Module 1

Unit 1: Introduction to viruses

Unit 2: Viral Taxonomy
Unit 3: Classification of DNA viruses
Unit 4: Classification of RNA viruses

INTRODUCTION: ORIGIN OF VIRUSES

Virology isdefined as the study of viruses, which are small, acellular entities that usuallypossess
only a single type of nucleic acid and that must use the metabolic machinery of aliving host in
order to reproduce.
Viruses are inert in the extracellular environment and only come alive in contact with aliving
host cell. They replicate only in the living cells. The viral nucleic acid contains allinformation
necessary for programming infected cells to synthesize a number of virusspecific
macromolecules required for the production of viral progeny. The viral genometakes control of
the metabolism of the host cell. Viruses are known to infect a wide rangeof host cells ranging
from mycoplasma, bacteria, algae, invertebrates, all higher plantsand animals.

Terms in Virology
Capsid: This is the protein shell or coat that encloses the nucleic acid of the virus. Emptycapsids
may be by-products of replicative cycle of viruses with icosahedral symmetry.
Nucleocapsid: This refers to the capsid together with the enclosed nucleic acid.
Virion: This is the entire infectious unit or the complete viral particle. The virion servesto
transfer the nucleic acid from cell to cell.
Viriod: This refers to some naked genetic materials that are air-borne but lacks capsid.They also
cause infection on contact with a living host cell. They mostly cause plantinfections.
Envelope: This is a lipid containing membrane that surrounds some viruses. It is acquiredduring
virus maturation by budding process through the cellular membrane. Virusenclosed
glycoproteins are exposed on the surface of the envelope.
Capsomers: This refers to morphologic unit seen in the electron microscope on thesurface of the
icosahedral virus particle. They represent clusters of polypeptides.
Capsomeres: They are the protein building blocks that constitute the capsomers.
Defective virus: this refers to a viral particle that is functionally deficient in some aspectof viral
replication.
Replication: This is the mode of multiplication of the viral particles in the host cell for continuity
and maintenance of the virus in the host.
Viroplasm: A virus factory or a modified region in an infected host cell where virus replication
occurs.
General characteristics of Viruses
 All viruses are acellular organisms and are the smallest known infective agents.
 They contain only one type of nucleic acid DNA or RNA as their genome but never the
two at a time.
 They posses no organelles and are unable to make their own proteins and essential
enzymes.
 They obligate on their host for energy and replication.
 They are metabolically inactive outside their host.
 They do not grow in ordinary laboratory or synthetic media used for bacterial cultivation,
they require a living host such as embryo or tissue for their cultivation.
 Viruses can only be studied through the aid of an electron microscope that could magnify
up to × 500,000.
 Viruses cannot be gram stained or stained with common laboratory stains.
 Viruses are not sensitive to antibiotics.

Chemical Composition of viruses

Chemical constituents of viruses include the following:
- Proteins - Nucleic acid - Lipids - Carbohydrates
Viral protein: The major purpose of the viral protein is to aid transfer of viral genome. They
protect the viral genome against the action of nucleases of the host cell and participate in the
attachment of the virus particle to a susceptible cell during infection. The viral capsid is made up
of protein sub-units known as capsomerswhich are made up of capsomeres. The viral protein
determines the antigenic properties of the virus. The surface glycoproteins of some viruses
exhibit specificity in their activities such as the heamagglutinin on influenza virus
thatagglutinates the red blood cells. Some viruses carry some enzymes inside thevirion which are
essential for the initiation of replication in the host cell such as RNA polymerase carried by
rhabdoviruses and reverse transcriptase carried by retroviruses that makes a DNA copy of the
viral RNA.
Nucleic acid: Viruses contain only a single type of nucleic acid, DNA or RN that encodes all the
genetic information necessary for the replication of the virus. The viral nucleic acid is also
referred to as the viral genome. The viral genome can be single or double stranded, circular or
linear, segmented or linear. The type of nucleic acid,strandedness and the molecular weight of
the viruses are used in viral classification into families. The molecular weight of viruses ranges
from 1.5×106 to 200×106 Daltons.
The sequence and composition of the nucleotides of each viral nucleic acid are distinctive. The
G+C content of the nucleic acid is one of the important properties used in characterizing a viral
genome. DNA viral genome can be analyzed using restriction endonucleases and using
molecularly clones CAN copies of RNA and restriction maps can be derived for analyzing RNA
viral genomes.
Viral Lipids: A number of different viruses contain lipid envelopes as part of their structure.
The lipid is required when the virus nucleocapsid buds through a cellular membrane during
maturation. The phospholipid composition is determined by the specific type of cell membrane
in the budding process. The acquisition of a lipid containing membrane is an integral step in
virion morphogenesis in some virus group. Lipid containing viruses are sensitive to ether and
organic solvent.
Viral Carbohydrate: Virus envelopes contain glycoproteins. In contrast to the lipids they are
derived from the host cell, the envelope glycoproteins are virus-coded however the sugars added
to the virus glycoprotein reflect the host cell in which the virus is grown. It is the surface
glycoproteins of enveloped viruses that attaches the virus to a target cell by interacting with
cellular receptors and are also important viral antigens.

Summary
Viruses are small acellular unit that require a lining host to become living.
They contain a nucleic acid and a protein coat, they could be enveloped or not.
They attack a wide variety of organisms.
Viruses are infective agents.

VIRAL TAXONOMY
Several thousands of virus have being classified and have been found in all major groups of
organisms from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. There are over 2000 descriptions on virus infection
bacteria alone. Taxonomy is the science of classification, very dynamic and substitution and
subject to change on the basis of available data. Significant developmentin the classification of
viruses is documented in the reports of the InternationalCommittee on Nomenclature of Viruses
(ICNV). The reports of 1971, 1976 and 1979 dealt with human, low animal, insect and bacteria
viruses. The organization has however been renamed as International Committee on Taxonomy
of Viruses (ICTV). The viruses infecting humans and vertebrate animals of importance to man
are most of the virus group recognized. Many of these have now being placed in families, genera
and species.
In viral taxonomy, the family name ends with the suffix “VIRIDAE”, the subfamily name with d
suffix “VIRINAE” and the genus name with the suffix “VIRUS”.
Factors considered in classification of viruses
Viruses are classified into families on the basis of various factors stated below:
 The type of nucleic acid: a virus contains either RNA or DNA. The nature of the nucleic
acid, single or double stranded is important as a strategy during replication.
 The size and morphology of viruses, type of virion symmetry, number of capsomers,
presence or absence of an envelope.
 Presence of specific enzymes, particularly DNA and RNA polymerases concerned with
genome replication.
 Susceptibility to physical and chemical agents such as ether.
 Immunologic properties.
 Natural methods of transmission.
 Host, tissue and cell tropism.
 Pathology and inclusion body formation.
 Symptomatology: This is the oldest form of viral replication and offers certain
conveniences to clinicians but not satisfactory enough for virologist because the same
virus may appear in several groups if it causes more than one disease.
 Sigla formation: Abbreviation from two or more names are joined together to form one
name, part of the name could be derived from the type of genome and organ affected.
Examples are shown below
a. PAPOVA PA meaning Papilloma
PO meaning Polyoma
VA meaning Vacuolating agent
b. PICORNA PICO meaning Small virus
RNA meaning RNA-virus
Symmetry in Virus
The use of electron microscope and x-ray diffraction techniques have made and possible to
resolve the differences in the basic morphology of viruses. Heavy metal stains e.g. potassium
phosphotungstateis used in emphasizing the viral surface structure. The heavy metal permeates
the virus particle like a cloud and brings out the surface structure of the viruses by virtue of
negative staining. There are three basic symmetry in viral morphology.
1. Cubic or Icosahedral:All cubic symmetry observed with animal viruses to date is of the
icosahedralstructure. Icosahedron has 20 face (each an equilateral triangle), 12 vertices
and 5-fold, 3-fold, 2-fold axes of rotational symmetry, the overall shape of viruseshaving
icosahedral capsid symmetry is described as spherical.
2. Helical:The capsid is spiral in shape and surrounds a spiral shaped core of nucleic
acid.All known examples of animal viruses with helical symmetry contain RNAgenome
with the exemption of rhabdoviruses. An example is the Tobacco mosaicvirus (TMV).

a. A naked helical virus b. An enveloped helical virus

3. Complex structures: These are the symmetry that is neither icosahedral nor helical in
nature. A goodexample is the pox virus whose symmetry simply described as brick-
shaped withridges on the external surface and a core and lateral bodies.

4. Binal: It consists of both cubical and helical symmetry e.g. T-even coliphage,
abacteriophage.
Structure of T-even bacteriophage

Summary
 Classification of viruses is documented in the reports of the International Committee
onNomenclature of Viruses (ICNV) now International Committee on Taxonomy of
Viruses(ICTV)
 Several factors are considered in classifying viruses such as shape of viral genome,sensitivity
of the virus to organic solvents, type of nucleic acid, symptomatology amongsta host of
others.
 Viral symmetry can either be icosahedral, helical, complex or binal.

VIRUS CLASSIFICATION
Classification of DNA viruses
Parvoviridae
Papoviridae
Adenoviridae
Herpesviridae

Parvoviridae:
They are very small DNA viruses with particle size of about 18-22nm in diameter with
icosahedral symmetry of 32 capsomers. They are non-enveloped with single strandedDNA
(ssDNA) of molecular weight (MW) of 1.5-2.0 × 106, G+C content of 41-53%. The
physicochemical properties of the virion includes MW of 5.5 = 6.2 106; S20W = 110-122;
buoyant density of 1.39-1.42g/dm3 in cesium chloride (CsCl). The mature virion/particle is
stable in the presence of lipid solvent, pH of 3.9 and in most species at 560Cfor at least 60min.
The virion contains 3 polypeptides, MW of 60-90 × 103 and could be demonstrated in the genera
parvovirus and dependovirus. Densoviruses have 4 structural polypeptides. Viral replication
takes place in only actively dividing cells while capsid assembly takes in the nucleus of the
infected cells. Members of this group are parvovirus group (Parvovirus),
Dependovirus (adeno-associated virus group) and insect parvovirus group (Densovirus).
Members of the Dependovirus group require a “helper virus” (adenoviruses and herpesviruses)
co-infection for efficient replication. Parvovirus replicates autonomously and preferentially
encapsulates negatively sensed ssDNA. In the genera Dependovirusand Densovirus, the
complementary +ve and –ve strands are encapsulated with about the same frequency.
Papoviridae
The name is derived from the sigla ‘PA’= papilloma; PO = polyoma and VA = vacuolating agent
(SV40). Members of this family are the genera polyomavirus and papillomavirus. Vrions are
small in size of about 40-55nm in diameter, heat stable, ether and acid resistant. They have an
icosahedral symmetry with 72 capsomers in skew arrangement, though filamentous forms occur.
The virus particle is non-enveloped containing a molecule of circular double stranded DNA
(dsDNA) with molecular weight of 3-5 × 106, G+C content= 40-50%. About 6-9 polypeptides
are found in the, MW of 3.82 × 102. Infections by these viruses are airborne but some forms of
human papilloma virus are sexually transmitted. These agents have a slow cycle, stimulate cell
DNA synthesis and replicate in the. They produce late and chronic infections in their natural host
and all can induce tumors in some animal species.
Adenoviridae
Adenoviruses were first isolated from human adenoid tissue. Members of this family are the
genera:
1. Mammalian Adenoviruses (Mastadenovirus), the prefix ‘Mast’ is derived from the Greek
word ‘Mastos’, meaning ‘breast’.
2. Avian Adenovirus
Adenoviruses are non-enveloped isometric particles with icosahedral symmetry of about 70-
90nm in diameter with 252 capsomers, 8-9nm in diameter. Twelve vertex capsomers(penton
bases) carry one or two filamentous projections, 240 non-vertex (hexons) capsomers are different
from penton bass and fibres. These fibres are glycoprotein nature.
The physicochemical properties of adventure are: MW = 170 x 106 buoyant c1i density in CsCl
= 1.32 - 1.35g/cm3. The virion is stable on storage in frozen state, and not inactivated by lipid
solvent. The Nucleic acid is a single linear molecule of DNA ct MW20 - 25 x 106 for viruses
isolated from mammalian (M) - Species OR 30 x 106 from avian(A) Species. A viral coded
terminal protein is covalently linked to each 5i end. The sequence of the human adenovirus 2
genome is 35,937 hp and contains an inverted terminal Repetition (ITR) of 103bp. ITR’s of 50-
200bp’s are found in all virus sequenced. G + C content varies from 48 - 61 %
(mastadenoviruses) and 54 -55 % for aviadenoviruses.
At least 10 polypeptides with MW’s of 5 - 121) x 103are found in the M-Species. At least 41
types infect humans, especially in mucous membrane, and some types can persist in lymphoid
tissue. Some adenoviruses cause acute respiratory diseases, phyaryngitis and conjunctivitis.
Some human adenoviruses can induce tumors in new horn hamsters.There are many serotypes
that infect animals. Characteristic Cytopathic effect (CPE) without lysis occurs during
multiplication in cell culture. After attachment of infectious particle to cell receptocytes by the
glycoproteins, the virus gain entry into cell by endocytosis.
Transcription, DNA replication, DNA replication, and virus assembly takes place in the cell
nucleus. Slow viruses are released after cell death. It has been observed that there is
intranuclearinclusions, containing DNA, viral antigens and virionsparacystailine array or
otherwise. Transmission could be by direct, or in direct from throat, faeces, eye or urine,
depending on the serotype.
Herpesviridae
The name was derived from the Greek word “Herpes”, “herpetos” meaning creeping, or crawling
creature, from the nature of herpes febrilis lesions in infected patients. There are three sub
families in this family.
a. Herpes Simplex Virus group called Alpha Herpesvirinae.
b. Cytomegalovirus group called Beta Herpesvirinae.
c. Lymphnproliferative Virus group called Gamma Herpesvirinae

Their host range in variable, from very wide to very narrow e.g. warm and cold
bloodedvertebrates and in vertebrates. The virion is 120 - 200mim in diameter and consists of
4structural components. The capsid is 100 – 110nm in diameter, has 162capsomeres arranged as
an icosahedron (150 hexameric and 12 pentamericCapsomeres). The capsomeres are hexagonal
in cross section with a hole running half way down the long axis. The tegument surrounding the
capsid consists of globular material which is frequently asymmetrically distributed and may be
variable in amount. They are enveloped viruses with them envelope being a bilayer membrane
surrounding the tegument, and has surface projections. The core consists of a fibrillar spool on
which the nucleic acid (DNA) is wrapped. The ends of the fibers are anchored to the underside of
the capsid shell. Tie intact envelope is impermeable to negative stain.
The physicochemical properties of the vironare: MW is > 1000 x 106, buoyant density in CsCl =
1.20 – 1.29g/cm3. Herpesviruses contain one molecule of ds DNA, 120 – 220kbp with G + C
content of 35-75%. They contain more than 20 structural proteins, MW = 12000 to > 222,000.
The lipid content is located in the viron envelope and probably variable. The carbohydrates are
the glycoproteins in theenvelope which also contain an FC-receptor. The viral DNA is
transcribed in the nucleus with the mRNA beingtranslated in the cytoplasm. The ability to infect
cells building through the inner lamella of the nuclear membrane is particles are released by
transport to the cell surface through modified endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in structures bounded
by cytoplasmic membranes. Herpesviridae are transmitted by contact between moist mucosal
surfaces, transplacentally, intrapartum, breastmilk, transfusions, airborne or waterborne.
Herpesvirusesmay remain latent in their primary hosts for the lifetime of those of those hosts,
usually in ganglial or lymphoblastoid cells. Human Herpesviruses include herpes simpler types
1&2 (oral & genital lesions), Varicella - ZoosterVirus (shingles & Chicken pox),
cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Epstein-Barr virus (infectious mononucleosis and association with
human neoplasm).
Poxviridae
The name was derived from the old English Poc, Pocc-, (Plural of pock) meaning Pustule or
Ulcer as one of the symptoms shown on infected individuals. They are large, somewhat
pleomorphic, brick-shaped or ovoid virion, 230-450nm x 140-260nm, with external coat
containing lipid and tubular or globular protein structures, enclosing one or two lateral bodies
and a core, which contains the genome. They are enveloped viruses with some being ether
resistant and some other member ether sensitive. The nucleic acid is a single molecule of ds
DNA, 130 - 375 kbp with variable G+C contents. In vertebrate poxviruses, the G+C = 35-64%
while it is 20% in the entmo poxviruses. More than 100 polypeptides are detected in the virion of
poxviruses. The virion core contains several enzymes concerned with transcription, and
modifications of nucleic acids and proteins.
The lipid content of the virion is about it 4%by, weigh it (e.g. in Vaccinia virus) while the
carbohydrate is about 3% by weight. They replicate in the cytoplasm producing type B reactive
occurs both with and between genera of vertebrate poxviruses. They are transmitted by Airborne,
contact, formites, and mechanically by arthropods. The family poxviridae is made up of 2 sub-
families:
- Poxviruses (infects vertebrates) - Entomopoxvirinae (infects insects)
Poxviruses of vertebrates (CHORDOPOX VIRINAE)
The word ‘chordo’ is from the word Chordate. The genera in this subfamily are
(a) Orthopox virus Ortho - front the Greek word ‘Orthos’ meaning straight,correct.
(b) Para Poxvirus Para means ‘by side of’
(c) Avipox Virus Avi means Ave) front Latin word “AVIS”
(d) Capripox Virus Capri from Latin word “Ceper’ means Goat
(e) LeporipoxvirusLepori from Latin word “Lepus, leporis” means Hare
(f) Suipox Virus Sui from Latin word ‘sus’ means Swine
(g) Molluscscipox Virus Mollusci from Latin word Molluscum means Cam or snail
(h) Yatapox Virus ‘Yata’ derived from the siglaYaba poxvirus and TanapoxVirus
Entomopoxvirinae: Pox viruses infecting insects. “Entomo” was derived from Greek word
‘Entomon’ meaning insect. This subfamily contains probably 3 genera namely: Entomopoxviruis
A, B and C.
Hepadnaviridae
The name was derived from the sigla ‘HEPA’ because of its affinity for liver cells .i.e. heap
tropism, DNA meaning the type of genome i.e. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). They7nm in
diameter and detergent sensitive. The Nucleocapsid (icosahedral) is made up of 180 capsomeres
arranged with T = 3 symmetry made up of one major, polypeptide species. The virion envelope
is antigenically similar to the nucleic acid - free 22nm lipoprotein particles (HBs Ag) that occur
naturally n the sera of infected patients.
The physicochemical properties are S = 280; buoyant density in CsCl = 1.24 - 1.26 g/crn3,
(surface antigen particles without core = 1.1.8g/cm. The virus is unstable in acid pH; infectivity
is retained for 6 months at 30-32°C or 1.0 hours at60°C.
The nucleic acid is a single circular molecule of partially ds and partially ssDNA with molecular
weight of 1.6- 106, S2 = 155; G+C content is 48%. One strand (negative sense, complementary
to mRNA) is full length (3.02 - 3.32kb) and the other varies in length from 1.7 - 2.8kb. Length of
clone DNA (fully double stranded) = 3.2 kbp. The virion coat is composed of following virus -
coded proteins: S-proteins (P24, 0P27), M-proteins (GP33, GP36) L-proteins (P39, GP42). The
virion core is composed of one major protein with molecular weight it of 22x 103. Lipid has
been demonstrated in the HBs Ag (22nm).
The N-terminus of the L-proteins is myristoylated. The virionsare probably derived from the ER.
Carbohydrates have also been demonstratedin the 22nm HBs Ag particle and virions as N-linked
glycans. HBsAg, HBcAg, HBeAg are the antigens. However, the S-proteins are sufficient to
simulate protective immunity.
The two genera in this family are:Orthohepadnavirus (i.e. Hepatitis - B virus group) and
Avihepadnavirus (i.e. Duck hepatitis B Virus group).
Summary
 DNA viruses contain double stranded helix in their genomes
 They infect mostly animal cells
 They are pathogenic to man and other vertebrates

Classification of RNA viruses

Picornaviridae
The name is derived as Time word ‘PICO” is prefix meaning (micro or small). RNA is the sigla
from Ribonucleic Acid). The family consists of five genera:
(a) EnteroVirtis — Entero Virus group (i.e. found in the intestine) e.g. Poliovirus
(b) Hepatovirims — Hepatitis A virus group (affinity for liver)
(c) Cardiovirus — EMC Virus group (affecting the heart).
(d) Rhinovirus — Common cold virus group (affecting time Nose)
(e) Aphthovirus — Foot & Mouth disease virus group (causing vesicles in themouth)
The virions in this family are Icosahedral (T = 1) with no envelope. The core consist of RNA and
a small protein 313VPg covalently linked to its 5-end. The electron micrograph (EM) reveals
almost a featureless surface with no projections. Hydrated native particles are 30nm it (from 22-
30nm. The virion MW = 8-9 x 106: S20w = 140 – 165: buoyant density in CsCl =
1.33-1.45g/cm3 depending mainly on genus. Some species are unstable below pH6, many are
less stable at low tonic strength than at high. They are insensitive to ether, chloroform, or non-
ionic detergents. They are inactivatedby tight when grown with or in the presence of dyes such
as natural red and proflavin.
The Nucleic acid is a molecule of infectious positively sensed ssRNA of MW: 2.4 – 2.7 x 106. A
poly A tract, heterogeneous in length is transcribed onto the 3’-terminus. A protein VPq
(MW=2,400) is linked covalently to the 5-terminus, Capsid of 60 protein submits (Protomers)
each consisting of 4 polypeptides (three of MW=24-41x10 and one of MW=5.5 - 13.5x10)
derived by cleavage of a single polyprotein. Protomers vary from 80kDa for aphthovirus to 97
for poliovirus and some may he incompletely cleared. The inner capsid polypeptide 1A (VP4)
has a molecule of myristic acid covalently attached to the amino terminal end. Some strains of
poliovirus may carry 60 it to molecules each of a sphingosine – like molecules. Native virions
are antigenically specific (designated ‘N or ‘D’) but after gently heating are converted to group
specificity (designated ‘H’).
Replication of viral RNA occurs in complexes associated with cytoplasmic membranes
apparently via two distinct replicative intermediates (RIs). One complex uses positive strand
RNA and the other uses negative strand RNA as template. Functional proteins are mainly
produced from a single large (MW=240-250x103) poly protein by post translational cleavage.
Coat protein is encoded by the 5’half; VPg, proteases and polymerases or polymerase factors are
encoded downstream. Genetic recombination, complementation and phenotypic mixing occur.
Most species in this family are host specific. The group infecting humans are rhinoviruses (more
than, 100 serotypes causing common colds) and entervioruses (polio, coxsackie,and
echoviruses). Those infecting animals include foot and mouth disease of cattle and encephalomy-
o-carditis of rodents.

Calciviridae
These group of viruses are similar to Picornaviridae but slightly larger (about 35-39nm) in
diameter. The genome is a single-stranded positively sensed RNA. They are non enveloped
viruses.
Reoviridae
The genera of this family are the reovirus group (i.e. the Orthoreovirus, Orbivirus, Coltivirus,
Rotaviris, Aquareovirus); the cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus group (cypovirus); plant reovirus
subgroup 1 (phytoreovirus); plant reovirus subgroup 2 (Fijivirus) and plant reovirus subgroup 3.
The virus is an Icosahedral particles with diameter range of 60-8Onm. One or two outerprotein
coats and an inner protein coat are present. Transcriptase activity is associated with the core. The
Virion Molecular weight is 120x10 buoyant density in CsCl = 1 .36- 1.39 g/cm3. They are ether
resistant because they are non-enveloped.
The Nucleic acid is I0-12 segmented linear dsRNA with MW of 0.2-3.0 x 106. The total MW =
12-20x106 which is about 14-22% by weight of the virus particle. Each RNA segment has one
open reading frame (ORE) encoding a protein requiring no further processing. About 6-10
proteins are found in the virus particle, M1vVs = 15-155x103 including transcriptase and
messenger RNA-capping enzymes. Some of the proteins are glycosylated. Viral replication takes
place in the cytoplasm with the presence of viroplasmas in the cytoplasm of infected cells.
Genetic recombination occurs very efficiently by genome reassortment.
Reoviruses of human include rotaviruses, which cause infantile gastroenteritis and have
distinctive wheel-shaped appearance. Antigenically, similar reoviruses infect many animals.
Orbiviruses constitute a distinct subgroup that includes Colorado tick fever virus of humans and
other agents that infect plants, insects, and animals (blue-tongue of cattle and sheep).
Arboviridae
The sigla ARBO is derived from Arthropod (‘AR’) - Borne (‘BO’) viruses. An ecologic
grouping of viruses with diverse physical and chemical properties. All of these viruses (about
350 in number) have a complex cycle involving arthropods as vector that transmit the viruses to
vertebrate hosts by their bite. Virus replication does not seem to harm the infected arthropod.
Arboviruses infect humans, mammals, birds, and snakes and use mosquitoes and tick as vectors.
Human pathogens include dengue, yellow fever, encephalitis viruses, and others.

Toagaviridae
The name s derived from the Latin word ‘toga’ meaning “grown”. Cloak” Members of the
genera in this family are:
(a) Alphavirus — Arbovirus group A
(b) Rubivirus — Rubella Virus. (Rubi means Reddish)
(c) Arterivirus — Equine arteritris virus.
The virions are spherical, 60-70nrn in diameter, with an envelope tightly applied to a proven or
presumed Icosahedral nucleocapsid 35-40nm in diameter. Surface projections are demonstrable
in most togaviruses. The virion buoyant density in sucrose is 1.2g/cm3, S20w = 280. The
Nucleic acid is a single molecule of positively sensed ssRNA, MW= 4 x 106 which is 8-9% by
weight of the virus. The genes for non structural proteins are located at the 5’ end. The 5’
terminus is capped, and the 3’ end is poly adehylated, there are two or 3 envelope proteins one or
more of which are glycosylated, and a small core protein. Members are antigenically related. The
virus specific glycoproteins are insertedin the lipoprotein envelope whose lipids are cell -
derived. Replication is in the cytoplasm amid mature by budding. They infect arthropods as well
as a wide range of vertebrates.
Flaviviridae
The name is derived from ‘FLAVI’ meaning yet low. The members of the genera of are
(a) Flavivirus - Arhovirus group B e.g. Yellow fever virus
(b) Pestivirims - Mucosal disease virus group.
(c) Hepatitis C virus group.
The virion is spherical in shape, 40-6-nm in diameter. They are enveloped viruses, S20w = 140 -
200. The nucleic acid is single molecule of infectious single stranded, positively sensed RNA.
The structural and non-structural proteins are derived from the 51 - and 31- terminal sequences
respectively. There are two or three membrane-associated problems and a core protein found in
the virion. The membrane-associated proteins are inserted in the lipoprotein envelope whose
lipids are cell derived.
Replication takes place in the cytoplasm and in association with membrances, and matures into
cytoplasmic vesicles. Most members are transmitted by blood-sucking orthropods. Mature
virions accumulate within cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum.
Arenaviridae
The name ‘Arena’ is derived from Latin word ‘arenosus’ meaning ‘Sandy’ because of the
appearance of the viral particles in EM sections. Members of this family are:
(a) Lymphocytic Chroriomenigtis (LCM) i.e. Lassa, Mobala, Mopeia and Ippy virus.
(b) Tacarbe Complex: i.e. Tacaribe, Junin, Macupo, Amapari, Parana, Tamiami, Pichinde, Latino
and Flexal virus.
They are enveloped viruses; spherical to pleomorphic particles, 50-300nm in diameter (usually
110-130nm). The dense lipid bi-layer envelope has surface projections 10nm long and club-
shaped. Varying numbers of ribosome like particles (20-25nin diameter) appear tree within the
envelope. Isolated nucleocapsids vary in lengths from 450 1300nm.
The buoyant density in sucrose is 1.17 - 1.18g/cm3 in CsCI = 1.19-1.20g/cm3, in amidotrizoate
compounds = 1.14g/cm3 compounds = 114g, S20w = 325-500. The virus is rapidly inactivated
below P1-I 5.5 and above PH 5.5, also rapidly inactivated at 56°C and by solvents. They are
highly sensitive to UV and gamma radiation. The genome is two virus negative sensed specific
ssRNA molecules, L and S (MWs = 2.2-2.8x105 and 1.1x106 respectively, and three RNAs of
cell origin, = 28, l8 and 4-6.’ The nucleocapsidcontain one glycosylated polypeptide (MW=63-
72x10) associated with the RNA as part of RNP complex. One glycosylated polypeptide with
MW=34-44x103 is found in allmembers of the family and a second glycosylated polypeptide of
MW=44-72x103 notedin some but not other members. At least 3 distinct antigenic molecules are
known.
Antigens on1tlie surface glycoprotein (MW=34-44x10) are involved in virus neutralization.
Most, if not all, arenaviruses probably have limited cell killing potential. Host range varies from
animals, mammals and humans.
Coronaviridae
They have petal-shaped projections arranged in fringe like a solar corona. The name (Prefix
“Corona”) is derived from the Latin word “Crown” from appearance of surface projections in
negatively stained electron micrographs. The members of tile family are Human coronavirus,
Mirune hepatitis virus, Porcine I Haemagglutinatingencephalomyelitis virus, Porcine
transmissible gastroenteritis virus, bovine coronavirus, canine coronavirus, Feline infectious
peritonitis virus, Turkey, rat and Rabbit coronavirus. The viral particle is spherical or
pleomorphic enveloped particles, 60-220nm in diameter. There are club-shaped surface
projections, 12- 24nm in length protruding from the envelope. There is presence of
Ribonucleoprotein (RNA) structure seen by negative staining as helix of a 9-13nm or strands of
9nm in diameter. The Buoyant density is 1.15-1.180g/cm3 in sucrose. They are sensitive to ether,
chloroform, and detergents. The envelope spikes (but not haemagglutiuin esterase protein of
BCV) are removed by bromelain. The nucleic acid is a molecule of infectious
unsegementedpositively sensed ssRNA, MW of 9.0-11.0x 106. IBV genome is 27kb,
MHV=33kb. The genome is adehylated at 3’-terminus but MHV genomic RNA is known to be
capped at 5’-end. About 3 or 4 proteins are found in all coronaviruses.
(1) The spike(S) protein, MW = 170-220x103. This could be cleaved into two subunits: N-
terminal (S1) and C-terminal (S2).
(2) The membrane (M) protein, MW of main species is 23-29x103.
(3) The Nucleocapsid (N) protein. MW 47-60x 103and it is phosphorylated and associated with
INA.
(4) The haemagglutinin – Esterase (HE) protein. Membrane fusion and esterase activity is
associated with S and HE protein respectively. The enveloped of the viral particle is lipid in
nature and s-protein is acylated.
The S- and N- proteins are glycosylated. There are 3 or 4 major antigens corresponding to each
virion protein. The S and HE proteins are predominant antigens involved in neutralization.
The genomic RNA behaves as the mRNA for RNA polymerase responsible for amplification of
genome and production of sub-genomic mRNAs. The Virion matures in the cytoplasm by
budding through the ER and Golgi membranes. There is no budding at plasmalemma.
The infection coronaviruses is restricted to natural vertebrate host and are often associated with
respiratory or gastrointestinal organ. Transmission is by respiratory, facial-oral routes. Biological
vectors and mechanical transmission is also possible.
Retroviridae
They are enveloped viruses of about 90 – 120nm in diameter whose genome contains duplicate
copies of high molecular weight, SSRNA of the same polarity as viral mRNA.
The name RETRO is gotten from the presence of an enzyme Reverse transcriptase associated
with the virus genome. The enzyme is responsible for the reverse transcription of genomic RNA
to DNA in infected host cells.
The virus is replicated from the integrated ‘Provirus DNA’ copy in infected cells. I lost cells
remain chronically infected. Leukaemia and sarcoma viruses of animal and human, loamy
viruses of primates and some “slow viruses” called Lentiviruses (Visna, Maedi of Sheep) are
included it in this family. Retroviruses allow the Identification of cellular oncogenesis. The
Human immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) that causes AIDS in human is also a member of this viral
family.
Bunyaviridae
Name derived from “Bunyamwera” where it was first isolated. The viral genera in this family
are:
1. Bunyamwera Super Group - Btiniavirus
2. Sandfly Fever &Uukuniemi group - Phlehovirus
3. Nairobi Sheep disease group - Nairovirits
4. Hantaan group - Haittavirus
5. Tomato Spotted Wilt group - Tospovirus.
The viral particles is spherical or pleomorphic. They are enveloped particles of about 80-100mm
in diameter, with glycoprotein surface projections, ribonucleo capsids composed of 3 circular,
helical strands, 2-2.5nin in diameter and sometimes super- coiled, 0.2 - 3m in length depending
on the arrangement. The viral MW = 300 -400 X 10, S20w =350-500, buoyant density in CsCl =
1.2g/cm3. They are sensitive to lipid solvents and detergents.
The nucleic is made of 3 molecules; Large (L), Medium (M) and small (S), negatively or
ambisensed SSRNA. The MW of L = 2.2 – 4.9 x 106 (6.5 - 14.4kb): M= 1.0 - 2.3 x 106 (3.2 -
6.3 kb): while 50.28 x 0.8 x 106 (0.8- 2.0kb). The constitute 1-2% by weight of a whole particle.
Differences exist between terminal nucleotide sequences of gene segments of viruses of different
genera. Ends are hydrogen bonded, RNA and nucleocapsids is circular. Usually, 4 - proteins
consisting of 2 external glycoproteins (01 and 02), a nucleocapisd protein (N) and a Large (L)
protein which is presumably a transcriptase are known. Transcriptase activity is present it the
virion. The Lipid is 20 -30% by weight with the lipoprotein envelope derived from host cell. The
carbohydrate is 2-7% by weights of which are mainly glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Haemaggatinin at id-neutralizing antigenic determinants are present on the viral glycoproteins.
Complement fixing antigenic determinants is principally associated with N-protein. Cell fusion
has been shown to be induced by these viruses at low PH. Most species cause CPE but
Hantaviruses do no cause CPE. Some members have ion — dependent haemaglutinatingactivity.
The virus replicate in the cytoplasm. The Host RNA sequences have been shownto prime viral
mRNA synthesis. Genetic re-assortment is known for certain members.
The virus mature by budding into smooth surface vesicles in or near the Golgi region but
maturation at the plasma membrane has also been observed.
These viruses infect various arthropods and or warm orcold blooded vertebrates. They are
transmitted by Mosquitoes, ticks, phlebotomine flies and other arthropod vectors.They have hen
demonstrated to be transmittedvenereally. Aerosol infections also occur and could also be
disseminated by avian host and, or vector movements. NO ARTHROPOD VECTOR HAS
BEEN DEMONSTRATED IN HANTAVIRUS TRANSMISSION. Hantaviruses are transmitted
by Rodents. They cause haemorrhagic fevers.
Bunyaviridae, Orthomyxoviridae
Orthomyxoviridae
The name is derived from the sigla; ORTHO from Greek ‘Orthos meaning straight or correct;
‘MYXO-” from Greek ‘Myxa’ relating to the activity of haemaglutinin and neuraminidase.
Members of this family are influenza virus A, B, C. and D. The IV-D comprises the tick borne
virusese.gDhori and Thogoto viruses which occasionally infect man. The Nucleocapids of helical
symmetry and diameter of 9-15nm are enclosed within a lipoproteins of different sizes classes
(50 – 130nm in length) with loop at each end, are extractable from virions or infected cells. The
virion is pleomorphic, 20 - 120nm in diameter. Arrangement within virion uncertain, although
coils of about 4 - 20 turns of a 7nm thick material are sometimes seen in partially disrupted virus.
M - 1 protein is believed to form a layer inside the Lipid bilayer, with HA and NA glycoproteins
projecting about 10 - 14 nm from the surface. About 500 spikes project from the surface of a
spherical virion. Most are HA, with NA clusters interposed irregularly, but usually in the ratio 4
or 5 to 1 of HA and NA respectively. The HA spikes are rods, 13.5nm in length and 4nm in
diameter. The NA glycoprotein has a box-shaped head, 10 x 10 x 6im, attached to a slender stalk
about l00nm long projecting from the membrance. Each NA subunit is composed of 6
topologically identical beta sheets arranged in the formation of propeller. Cores containing MI,
RNP and P-proteinsmay be generated by controlled chemical disruption of virions.
Orthomyxoviruses are enveloped viruses.
3.4. Paramyxoviridae
The name “PARAMXYXO” is derived from the sigla PARA from Greek ‘para’ meaning ‘by the
side of’ and ‘myxo’ from Greek ‘myxa’ meaning mucus, relating to the activity of
haemagglutinin and neuraminidase.
There are two subfamilies
1. Paramyxovirinae which consist of two genera:
(a) Paratnyxovirusi.e the parainfluenza virus group
(b) Morbillivirusi.eMealses, Rinderpest. Caninedistemper virus group.
2. Pneumorivinae which consist of a single genus i.e. the pneumovirus (The respiratory syncytial
virus group). Other members of this genus are Bovine RSV, Rodent RVS and Avian RVS.
The virus particles are pleomorphic, usually roughly spherical, 150nm or more in diameter.
Filamentous forms are common. They are enveloped, incorporating 2 or 3 virus glycoproteins
and 1 or 2 unglycosilated proteins. There are surface projections of about8-12nm in length,
spaced 7 - 10nm apart according to genus, contain virus glycoproteins.
Nucleocapsid is helical in symmetry, 13 - l8nm in diameter and 5.5 – 7nm pitch to according to
genus; length up to 1m in some genera. The virus particle MW = > 500 x 106, much more for
pleomorphic multiploidvirions, S20w at least 100; buoyant density in sucrose = 1.18 - l.20g/cm3.
They are sensitive to Lipid solvents, non-ionic detergents, formaldehyde and oxidizing agents.
The nucleic acid is a single molecule of non-segmented negatively sensed SSRNA of WM= 5-7
x 106 which is about 0.5% by weight of virus particle. The genomic size is fairly
uniform15.15kb for Newcastle disease virus, 15.222kb for human RVS, 15.285kb for
sendaivirus, 15. 463kb for para influenza virus type 3 and 15.892 kb for measles virus. Some
positive sensed template strands of RNA genome have been reported in some members thus,
partial self - annealing of Isolated RNA may occur.

Rhaboviridae
They are bullet shaped for those infecting vertebrates and invertebrates hut are baciliformfor
those infecting plants. They are 100 - 430nm long and 45 – 100nm in diameter with surface
projections (G - proteins), 5-10nm and long 3nm in diameter. A central axial channel is seen in
thin section of the virion. There is characteristic cross – striations (spacing 4.5 — 5.0nm see in
negatively stained and thin sectioned particles. Truncated particles of 0.1 - 0.5 of the length of
the virus may be common except perhaps in members infecting plants. Abnormally long an
double – length particles and tandem formations are sometimes observed. The inner
nucleocapsid is 50nm in diameter, with helical symmetry consist of an RNA + N protein
complex together with L- and NSproteins, surrounded by an envelope containing M- protein.
The nucleocapsid contains transcriptase activity and is infections. It coils to a helical structure
which is 20 x 700nm.
The MW of virus particle is 300 - 1,000 x 106, S20w = 550 - 1,000; buoyant density in CsCl =
1.19 - 1.20g/cm3’ and in sucrose, 1.17 – 1.19g/cm3. The viral infectivity is stable at PH range 5
– 10 but rapidly X – irradiation. Since they are enveloped viruses, they are sensitive to Lipid
solvents.The nucleic acid is a molecule of non-segmented, linear, negatively sensed SSRNA
(noninfections).
The MW of the genome is 3.5 - 4.6 x 106 which is about 1- 2% by weight of virus at id S20w =
38 - 45. Five major polypeptides (proteins) designated as L, G, N, NS amid M for versicular
stomatitis Idiana (VS - I) virus. The proteins are 65 - 75% by weight of the virus. Other
polypeptides may be present in minor amounts. Transcriptase and other enzyme activities and
present in virus. The Lipid contents is about 15 — 25% by weight of virus and the lipid
composition is dependent on the host cell. The carbohydrate content is about 3% by weight of
virus and is associated with surface projections, glycolipids, minor variation with the host cell
type.
The general or groups of this family Rahbdoviridae are:
1. VESICULOVIRUS, i.e. Vesicular stomatitis virus group.
2. LYSSAVIRUS, i.e. Rabies virus group
3. Plant rhabdoviris group

Toroviridae
The name ‘Toro” is derived from the Latin word ‘torus meaning lowest convex melding in the
base of a column. Other members are Breda virus (infecting cattle), Torovirus, infecting man and
probably carnivores like mustellids. They are pleomorphic, biconcave disk, kidney, and rod-
shaped viral particles of about 20 – 140nm diameter containing an elongated tubular capsid with
helical symmetry. Theyare developed which hears some peplomers of spikes. The virus is table
at PH 2.5 and 9.7. The buoyant density is sucrose is 1.16 - 1.17g/cm3 and S20w = 380-400. The
genome is a polyadenylated linear, non - segmented, positively segmented, positively sensed
SSRNA that acts as a mRNA (infectious) of about >20kb.
Three major proteins are known in the virus particle. The nucleocapsid MW= 180 x 103 while
the envelope is 26 x 303 and the peplomer diner derived from200 x 103 precursor) is 80 — 100 x
103. Lipids are present in form of envelope with the glycosylated protein peplomer embedded in
it as the only carbohydrate. Replication take place in the cytoplasm with the 31 - coterminal
rested set of 5-subqenoinic mRNA detected. The polymerase gene contains 2 overlapping OREs;
the downstream one expected by ribosomal frame – shifting during translation of genomic RNA.
Budding of preformed tubular capsids is through Golgi membranes and E.R. but host cell nuclear
function is required. The transmission is probably via the faecal oral route.
Filoviridae
The name “FILO” is derived from Latin word ‘filo’ meaning like relating to the morphology of
the virus particle. Members are the Marburg Virus and Ebola Virus (Zaire and Sudan Biotypes).
The natural reservoirs of these viruses or their source are unknown. However, Monkey, Mouse,
Guinea Pig and Hamster have been experimentally infected in the laboratory.
The virus particle is pleomorphic, appearing as a long filamentous forms (Sometimeswith
extensive branching) or as U- Shaped, 6 - Shaped or circular forms. They varygreatly in length
(up to 14,000nm), but of uniform diameter (80nm). Surface projections (about 7nm in length and
spaced at 10nm intervals) are presented on the virion, Virionspurified by Rate - zonal -gradient
centrifugation are infectious, uniform and bacilliform iii shape; Ebola (970nm) and Marburg
(790nm) long. They are enveloped viruses. Inside the envelope is a nucleocapsid with a dark
central axis (20nm in diameter) surrounded by a helical tubular capsid (50nm in diameter)
bearing cross - striations with a periodicity of 5nm. The 20nm - central axis, also seen in infected
cells appears to be the virion RNA. A structure with buoyant density 1.32g/cm3 in CsClis
released from virions by detergent treatment and probably represented the viral RNP Within the
nucleocapsid is an axial channel of 10 - l5nm with nucleocapsid proteins (N and VP 30) proteins
L and VP35.
The whole virion MW = 300 600 x 606 , S20w of long particules very high but infectious
bacillform particles = 1,400S buoyant density is 1. 14g/cm3 in Potassium tartarate. Infectivity is
stable of room temperature but destroyed in 30nm at 600OC. They are also sensitive to Lipid
solvents.
The genome is a molecule of linear, negatively sensed SSRNA (non-infectious), MW= 1.1% by
weight of the virus, seven proteins designated as L.G.N VP40, VP35, VP30 and VP24 are
known. The G — protein is very large and two are associated with RNA (N and VP30). Lipids
are present in form of envelope while glycolipids and surface projections (glycosylated) as the
carbohydrates present. The virus cannot be neutralized in vitro.
3.8. Birnaviridae
The name is derived from the sigla ‘Bi’ meaning double and RNA meaning the type of genome
(ribonucleic acid). The genome is a double stranded RNA and they are nonenvelopedviruses. Not
much is known on them. They mostly infect pets e.g. Bovine Disease virus.

Summary
RNA viruses are mostly pathogenic to plants
There are 16 RNA virus families.
Some contain enzymes called reverse transcriptase, which enable them to synthesis a
second strand while infecting their host.
The HIV virus is a member of the family Retroviridae.