estriction .as to the kfraction of heat
. d from a source for its convers10n
receive · of wor .

· Source
T1
Source

Os

Sink
T2

Fig. 1.20. Impossible heat engine Fig. 1.21. Possible heat engine by II law
by II law

But by II law of thermodynamics all the heat received

cannot be converted into useful work and a part of heat received
is to be rejected to a low temperature reservoir (sink). Hence a
heat engine · should have two heat reservoirs at different
temperatures for converting continuously heat energy into useful
work as shown in fig. 1.21.

1.22
 Cla_usiu s st~te men t: (i) 11eat can /low frmn a hot body to
a
cold body with out an)! help . But heat cann ot flow from
a cold
body to a hot body with out any exter nal work .
(or)
(ii) It is irnpo ssibl e to ~ons truct a devic e work ing on a
cyclic
proc ess whos e only purp ose is to tran sfer heat from a cold
body
to a hot hnrfv

Heat Sou rce

T, Heat Source
T1
Q IQ 1;:W+Q 2

Heat drain Heat drain

T2 T2
Fig. 1.22 . Impossible system Fig. 1.23. Possible system
Expl anat ion: In figure 1.22, the source is at a temp ~rat ure T
1
and the heat drai n (sink) is at a temp eratu re T . If Tt.> T , then
2 2
by Clau sius state men t heat cann ot flow from sink to heat source
with out any exte rnal work.
But heat can flow from sink at lower temp eratu re (T ) to
2
the sour ce at high er temp eratu re (T ) with help of an exte rnal
1
agen t such as a heat pum p (Fig. 1.23).
1~1.36. Com bina tion of Kelvin Plan ck and Clau sius
stat eme nts:
Con side r a syst em cons istin g of a heat engi ne and heat
pum p \vork ing 1n the sam e temp eratu re rang e as show
n in
fig~ 1.24 (a).
The heat engi ne rece ives heat Q from the source and
1
n~jects heat Q2 to the sink develops a net work 'W. The net work
is given by,
1V = Q 1 - Q2, This foHows Kelv in plan ck state men t.

A.T -3 1.23
 -Heir SOufce I
·- }_!_ r -,-, ,;
Heat Source
T1
I
.o, Lo,,, ,, "ft > i;
(- -
Q?.
-- - - · --,
01

- .
I I
I
=- ~ I
- -0 21
01 I
---- _ _J
L-

Heat sink
T2
Fig . 1.24 (b)
Fig. ·1.24 (a)
- Cla usius
nck statement but violates
This system follows Kelvin pla .
Fig. ·f .24. (a) : .
statement fig 4
. 1.2 (a). Th is violates bo th
equivalent system to
This is an
Fig. 1.24. (I;>) : statements.
Kelvin planck and Clausius

at pu m p tra ns fe rs he at Q2 from th e lo w te m pe ra tu re
The he
pe ra tu re so ur ce w ith ou t an y w or k in pu t. This
sink to high tem
nt.
contradicts the Clausius stateme
can co inbi ne th e he at en gi ne an d th e he at pu m p by
We
k. Th er e is no in te ra ct io n w ith th e si nk , since
eliminating the sin
at rejec ted by th e en gi ne an d Q2 is th e he at taken
Q2 ·is the he
eq ui va le nt sy ste m is sh ow n ·in fig . 1.24 (b).
by the pump. The
ac ts as an en gi ne ex ch an ging he at fr om on ly one
This system
g ii in to eq ui va le nt am ou nt of work . This
reservoir and convertin
tement
violates the Kelvin planck sta
Cl au siu s st at em en t al so violate~ Kelvin
Hence violation of
planck statement .
ste m as sh ow n in fig . 1.25 (a). The heat
Consider another sy
of Q fro m th e so ur ce an d co nv er ts it into
engine receives a heat 1
l k
or k W Th is vi ol at es E l .
equivalent a1nount of w · e vi n P anc
. statement.
rs a he at of Q2 fro m th e . si nk and
, Heat pump transfe ·
supplies a he at of 2 Q + w t 0
th
e source. It re ce iv es a w or
k of W
·
fj · th e he at engine It • t.
rom
· is no t co ntrary to Cl au si us st at em en
·
1.24
 Heat Source Heat Source
T1 T1

a,

Heat sink Heat sink

T2 T2
Fig. 1.25. (a) Fig . 1.25 . (b)
Fig .1.25 (a): This system violates Kelvin planck statement but follows Clausius statement.
Fig.1.25 (b) : Equivalent system to fig.1.25 (a) . This violates both Kelvin planck and
Clausius statements . ·
An equivalent system for this is shown in fig. 1.25 (b). This
system transfers heat Q 2 from the sink at lower temperature to
the source at higher te~peratu:re without the aid of external
work. This violates the Clausius statement.
From the above two examples, it is clear that both
statements (Kelvin planck and Clausius statements) of second law
of thermodyna1nics are · same. Violation of one statement will
violate the other statement.
1.1.37. Perpetual motion machine (PMM) of the second kind:
A perpetual motion machine of the second kind draws heat
continuously from -a single reservoir and converts it into
equivalent amount of work. Thus it gives 100% efficiency. This
violates the second law of thermodynam ics. Hence a Plv!M ·of the
second kind is impossible· to construct. .
1.1.38. Perfect gases:
If the evaporation from a liquid state of a substance is
completed·, then it is called a gas.
Examples: Oxygen, hydrogen, ni~rogen, air etc., are regarded as
gases within certain temperature limits.
Partially evaporated liquid is called as vapour. It consists
of pure gaseous state and suspended liquid particles. Vapours will
undergo further condensation and evaporation with temperature
change or pressure change. Vapours will not obey laws of perfect
gases.

1.25