UPSC - IAS

Civil Services Examinations

Union Public Service Commission

General Studies
Paper 3 – Volume 3

Science and Tech

 UPSC CSE - IAS
Science and Tech
Paper – 3 Volume 3
S.No. Chapter Name Page No.
1. 1
2. 57
3. 67
4. 77
5. 97
6. 112
7. 121
8. 146
9. 159
10. 172
 1 Biology
CHAPTER
Year 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Pre Mains - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - 4 - 2 - - -
○ Adapt
Organisms ○ Maintain homeostasis.
● A living thing with an organized ● Classified by taxonomy into groups:
structure that can: ○ Multicellular animals, plants, and fungi or
○ React to stimuli unicellular microorganisms
○ Reproduce ○ Eg. protists, bacteria, and archaea.
○ Grow ● All organisms made of ce
●

Classification of Organisms
Based on the number of cells Based on the subcellular structure
● Single-celled: Bacteria, archaea, and protists ● Eukaryotes: Having a well-defined nucleus with genetic
● Multicellular: Animals and Plants material.
● Prokaryotes: Without nucleus but possess genetic
material in a nucleoid.
2. Genus:
Hierarchy of Classification- Groups o A group of similar species.
Kingdom o Genera having only one species -
 monotypic.
Phylum of Division o Genera having more than one species -
 polytypic.
Class o Eg. Lion & tiger are quite similar species
 placed under genus Panthera.
Order 3. Family:
 o Collection of similar genera.
Family o Separated from genera by reproductive and
 vegetative features.
Genus o Eg. cats and leopard - family Felidae.
 4. Order:
Species o One or more than one similar families
● Hierarchy - sequence of categories in a decreasing or constitute order.
increasing order from kingdom to species and vice o Eg. Family Felidae are included in the order
versa. Carnivora.
● Kingdom (highest rank) followed by division, class, 5. Class:
order, family, genus and species (lowest rank). o One or more than one order makes a class.
1. Species: o Eg. Class Mammalia includes all mammals -
o Group of population similar in form, shape bats, rodents, kangaroos, whales, great
and reproductive features so that fertile apes and man.
sibling can be produced.

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 1
 6. Phylum: o Eg. all animals are included in Kingdom
o Collection of similar classes. Animalia.
o Eg. Phylum chordata of animals has class Taxon
Mammalia along with birds, reptiles and Unit that denotes grouping of organisms based on
amphibians. observable features.
7. Kingdom:
o Top most taxonomic category.
5 Kingdom classification

Comparison of Five Kingdom

Criteria Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell Type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Leval of Unicellular Unicellular Multicellular Tissue/organ Tissue organ/
organisation and unicellular organ system
Cell wall Present (made up of Present in some Present (made Present (made up Absent
peptidoglycan and (made up of up of chitin or of cellulose)
UPSC PRE mucopeptides) cellulose, absent in cellulose)
2021 other)
Autotrophic Autotrophic Hetetrophic, Autrophic Heterotrophic
(Phototrophic, photosynthetic Parastic or (photosynthetic) (holozoic)
Chemoautrophic) Hetetrophic saprophytic
Nutrition
Hetetrophic
parastic and
saprophytic)
Motile or non- Motile or non- Non-motile Mostly Non- Mostly motile
Motility
motile motile motile
Archaebacteria, Chrysophytes, Yeast, Algae, Sponges,
Eubacteria, Dinoflagellates, Mushrooms, Bryophytes, Invertebrates
Cyanbacteria, Euglanoids, Slime and molds Pteridophytes, and vertebrates
Organisms Actinomycetes and molds, Amoeba, Gymnosperm and
mycoplasma Plasmodium, Angiosperm
Trypanosoma,
Paramecium

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 2
Plantae Kingdom

1. Thallophyta ○ Predominantly aquatic.

● Unique features: ○ Eg. Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Ulva
○ Plants that do not have well-differentiated and Chara.
body design. ● Reproduction : No specialised reproduction
○ Commonly called algae. process
2. Bryophyta
Bryophyta
• Amphibians of plant kingdom
• Grow in terrestrial environment but depend on water for reproduction
• Grow in moist & shady areas
• Responsible for plant succession on bare rocks
• Habitat: Arid forests, rainforests, apart from the alpine habitats
• Grow on rocks, soil, tree trunks, bones, rotting wood etc.

Unique Bryophyta
• Length: Few millimetre to 1 m
• Partially differentiated body, lacking true roots, leaves & stem
• Root-like structure called rhizoid present, body is more thallus-like & haploid

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 3
 • Spore producing, non-vascular plants
• Exhibit haplo-diplontic life cycle
• Reproduction: Sex organs are multicellular. Antheridium is the male sex organ while archegonium is the female sex
organ → Antheridium produces antherozoids with 2 flagella & archegonium produces single
(i) Antherozoid released in water come in contact with archegonium
(ii) Male & female gametes fuse to form zygote which remains in archegonium for some time.
(iii) Mitosis of zygote forms embryonic sporopyte that is covered & proteced by calyptra
(iv) Meiosis occurs in sporophyte to produce haploid spores which germinate to produce gametophyte
Gametophyte supply nutrient & gametophore supply water & minerals to embryo
Importance
• Have the ability to initiate soil formation in barren
lands as they survive on bare rocks.
• Maintain soil moisture & replenism nutrients in fores
tvegetation
• Peat mosses act as biofuel & are economically useful
• Used as packing material for shipment of living
material as they can retain water.

3. Pteridophyta
Pteridophyta
• Family of ferns & horsetails
• Called cryptogams as they don’t bear flowers & seeds.
• First group of terrestrial vascular plants.
• Found in damp and shady places.
• Ferns are grown as ornamental plants.

Unique Featuers
• LENGTH : MOSTLY SHORT BUT FEW GROW TALL UPTO FEW METRES.
• PLANT BODY IS DIFFERENTIATED INTO TRUE ROOTS, LEAVES & STEAMS.
• LEAVES CAN BE SMALL (MICROPHYLLS) OR LARGE (MEGAPHYLLS)
• SPORANGIA BEAR LEAF-LIKE APPENDAGES – SPOROPHYLL
• SPOROPHYLLS FORM COMPACT STRUCTURE CALLED CONES OR STROBILI IN
SOM PLANTS.
• REPRODUCTION : SHOW TRUE ALTERNATION of generation.

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 4
 • Dominant sporophyte produce spores by meiosis & gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis.
• Sporangia produce spores in the spore mother cells that germinate to give gametophytes.
• Gametophytes are free-living, multicellular, photosynthetic – Prothallus
• Male sex organ anteridia produce antherozoids & female sex organ is archegonia.
• Reproduction procedure.
o Antherozoids are released in water and come in contact with archegonia.
o Gametes fuse in the archegonium to produce zygote
o Zygote produces sporophyte after division.
• Spores : Homosporous or heterosporous
• In heterosporous plants, microspore & megaspore give rise to male & female gametephyte respectively.

4. Gymnosperms

• Consist of pines & deodar

• Gymno-naked: sperma – seed
Gymnosperm :
• Plants with naked seeds that do not bear flower & fruits
• Seeds are visible as cones & develop on surface of reproductive structure.

Unique Features
• Wind is the major source of pollination.
• Leangth : Medium to large tree & few are shrubs
• Vascular & Complete differentiation into leaves,
steam & roots
• Leaves: Needle-like with thick cuticle & sunken
stomata.
Roots
• Taproot system
• Some from mycorrhiza (e.g. pinus)
• Some form specialized roots called coralloids roots (e.g. Cycas)
Reproduction:
• Male & female cones can be same (e.g. Pinus) or different (e.g. : cycas) plants.
• Heterosporous plants that produce haploid microspores & megaspores.
• Male cones: Contain microsporophyll, few of which develop into pollen grains & rest
degenerate.
• Female Cones: Several megasporophyll cluster to form female cone.
• Female cone bears ovule with megasporangium & give rise to haploid megaspores & a megaspore mother cell.

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 5
5. Angiosperms
Angiosperms
• The family of flowering platns.
• Vascular fauna dominating across the globe.
• Called phanerogams due to the presence of flowers
• Seeds (ovules) are enclosed inside hollow ovary (which forms the fruit)
Unique Features
• Well differentiated plant body with fully developed root &
shoot system.
• Survive in various habitats.
• Length : Microscopic Wolfia to > 100 m tall Eucalphytus
• Vast diversity including woody trees, shrubs & herbs.
• Leaves, steam & roots are adapted as per habitat
Reproduction:
• Flower is the reproductive structure can be unisexual or
bisexual]

• Alternation of genetation – haploid gametophyte

alternates with the diploid sporophyte.
• Double fertilization is characteristic to Angiosperms –
Syngamy & triple fusion.

• Post-fertilziation ovary forms the fruit & ovules form

the seeds & remaining parts with off.

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 6
Vascular and Nonvascular Plants
Vascular Plants Non - Vascular Plants
Definition ● Possess vascular system to conduct food and ● Lack vascular systems
water throughout the plant
Diversity ● Higher ● Low
Vascular System ● Present ● Absent
True stem, Roots & ● Yes ● No; a stem and leaf-like structures
Leaves and rhizoids, instead of true
structures.
Plant Strength ● Xylem tissues contain lignified tissues - ● No water conducting tissues
provide support and rigidity to the plant. ● Tender and shorter than vascular
plants
Reproduction ● Sporophytes ● Gametophytes
Examples ● Ferns, conifers, and flowering plants. ● Bryophytes, including liverworts,
mosses, and hornworts.
Drought Resistance ● Almost all are drought resistant ● Susceptible to drought.
● Associated with swamps

Sporophytes Gametophytes
Use the process of meiosis Use the process of mitosis
Results- formation of spores Results - production of gametes
Diploid plants Haploid plants
Have two sets of chromosomes Have a single set of chromosomes
Reproduce asexually Reproduce sexaully

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 7
Animalia

1. Porifera 4. Nematode
● Non mobile animals attached to some solid ● Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
support. ● Body is cylindrical rather than flattened.
● Holes or pores all over the body. ● Tissues, but no real organs,
● A canal system circulating water throughout body ● A sort of body cavity or a pseudocoelom, is
to bring in food and O2. present.
● Mainly found in marine habitats. ● K/a parasitic worms causing diseases, such as
● Commonly k/a sponges worms causing elephantiasis (filarial worms) or
2. Coelenterata worms in the intestines (roundworm or
● Animals living in water. pinworms).
● Diploblastic: body is made up of two layers of 5. Annelida
cells. ● Have true body cavity.
● Some live in colonies while others have a solitary ● Allows true organs to be packaged in body
life structure.
● Eg. span (Hydra) jellyfish . ● Extensive organ differentiation.
3. Platyhelminthes ● Eg- Earthworms, leeches.
● Triploblastic: 3 layers of cells from which different 6. Arthropods
tissues can be made. ● Open circulatory system and so the blood does
● Some degree of tissues formation. not flow in well-defined blood vessels.
● Either free living or parasitic. ● Have joint legs.
● Eg. Planarians, liver flukes. ● Eg- prawns, butterflies, houseflies, spiders,
scorpions and crabs.

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 8
7. Mollusca ▪ Body is streamlined, and a muscular
● Have an open circulatory system and kidney like tail for movement. T
organs for excretion. ▪ Cold-blooded
● Little segmentation. ▪ Hearts have only two chambers.
● A foot is used for moving around. ▪ Lay eggs.
● Eg- snails, and mussels, octopus. ▪ Eg. sharks, tuna or rohu
8. Echinodermate C. Amphibia
● Spiny skinned organisms. ▪ No scales
● Exclusively free living marine animals. ▪ Have mucus glands in the skin,
● Have a water driven tube system that they use for ▪ 3 chambered heart.
moving around. ▪ Respiration through either gills or
● Have hard calcium carbonate structure that they lungs.
use as skeleton. ▪ Lay eggs.
● Eg- starfish, sea cucumber. ▪ Found both in water and on land.
9. Protochordats ▪ Eg. Frogs, toads and salamanders
● Marine animals. D. Reptilia
● Eg. balanoglossus, hardemania and amphioxus. ▪ Cold-blooded
10. Vertebratia ▪ Have scales and breathe through
● Have a true vertebral column & internal skeleton. lungs.
● Bilaterally symmetrical ▪ Most have a three-chambered heart
● Triploblastic ▪ Exception: crocodiles- 4 heart
● Coelomic and segmented chambers.
● Complex differentiation of body tissues and ▪ Lay eggs with tough coverings.
organs. ▪ Do not need to lay their eggs in water,
● All chordates possess the following features: unlike amphibians.
○ have a notochord ▪ Eg. Snakes, turtles, lizards and
○ have a dorsal nerve cord crocodiles
○ Triploblastic E. Aves
○ Paired gill pouches ▪ Warm-blooded animals
○ Coelomate. ▪ 4-chambered heart.
● Grouped into six classes: ▪ Lay eggs.
A. Cyclostomes ▪ An outside covering of feathers; 2
▪ Jawless vertebrates. forelimbs modified for flight.
▪ Have an elongated eel-like body, ▪ Breathe through lungs.
circular mouth, slimy skin ▪ Eg. All birds
▪ Scaleless. F. Mammalia
▪ Ectoparasites or borers of other ▪ Warm-blooded animals with four-
vertebrates. chambered hearts.
▪ Eg. Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine ▪ Have mammary glands for production
(Hagfish) of milk.
B. Pisces ▪ Skin has hairs& sweat and oil glands.
▪ Exclusively aquatic animals. ▪ Produce live young ones.
▪ Skin is covered with scales/ plates. ▪ Few like platypus and echidna lay egg
▪ Obtain oxygen dissolved in water by ▪ Kangaroos give birth to very poorly
using gills. developed young ones.
▪ Eg. human, monkeys, whale etc

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 9
Microorganisms

● Very small in size & cannot be seen with naked eye. ● Microbiology- Branch of science dealing with study of
● Can be seen only with the help of a microscope. microorganisms.
● aka microbes. ● Found in : air, water (ponds, lakes, rivers and oceans),
soil and even inside our bodies.
5 categories
● A tiny particle made up of genetic material and protein.
● Intermediate between living and nonliving things.
● Intracellular obligatory parasites.
● Virology- study of viruses.
● 10,000 times smaller than bacteria.
Virus ● Can be rod shaped, spherical or of other shapes.
● Contains a core DNA or RNA.
● Core surrounded with a protein coat
● Protein coat is sometimes covered by an envelope of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
● Causes diseases to plants, animals and human beings.
● viruses cannot and require living host cells for propagation UPSC PRE 2021
● Single-celled prokaryotes(cells without nuclei).
● Considered 1st living organisms on earth.
● Grouped under the kingdom Monera.
● Bacteriology- study of bacteria.
● Size - 1μm to 5μm(micrometer).
● 2 types based on respiration :
○ Aerobic bacteria (requires oxygen),
Bacteria ○ Anaerobic bacteria (does not require oxygen).
● An outer covering k/a cell wall.
● Other cell organelles (mitochondria, golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum etc.,) are absent.
● Eg : E.coli, Bacillus anthracis, Vibrio cholera etc.
● processing plants and can contaminate food products.
● known to exhibit antibiotic resistance, which can make them difficult to treat. upsc prelims 2022
● IT CAN BE CULTURED ARTIFICIALLY.
UPSC PRE 2021
● Eukaryotic organisms that lack chlorophyll.
● Grow in dark environments.
● Either unicellular (like Yeast) or multicellular (like Penicillium).
Fungi
● Found in all kinds of habitats.
● Included under kingdom Fungi.
● Mycology- study of fungi.

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 10
 ● Some are macroscopic (Eg. Mushroom).
● Around 70,000 species of fungi in the world.
● IT CAN BE CULTURED ARTIFICIALLY UPSC PRE 2021
● Very simple plants like eukaryotic organisms.
● Found in moist habitats.
● Rich in chlorophyll
● Seen as thin film on surface of lakes and ponds.
Algae ○ aka ‘grass of water’.
● Autotrophic and produce their own food(with help of chloroplast).
● Algology/ phycology- study of algae.
● Size - 1 micron to 50 meter.
● Eg : Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Fristschiella etc.
● Single celled eukaryote.
● Included under the kingdom Protista.
● Protozoology- Study of protozoa.
● Found in ponds, ocean, in moist soil, and in the cells and tissues of plants and animals - causing
diseases.
● Range - 2 to 200 microns.
Protozoa
● Eg : Paramecium, Euglena, Amoeba, Plasmodium etc.
● Probiotics are live microorganisms that are intended to have health benefits when
consumed.Some probiotics, particularly those in the Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium families,
are able to break down lactose, the sugar found in milk. Probiotic organisms are not just found in
the foods we eat, but also occur naturally in our gut microbiota.
UPSC PRE 2022
● Heterotrophic, motile & with specialized sensory
Animals organs,
● Any eukaryotic multicellular organism of kingdom ○ Lacking a cell wall & growing from a blastula during
Animalia. embryonic development.

Characteristics
Multicellular ● Body composed of several cells performing specific functions.
○ Cells organized into various animal tissues,
○ Eg: Epithelial tissues, connective tissues, etc.
Eukaryotic ● Contain a membrane-bound nucleus.
● Nucleus -organelle containing chromosomes that bear genes.
○ Other organelles suspended in the cytoplasm of an animal cell,
○ Eg. Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, and peroxisomes,
Heterotrophic ● Depend on other organisms for food.
Motile ● Capacity to move at will.
● By muscles and locomotory structures (e.g. arms, legs, wings, fins, tails, etc.)
Specialized ● Eg: eyes, ears, nose, skin, and tongue.
sensory organs: ● Vital in recognizing and responding to stimuli in environment.
● Contains common and specialized receptors.
Reproduce ● Produce a haploid sperm cell (a male sex cell) & a haploid ovum (a female sex cell)
sexually ○ Unite at fertilization to form a diploid zygote.
● Capable of asexual reproduction.
● Eg: some cnidarians produce a genetic clone by budding.
Aerobic ● Inhale oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
Respiration ● Oxygen important to cell respiration for synthesis of energy.

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 11
Cell ● Has the ability to duplicate itself on its own.
● aka "building blocks of life."
● Simplest and most basic unit of life.
● Discovered: Robert Hooke (1665)
● All living things made up of cells-
● structural, functional, and biological
unit of life.

Cell Structure and its components

Cell Organelles
● Present within a cell & perform certain specific functions to carry out life’s processes.
● Outermost covering of the cell
Plasma / Cell ● Separates contents of cell from its external environment.
Membrane ● A selectively permeable membrane as it allows entry and exit of some materials in and out of
the cell.
● ONLY in plants
● Outside the plasma membrane.
Cell Wall
● Mainly composed of cellulose.
○ Cellulose: A complex substance - provides structural strength to plants.
● Jelly-like substance present between cell membrane & nucleus.
Cytoplasm
● Fluid content inside plasma membrane.
● Contains many specialised cell organelles (mitochondria, golgi bodies, ribosomes, etc)
● Contains chromosomes that contain information for inheritance of features from parents to
next generation in form of DNA
Nucleus
● Plays a central role in cellular reproduction.
● Nuclear membrane- a double-layered covering on nucleus.
○ Allows transfer of material from inside nucleus to its outside, i.e., to cytoplasm.
Nucleolus ● Ribosome synthesis site regulating cellular activity and reproduction.
Gene ● Unit of inheritance in living organisms.
Protoplasm ● Entire content of a living cell [cytoplasm + nucleus].
● aka living substance of the cell.
● Rod-shaped structures
● Visible only when the cell is about to divide.
Chromosomes ● Contain information for inheritance of features from parents to next generation in the form
of DNA (deoxyribo nucleic acid)
● Composed of DNA and Protein.
● Contains information necessary for constructing and organising cells.
DNA molecules
● Functional segments of DNA - genes.
● Empty structure in cytoplasm
● Act as storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.
Vacuoles ● Common in plant cells.
● Smaller in animal cells.
● Substances stored- amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some proteins.
● A large network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets.
● 2 types :
1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum [RER]
○ Has ribosomes attached to its surface.
Endoplasmic ○ Ribosomes - sites of protein manufacture.
Reticulum 2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
○ Helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important for cell function.
○ Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane k/a
membrane biogenesis.
● Serve as channels for transport of materials between various regions of cytoplasm or
between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 12
 ● Also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface for some biochemical activities
of cells.
● A system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged parallel to each other in stacks called
cisterns.
● Packages and dispatches material synthesised near ER to various targets inside and outside
the cell.
Golgi Apparatus/ ● Stores, modifies and packages products in vesicles.
Complex ● Involved in the formation of lysosomes.
○ Membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes.
○ Kind of waste disposal system of the cell.
○ Help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn-out cell
organelles.
● Aka powerhouse of the cell.
● Energy required for various chemical activities is released by mitochondria in the form of ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) molecules.
Mitochondria
● 2 membranes:
○ Outer membrane- porous
○ Inner membrane - deeply folded.
■ Folds create a large surface area for ATP-generating chemical reactions.
● aka energy currency of the cell.
ATP ● Body uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical compounds and for mechanical
work.
● Site of protein synthesis.
Ribosomes
● Polyribosomes or Polysomes: Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a
chain.
● Prokaryotes- ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane of the cell.
● Hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane.
● Cilia - small structures which work like oars, causing the movement of either the cell or the
Cilia and Flagella Cilia surrounding fluid.
● Flagella - comparatively longer and responsible for cell movement.
● Prokaryotic bacteria have flagella but structurally different from eukaryotic flagella.
● Centrosome- an organelle usually containing 2 cylindrical structures called centrioles.
Centrosome and
● Surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials.
Centrioles
● Both the centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each other

Types of Cells

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 13
 Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
• Primitive/undeveloped nucleus. • Has true or developed nucleus
• Size - 0.2 - 2.0 micrometers • Size- 10- 100 micrometers.
• Simpler in structure • More complex
• Organelles not membrane-bound • Organelles membrane bound & specific in function.
• DNA arranged in circular shape • DNA linear in shape
• Cytoplasm present, but lacks in most cell organelles. • Consists of both cytoplasm and organelles
• Cell wall present. • Usually, absence of cell wall here.
• Made of mucopeptide or peptidoglycan • Made of cellulose
• Cell division - binary fission, transduction, • Cell division - mitosis
conjugation, and transformation
• Mitochondria absent • Mitochondria present.
• Endoplasmic reticulum not present. • Endoplasmic reticulum present.
• Ribosome present • Ribosome present
• Plasmids commonly found. • Plasmids very rarely found
o A small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule
distinct from a cell's chromosomal DNA.
o Naturally exist in bacterial cells.
• Only asexual reproduction. • Both sexual and asexual reproduction.
• Have a single origin of replication • Have multiple origins of replication
• Only 1 chromosome. • Many chromosomes present
• Eg. Bacteria and Archaea. • Eg. Plant and animal cells.

Plant and Animal Cells

Fig : Animal Cell Fig : Plant Cell

Animal Cell Plant Cell
Nucleus Present Present
Cilia Present Very rare
Shape Round (irregular shape) Rectangular (fixed shape)
Chloroplast NO chloroplasts Chloroplasts present
Cytoplasm Present Present
Endoplasmic Reticulum Present Present
Ribosomes Present Present
Mitochondria Present Present
Vacuole One or more small vacuoles One large central vacuole taking up 90% of cell
(much smaller than plant cells). volume.

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 14
Tissues ● Group of (cells →Tissues → Organs → Organ systems).
● Histology: study of tissues
● A group of cells with similar shape and function.
Types of Tissues
1. Plant Tissues

On the basis of the dividing capacity, plant tissues are of

two types:
A. Meristematic tissues
● Consist of actively-dividing cells.
● 3 types:
a. Apical meristem:
o Present at the growing tips of stems
and roots.
o Increases the length of stems and
roots.
b. Intercalary meristem:
o Present at the base of leaves or
internodes.
o Longitudinal growth of plants. B. Permanent Tissues
c. Lateral meristem: ● Formed when cells from meristematic tissues
o Present on the lateral sides of the loose the ability to divide.
stems and roots. ● 2 types:
o Increases thickness of stems and a. Simple permanent tissue:
roots. o Consist of only one type of cells.
Types:

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 15
 b. Parenchyma: e. Protective tissues:
o Composed of unspecialised living cells o Protect the plant body by forming an
with relatively thin cell walls, outer layer.
intercellular space. ● 2 types:
o Present in soft parts of the plant. a. Epidermis:
o Main function - storage. o Covers the entire body of plant.
c. Collenchyma: o Protect plants from injury, germs and
o Composed of living and elongated cells water loss.
with cell walls irregularly thickened at o Cells form a continuous layer without
the comers. intercellular spaces.
o No intercellular space. b. Cork Simple Tissues:
o Provides mechanical support and o Consist dead cells with no intercellular
elasticity to plant - helps in bending of spaces.
leaves and stems. o Form the outer layer of old tree trunks.
d. Sclerenchyma: o Cells have a chemical - suberin in their
o Composed of long, narrow, and thick- walls that makes them impervious to
walled cells. gases and water.
o Made up of dead cells. o Protects plants from injuries, germs and
o No intercellular spaces. water loss.
o Present in seeds, nuts, the husk of a o Lightweight - used for making several
coconut, fibres of jute etc. products like bottle stoppers and
shuttlecock.
Difference between parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma
Features Parenchyma Collencyma Sclerenchyma
Cell shape Isodiametric cells which are oval, Circular, oval or polyhedral Variable in shape Fibres and
sperical or polygonal shape. sclereids
Cell wall Thin cellulosic cell wall Uneven thickeving on their Lighified secondary cell wall
cell wall present.
Cytoplasm Abundant Present Absent
Nucleus Prsent (Living tissue) Present (Living tissue) Absent (Dead tissue)
Vacuoles Large vacuole Vacuolated Absent
Intercellular spaces Present Absent Absent
Occurrence Basically packing tissue all soft part Dicot stem, petiole and Dicot hypodermis, bundle
of plant-path ocrtex, medullary beneath the epidermis sheath, pericyct seed, pulp of
rays Absent in monocot and fruits.
roots
● Complex permanent tissue:
o Made up of more than one type of cells (Conducting tissues.)
o Types:
▪ Xylem:

ToppersNotes / 9614-828-828 16
 ▪ Conducts water and minerals from roots channel for efficient
to different parts of plant. conduction of water.
▪ 4 different types of cells:.  Xylem parenchyma —
 Tracheids ✓ Small & thick walled
✓ Elongated angular dead cells parenchymatous cells
mainly involved in conduction subjected for storage of starch
of water and minerals in (food).
gymnosperms.  Xylem sclerenchyma
 Vessels ✓ Non-living fibres with thick
✓ Advance element (generally walls and narrow cavities
found in angiosperms). provide mechanical support.
✓ Cylindrical tube like structures Except xylem parenchyma all other xylem elements are
placed one above other end to dead.
end to form a continuous
○ Phloem:

▪ Conducts food material from the leaves ✓ Have dense cytoplasm and
to the different parts of the plant. prominent nuclei.
▪ 4 types of cells ✓ Sieve cells +companion cells =
 Sieve tubes: sister cells (originate from
single mother cell).
✓ Slender tube like structures
made up of elongated, thin  Phloem fibre
walled cells placed end to end. ✓ Mechanical support to sieve
✓ End walls perforated by tubes.
numerous pores, called as
sieve plates.
 Phloem parenchyma
✓ Store food and help in radial
 Companion cells conduction of food.

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 Features Xylem Phloem
Cells: Living/ dead Dead Living
Cell walls: Thickness Thick Thin
Material Lignin Cellulose
Permeability Impermealble Permeable
Cross walls None Sieve Plates
Cytoplasm None Yes
Function Carries water and salts Carries sugar
Direction of flow Upwards Down and up
Special features Fibres Companion cells

Animal Tissues

● 4 types: ▪ Forms germinal epithelium of

A. Epithelial tissues: gonads (testes & ovaries).
o Always grow on some other types of tissue. ▪ Involves absorption, excretion &
o Cells very close to each other and tissue rests secretion.
on a non-cellular basement membrane. ▪ Provides mechanical support
o Consists of single layer of cells. c. Columnar epithelium:
o Blood vessels absent and non-nervous in ▪ Consists of elongated or column-
nature. like cells.
o Covers all the organs and lines the cavities of ▪ Location: Inner lining of the
hollow organs like stomach. intestine and gut.
o Primarily protective in function. ▪ Function: secretion and
o Types: absorption.
a. Squamous epithelium: d. Ciliated epithelium -
▪ aka pavement epithelium. ▪ May be cubical or columnar.
▪ Single layer of flat cells. ▪ Cilia present on its free surface
▪ Location: Lining of the mouth, ▪ Helps in the movement of ova in
oesophagus, lung, alveoli, etc. the fallopian tube.
b. Cuboidal epithelium: B. Connective tissues
▪ Foud in kidney tubules, thyroid o Cells are loosely spaced and embedded in an
vesicles & in glands (salivary glands. intercellular matrix.
sweat glands) o Specialised to connect various body organs.

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