INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Organizational communication is the process by which information is shared within organizations such as
businesses. Outside of informal social interactions, individuals in an organization typically communicate
with coworkers in their departments who have attained the same status they have, or they communicate
with their direct superiors or subordinates. Diagonal communication routes depart from these
hierarchical norms by engaging individuals who work at different levels and in different departments.
Diagonal communications have several important functions; however, they're not without risk.

CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION

In an organization, information flows forward, backwards and sideways. This information flow is
referred to as communication. Communication channels refer to the way this information flows
within the organization and with other organizations.

In this web known as communication, a manager becomes a link. Decisions and directions flow
upwards or downwards or sideways depending on the position of the manager in the
communication web.

For example, reports from lower level manager will flow upwards. A good manager has to
inspire, steer and organize his employees efficiently, and for all this, the tools in his possession
are spoken and written words.

For the flow of information and for a manager to handle his employees, it is important for an
effectual communication channel to be in place.

The Working of a Communication Channel

Through a modem of communication be it face to face conversations or an inter-department

memo, information is transmitted from a manager to a subordinate or vice versa.

An important element of the communication process is the feedback mechanism between the
management and employees.

In this mechanism, employees inform managers that they have understood the task at hand while
managers provide employees with comments and directions on employee's work.

Importance of a Communication Channel

A breakdown in the communication channel leads to an inefficient flow in information.

Employees are unaware of what the company expects of them. They are uninformed of what is
going on in the company.
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This will cause them to become suspicious of motives and any changes in the company. Also
without effective communication, employees become department minded rather than company
minded, and this affects their decision making and productivity in the workplace.

Eventually, this harms the overall organizational objectives as well. Hence in order for an
organization to be run effectively, a good manager should be able to communicate to his/her
employees what is expected of them, make sure they are fully aware of company policies and
any upcoming changes.

Therefore, an effective communication channel should be implemented by managers to optimize

worker productivity to ensure the smooth running of the organization.

Types of Communication Channels

The number of communication channels available to a manager has increased over the last 20
odd years. Video conferencing, mobile technology, electronic bulletin boards and fax machines
are some of the new possibilities.

As organizations grow in size, managers cannot rely on face to face communication alone to get
their message across.

A challenge the managers face today is to determine what type of communication channel should
they opt for in order to carryout effective communication.

In order to make a manager's task easier, the types of communication channels are grouped into
three main groups: formal, informal and unofficial.

Formal Communication Channels

1. A formal communication channel transmits information such as the goals, policies, and
procedures of an organization. Messages in this type of communication channel follow a
chain of command. This means information flows from a manager to his subordinates and
they in turn pass on the information to the next level of staff.
2. An example of a formal communication channel is a company's newsletter which gives
employees as well as the clients a clear idea of a company's goals and vision. It also
includes the transfer of information with regard to memoranda, reports, directions, and
scheduled meetings in the chain of command.

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 3. A business plan, customer satisfaction survey, annual reports, employer's manual, review
meetings are all formal communication channels.

Informal Communication Channels

1. Within a formal working environment, there always exists an informal communication

network. The strict hierarchical web of communication cannot function efficiently on its
own and hence there exists a communication channel outside of this web. While this type
of communication channel may disrupt the chain of command, a good manager needs to
find the fine balance between the formal and informal communication channel.
2. An example of an informal communication channel is lunchtime at the organization's
cafeteria/canteen. Here, in a relaxed atmosphere, discussions among employees are
encouraged. Also managers walking around, adopting a hands-on approach to handling
employee queries is an example of an informal communication channel.
3. Quality circles, team work, different training programs are outside of the chain of
command and so, fall under the category of informal communication channels.

Unofficial Communication Channels

1. Good managers will recognize the fact that sometimes, communication that takes place
within an organization is interpersonal. While minutes of a meeting may be a topic of
discussion among employees, sports, politics and TV shows also share the floor.
2. The unofficial communication channel in an organization is the organization's 'grapevine'.
It is through the grapevine that rumors circulate. Also those engaging in 'grapevine'
discussions, often form groups which translate into friendships outside of the
organization. While the grapevine may have positive implications, more often than not
information circulating in the grapevine is exaggerated and may cause unnecessary alarm
to employees. A good manager should be privy to information circulating in this
unofficial communication channel and should take positive measures to prevent the flow
of false information.
3. An example of an unofficial communication channel is social gatherings among
employees.

Conclusion

In any organization, three types of communication channels exist: formal, informal and
unofficial.

While the ideal communication web is a formal structure in which informal communication can
take place, unofficial communication channels also exist in an organization.

Through these various channels, it is important for a manager to get his/her ideas across and then
listen, absorb, glean and further communicate to employees.

Components of Communication Process

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Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non verbal messages. It is a continuous
process. Pre-requisite of communication is a message. This message must be conveyed through
some medium to the recipient. It is essential that this message must be understood by the
recipient in same terms as intended by the sender. He must respond within a time frame. Thus,
communication is a two way process and is incomplete without a feedback from the recipient to
the sender on how well the message is understood by him.

Communication Process
The main components of communication process are as follows:

1. Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This context
may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with
context. The sender chooses the message to communicate within a context.
2. Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender makes
use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the
required response. For instance - a training manager conducting training for new batch of
employees. Sender may be an individual or a group or an organization. The views,
background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge of the sender have a great
impact on the message. The verbal and non verbal symbols chosen are essential in
ascertaining interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same terms as intended
by the sender.
3. Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It is a sign that
elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins with deciding about the
message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is
clear.
4. Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The sender must
choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message else the message might not
be conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of
communication is essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by
the recipient. This choice of communication medium varies depending upon the features
of communication. For instance - Written medium is chosen when a message has to be
conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous
feedback is required from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there.
5. Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended
/ aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent
upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message,

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 and the reliance of encoder on decoder.
6. Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the
sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the
correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through
words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in
form of memos, reports, etc.

Communication can best be summarized as the transmission of a message from a sender to a

receiver in an understandable manner. The importance of effective communication is
immeasurable in the world of business and in personal life. From a business perspective,
effective communication is an absolute must, because it commonly accounts for the difference
between success and failure or profit and loss. It has become clear that effective business
communication is critical to the successful operation of modern enterprise. Every business
person needs to understand the fundamentals of effective communication.

Currently, companies in the United States and abroad are working toward the realization of total
quality management. Effective communication is the most critical component of total quality
management. The manner in which individuals perceive and talk to each other at work about
different issues is a major determinant of the business success. It has proven been proven that
poor communication reduces quality, weakens productivity, and eventually leads to anger and a
lack of trust among individuals within the organization.

The communication process is the guide toward realizing effective communication. It is through
the communication process that the sharing of a common meaning between the sender and the
receiver takes place. Individuals that follow the communication process will have the
opportunity to become more productive in every aspect of their profession. Effective
communication leads to understanding.

The communication process is made up of four key components. Those components include
encoding, medium of transmission, decoding, and feedback. There are also two other factors in
the process, and those two factors are present in the form of the sender and the receiver. The
communication process begins with the sender and ends with the receiver.

The sender is an individual, group, or organization who initiates the communication. This source
is initially responsible for the success of the message. The sender's experiences, attitudes,
knowledge, skill, perceptions, and culture influence the message. "The written words, spoken
words, and nonverbal language selected are paramount in ensuring the receiver interprets the
message as intended by the sender" (Burnett & Dollar, 1989). All communication begins with the
sender.

The first step the sender is faced with involves the encoding process. In order to convey
meaning, the sender must begin encoding, which means translating information into a message in
the form of symbols that represent ideas or concepts. This process translates the ideas or
concepts into the coded message that will be communicated. The symbols can take on numerous
forms such as, languages, words, or gestures. These symbols are used to encode ideas into
messages that others can understand.

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When encoding a message, the sender has to begin by deciding what he/she wants to transmit.
This decision by the sender is based on what he/she believes about the receivers knowledge and
assumptions, along with what additional information he/she wants the receiver to have. It is
important for the sender to use symbols that are familiar to the intended receiver. A good way for
the sender to improve encoding their message, is to mentally visualize the communication from
the receiver's point of view.

To begin transmitting the message, the sender uses some kind of channel (also called a medium).
The channel is the means used to convey the message. Most channels are either oral or written,
but currently visual channels are becoming more common as technology expands. Common
channels include the telephone and a variety of written forms such as memos, letters, and reports.
The effectiveness of the various channels fluctuates depending on the characteristics of the
communication. For example, when immediate feedback is necessary, oral communication
channels are more effective because any uncertainties can be cleared up on the spot. In a
situation where the message must be delivered to more than a small group of people, written
channels are often more effective. Although in many cases, both oral and written channels should
be used because one supplements the other.

If a sender relays a message through an inappropriate channel, its message may not reach the
right receivers. That is why senders need to keep in mind that selecting the appropriate channel
will greatly assist in the effectiveness of the receiver's understanding. The sender's decision to
utilize either an oral or a written channel for communicating a message is influenced by several
factors. The sender should ask him or herself different questions, so that they can select the
appropriate channel. Is the message urgent? Is immediate feedback needed? Is documentation or
a permanent record required? Is the content complicated, controversial, or private? Is the
message going to someone inside or outside the organization? What oral and written
communication skills does the receiver possess? Once the sender has answered all of these
questions, they will be able to choose an effective channel.

After the appropriate channel or channels are selected, the message enters the decoding stage of
the communication process. Decoding is conducted by the receiver. Once the message is
received and examined, the stimulus is sent to the brain for interpreting, in order to assign some
type of meaning to it. It is this processing stage that constitutes decoding. The receiver begins to
interpret the symbols sent by the sender, translating the message to their own set of experiences
in order to make the symbols meaningful. Successful communication takes place when the
receiver correctly interprets the sender's message.

The receiver is the individual or individuals to whom the message is directed. The extent to
which this person comprehends the message will depend on a number of factors, which include
the following: how much the individual or individuals know about the topic, their receptivity to
the message, and the relationship and trust that exists between sender and receiver. All
interpretations by the receiver are influenced by their experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills,
perceptions, and culture. It is similar to the sender's relationship with encoding.

Feedback is the final link in the chain of the communication process. After receiving a message,

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the receiver responds in some way and signals that response to the sender. The signal may take
the form of a spoken comment, a long sigh, a written message, a smile, or some other action.
"Even a lack of response, is in a sense, a form of response" (Bovee & Thill, 1992). Without
feedback, the sender cannot confirm that the receiver has interpreted the message correctly.

Feedback is a key component in the communication process because it allows the sender to
evaluate the effectiveness of the message. Feedback ultimately provides an opportunity for the
sender to take corrective action to clarify a misunderstood message. "Feedback plays an
important role by indicating significant communication barriers: differences in background,
different interpretations of words, and differing emotional reactions" (Bovee & Thill, 1992).

The communication process is the perfect guide toward achieving effective communication.
When followed properly, the process can usually assure that the sender's message will be
understood by the receiver. Although the communication process seems simple, it in essence is
not. Certain barriers present themselves throughout the process. Those barriers are factors that
have a negative impact on the communication process. Some common barriers include the use of
an inappropriate medium (channel), incorrect grammar, inflammatory words, words that conflict
with body language, and technical jargon. Noise is also another common barrier. Noise can occur
during any stage of the process. Noise essentially is anything that distorts a message by
interfering with the communication process. Noise can take many forms, including a radio
playing in the background, another person trying to enter your conversation, and any other
distractions that prevent the receiver from paying attention.

Successful and effective communication within an organization stems from the implementation
of the communication process. All members within an organization will improve their
communication skills if they follow the communication process, and stay away from the different
barriers. It has been proven that individuals that understand the communication process will
blossom into more effective communicators, and effective communicators have a greater
opportunity for becoming a success.

Forms of Communication

Communication is the key to evolution. Communication evolved ever since it has been known to
the living species. However, it were humans who revolutionized it. Today, communication has
gone from individual levels of conversing to mass communication.

Communication evolved as the human brain developed and became more receptive to the sounds
and the events around him. Over a period of time, the historic records will show you that forms
of communication have evolved very gradually, be it written, oral or pictorial communication.

What is Communication?
The definition of communication is 'Communication is a process of transferring information
from one entity to another'. However, it is not just a process. It's an art of first listening or
reading the information, comprehending it, processing it and then transferring it. There is a huge
amount of effort that goes into communication. Gesticulations, voice modulation, body language
and the spoken language are some of the important aspects of communication. If the other person

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is unable to comprehend any of these factors, then the process fails. Let us now see, what are the
forms of communication.

Different Forms

Workplace

Business Letters
Memos
Presentations
Notices
Agenda
Letters
Announcements
Meetings
Feedback
Policies
Group Discussions

Business

Advertisements
Memos
Letters
Declarations
Press Releases
Campaigns
Annual General Meetings
Meetings
Publications
Researched Articles for Journal
Addressing to the Public at Large
Manuals and Notices

Types

Verbal Communication
Verbal communication is essentially the type of communication which uses words. It uses sounds
in addition to the language, gestures and body language, used while communicating. Verbal
communication helps in expressing thoughts, emotions and sentiments. A phone conversation,
chat with a friend, an announcement made or a speech delivered are all verbal forms of
communication. For most of us, it comes with ease. As children, we learned verbal
communication through the sounds around us. We soon develop and start understanding the
language which helps us to communicate verbally as we grow older.

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Public Speaking Skills Every Speaker Must Have

Every public speaker should be able to:

1. Research a topic – Good speakers stick to what they know. Great speakers research what
they need to convey their message.
2. Focus – Help your audience grasp your message by focusing on your message. Stories,
humour, or other “sidebars” should connect to the core idea. Anything that doesn’t needs
to be edited out.
3. Organize ideas logically – A well-organized presentation can be absorbed with minimal
mental strain. Bridging is key.
4. Employ quotations, facts, and statistics – Don’t include these for the sake of including
them, but do use them appropriately to complement your ideas.
5. Master metaphors – Metaphors enhance the understandability of the message in a way
that direct language often can not.
6. Tell a story – Everyone loves a story. Points wrapped up in a story are more memorable,
too!
7. Start strong and close stronger – The body of your presentation should be strong too,
but your audience will remember your first and last words (if, indeed, they remember
anything at all).
8. Incorporate humour – Knowing when to use humour is essential. So is developing the
comedic timing to deliver it with greatest effect.
9. Vary vocal pace, tone, and volume – A monotone voice is like fingernails on the
chalkboard.
10. Punctuate words with gestures – Gestures should complement your words in harmony.
Tell them how big the fish was, and show them with your arms.
11. Utilize 3-dimensional space – Chaining yourself to the lectern limits the energy and
passion you can exhibit. Lose the notes, and lose the chain.
12. Complement words with visual aids – Visual aids should aid the message; they should
not be the message. Read slide:ology or the Presentation Zen book and adopt the
techniques.
13. Analyze your audience – Deliver the message they want (or need) to hear.
14. Connect with the audience – Eye contact is only the first step. Aim to have the audience
conclude “This speaker is just like me!” The sooner, the better.
15. Interact with the audience – Ask questions (and care about the answers). Solicit
volunteers. Make your presentation a dialogue.
16. Conduct a Q&A session – Not every speaking opportunity affords a Q&A session, but
understand how to lead one productively. Use the Q&A to solidify the impression that
you are an expert, not (just) a speaker.
17. Lead a discussion – Again, not every speaking opportunity affords time for a discussion,
but know how to engage the audience productively.
18. Obey time constraints – Maybe you have 2 minutes. Maybe you have 45. Either way,
customize your presentation to fit the time allowed, and respect your audience by not
going over time.
19. Craft an introduction – Set the context and make sure the audience is ready to go,
whether the introduction is for you or for someone else.

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 20. Exhibit confidence and poise – These qualities are sometimes difficult for a speaker to
attain, but easy for an audience to sense.
21. Handle unexpected issues smoothly – Maybe the lights will go out. Maybe the projector
is dead. Have a plan to handle every situation.
22. Be coherent when speaking off the cuff – Impromptu speaking (before, after, or during
a presentation) leaves a lasting impression too. Doing it well tells the audience that you
are personable, and that you are an expert who knows their stuff beyond the slides and
prepared speech.
23. Seek and utilize feedback – Understand that no presentation or presenter (yes, even
you!) is perfect. Aim for continuous improvement, and understand that the best way to
improve is to solicit candid feedback from as many people as you can.
24. Listen critically and analyze other speakers – Study the strengths and weakness of
other speakers.
25. Act and speak ethically – Since public speaking fears are so common, realize the
tremendous power of influence that you hold. Use this power responsibly.

Non Verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication is a process of communication without using words or
sounds. Non-verbal communication uses gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye
contact, clothing, hairstyles and every part of the body to communicate with the audience.
Dances or a gesture made by a mother to a child, are the perfect examples of non-verbal
communication.

Need for Communication

The need for communication arises due to the need to express. None of us can live with
bottled up feelings. Thus, the basic need to communicate arises so that one can express.
The same logic applies at every workplace, organization or any other place. The need for
communication and the ability to communicate, helps in developing efficient
management, organizational skills, laying down plans, establishing a healthy work culture
and resolving impending issues.

Forms of communication have been derived as per convenience to simplify the process of
communication. Communication is very important to keep the environment in a healthy
and a peaceful state. Imagine a world where no one understands one another. Wouldn't it
be chaotic? Think about it...

Four Types of Communication

Communication is exchanging information in the form of messages, symbols, thoughts, signs
and opinions. There are many different types of communication, depending on the medium used,
or the way in which information is exchanged. Let us discuss its four basic types.
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Communication of information, messages, opinions, speech and thoughts can be done via
different forms of modern communication media, like Internet, telephone and mobile. Some of
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the basic ways of communication are by speaking, singing, sign language, body language, touch
and eye contact. These basic ways of communication are used to transfer information from one
entity to other. There are many different types of communication but they can be classified into
four basic types.

Different Forms of Communication

Verbal Communication
Verbal communication includes sounds, words, language and speaking. Language is said to have
originated from sounds and gestures. There are many languages spoken in the world. The basis
of language formation are: gender, class, profession, geographical area, age group and other
social elements. Speaking is an effective way of communicating and is again classified into two
types viz. interpersonal communication and public speaking.

Good verbal communication is an inseparable part of business communication. In a business,

you come across people from various ages, cultures and races. Fluent verbal communication is
essential, to deal with people in business meetings. Also, in business communication self-
confidence plays a vital role which when clubbed with fluent communication skills can lead to
success.

Public speaking is another verbal communication in which you have to address a group of
people. Preparing for an effective speech before you start is important. In public speaking, the
speech must be prepared according to the type of audience you are going to face. The content of
your speech should be authentic and you must have enough information on the topic you have
chosen for public speaking. All the main points in your speech must be highlighted and these
points should be delivered in the correct order. There are many public speaking techniques and
these techniques must be practiced for an effective speech.

Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication involves physical ways of communication, like, tone of the voice,
touch, smell and body motion. Creative and aesthetic non-verbal communication includes
singing, music, dancing and sculpturing. Symbols and sign language are also included in non-
verbal communication. Body language is a non-verbal way of communication. Body posture and
physical contact convey a lot of information. Body posture matters a lot when you are
communicating verbally to someone. Folded arms and crossed legs are some of the signals
conveyed by a body posture. Physical contact, like, shaking hands, pushing, patting and touching
expresses the feeling of intimacy. Facial expressions, gestures and eye contact are all different
ways of communication. Reading facial expressions can help you know a person better.

Written Communication
Written communication is writing the words which you want to communicate. Good written
communication is essential for business purposes. Written communication is practiced in many
different languages. E-mails, reports, articles and memos are some of the ways of using written
communication in business. The written communication can be edited and amended many times
before it is communicated to the second party to whom the communication is intended. This is

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one of the main advantages of using writing as the major means of communication in business
activity. Written communication is used not only in business but also for informal
communication purposes. Mobile SMS is an example of informal written communication.

Visual communication
The last type of communication is the visual communication. Visual communication is visual
display of information, like topography, photography, signs, symbols and designs. Television and
video clips are the electronic form of visual communication.

Effective communication is essential for the success of any type of business. Informally too,
nothing can be achieved without proper communication. Therefore, developing communicative
skills is a must. One must understand that all the four types of communication are equally
important and one must develop communicative skills in all the mediums. Communicative media
is growing day by day to ensure clarity and to eliminate the ambiguity in communication.

Oral Communication Skills

The general oral communication skills along with those needed for leading a good professional
life are presented below. People with these skills can become good speakers and listeners as well.

The communication process conducted through spoken words is referred to as oral

communication. In the 'University of Virginia, Oral Communication Competency Report', oral
communication is defined as the effective interpretation, composition, and presentation of
information, ideas, and values to a specific audience. In today's world, the emergence of different
forms of media has led to the communication process to take place through different channels

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like telephones, teleconferences, video conferences, etc. Earlier, face-to-face meetings and
speeches were the only forms of communication. Understanding and incorporating different
workplace communication skills has become highly important to succeed in today's professional
life. Effective listening in the workplace is as important as conveying your thoughts while
speaking. So, let us find what are some skills you need to develop for the communication to be
effective.

General Communication Skills

The list of communication skills presented below should be helpful in developing proper
communication in business, for presentations and also in general.

Pronouncing the words clearly is an important thing to be remembered. The need to repeat a
particular word/sentence affects the flow of presentation.
To emphasize the importance of a particular thought, words have to be pronounced by changing
their tones.
Avoiding fillers while speaking is necessary. The sound of fillers ('um', 'ah', etc.) could be
irritating for listeners.
While in a face-to-face communication process, interrupting the speaker is considered a sign of
poor communication.
Careful listening is as important as speaking clearly while in the process of oral communication.
It helps respond in a proper manner.
One should always make an eye contact with the listeners; this way, the attention of listeners is
not lost and their interest is kept intact.
Asking questions in order to obtain information is one of the important aspects. One should keep
the questions precise in order to get a clear answer. Same is the case when a person has to answer
a question. Answering the question with correct details and also in quick time is of great
importance.
It is not advisable to carry on the communication process without understanding a particular
point.
In a communication process, body language of a person is considered as important as the spoken
words. Body language of the speaker has a great impact on the listener(s). This is because it
gives them an idea or indication of the direction in which the communication process is heading.
The listener either gets positively or negatively influenced by the body language of the speaker.

Oral Communication Skills in the Workplace

Workplace communication is that of a formal nature and requires a person to present his thoughts
in a precise and concise manner. The quality of speaking in a precise manner proves to be helpful
in a telephonic conversation. An interviewer should be capable of retrieving necessary
information from the interviewee.

Skills Required for Oral Presentation

For a good oral presentation, the quality of text and the way it is presented are equally important.
An organized text presentation allows the orator to proceed smoothly from point-to-point.
Presenting relevant information through a presentation is an important point to be kept in mind.
Elaborating on this very core of the presentation is acceptable; however, you shouldn't wander
away from the topic of importance. Your speech should be interactive in nature. The audience

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shouldn't feel that the presentation being made is just an activity of reading out a piece of dry,
textual information. Understanding the nature of corporate communication should help the
working professionals in communicating with their colleagues in a better manner.

Different Settings for Oral Communication

Interpersonal communication is one of the best ways to start with the process of developing your
communication skills. You can speak freely and without getting tensed when you just have to
speak to a single person at a time. Through interpersonal communication, a person learns how to
phrase his/her ideas clearly and also listen to others carefully.

Group discussion exercises play an important role in developing the communication skills.
People get to know each others' views and thoughts through such exercises. More importantly,
discussing on a particular topic compels the participants to listen to each other carefully. Group
discussion exercises can be used both at school/college level and professional level.

Speaking in front of a large audience for many of us, is quite difficult. It is okay to feel nervous
in front of a large audience. However, you can overcome the fear of public speaking completely
by making presentations on a regular basis. This form of oral communication is very different
from interpersonal communication. Here, you must speak precisely and present the topic in a
concise manner. Holding the attention of listeners is the key to become a proficient public
speaker.

It is necessary to develop oral communication skills in order to survive in today's information-

oriented world. Dissemination of information can be conducted in a proper manner only if you
possess good communication skills. Individual and business relations can be developed and
maintained with the use of these skills.

FORMAL COMMUNICATION
 Communication takes place through the formal channels of the organization
structure along the lines of authority established by the management.
 Such communications are generally in writing and may take any of the forms;
policy; manuals: procedures and rule books; memoranda; official meetings;
reports, etc.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Formal Communication:
The advantages of formal communication are:
 They help in the fixation of responsibility and
 Maintaining of the authority relationship in an organization.
The disadvantages of formal communication are:
 Generally time consuming, cumbersome and
 Leads to a good deal of distortion at times.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
 Communication arising out of all those channels of communication that fall
outside the formal channels is known as informal communication.
 Built around the social relationships of members of the organization.

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  Informal communication does not flow lines of authority as is the case of
formal communication.
 It arises due to the personal needs of the members of n organization.
 At times, in informal communication, it is difficult to fix responsibility about
accuracy of information. Such communication is usually oral and may be
covered even by simple glance, gesture or smile or silence.

Advantages of Written Communication

 Can relay to all at the same time

 Permanency
 Lengthy and complex messages
 Provide analysis, evaluation ,etc
 Added emphasis for oral messages

Disadvantages of Written Communication

 Varying interpretations
 Time required
 More formal and distant
 Delayed reaction
 Impossible to change once transmitted

Oral Communication - Advantages and Limitations

Oral communication implies communication through mouth. It includes individuals conversing

with each other, be it direct conversation or telephonic conversation. Speeches, presentations,
discussions are all forms of oral communication. Oral communication is generally recommended
when the communication matter is of temporary kind or where a direct interaction is required.
Face to face communication (meetings, lectures, conferences, interviews, etc.) is significant so as
to build a rapport and trust.

Advantages of Oral Communication

 There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it is

interpersonal.
 There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for allowing
changes in the decisions previously taken.
 The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral communication. Thus, decisions can be made
quickly without any delay.
 Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also saves upon money and efforts.
 Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes and
many issues/differences can be put to an end by talking them over.
 Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy.
 Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among organizational

15
 employees.
 Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential
information/matter.

Disadvantages/Limitations of Oral Communication

 Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business communication is

formal and very organized.
 Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are informal
and not as organized as written communication.
 Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily interactions are concerned, but in case
of meetings, long speeches consume lot of time and are unproductive at times.
 Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady.
 There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may lack
essentials.
 It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience.
 Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records except in
investigation work.

Verbal Communication

Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependant on a number of factors and cannot be

fully isolated from other important interpersonal skills such as non-verbal communication,
listening skills and clarification.

Clarity of speech, remaining calm and focused, being polite and etiquette will all aid the process
of verbal communication.

This article is designed to help us think about how we and others communicate verbally, the
processes involved and the steps we can take to ensure that verbal or spoken messages are
received as intended.

Opening Communication

In many encounters, the first few minutes are extremely important as first impressions have a
significant impact on the success of further communication. Everyone has expectations and
norms as to how initial meetings should proceed and people tend to behave according to these
expectations. If interpersonal expectations are mismatched, communication will not be effective
or run smoothly, and negotiation will be needed if relations are to continue.

At a first meeting, formalities and appropriate greetings are usually expected: such formalities
could include a handshake, an introduction to yourself, eye contact and discussion around a
neutral subject such as the weather or your journey may be useful. A friendly disposition and
smiling face are much more likely to encourage communication than a blank face, inattention or
disinterested reception.

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Reinforcement

The use of encouraging words alongside non-verbal gestures such as head nods, a warm facial
expression and maintaining eye contact, are more likely to reinforce openness in others. The use
of encouragement and positive reinforcement can:

 Encourage others to participate in discussion (particularly in group work)

 Signify interest in what other people have to say
 Pave the way for development and/or maintenance of a relationship
 Allay fears and give reassurance
 Show warmth and openness.
 Reduce shyness or nervousness in ourselves and others.

Effective Listening

Active listening is a very important listening skill and yet, as communicators, people tend to
spend far more energy considering what they are going to say rather than listening to what the
other person is trying to say. Although active listening is a skill in itself, covered in our articles
on listening, it is also vital for verbal communication.

The following points are essential for effective and active listening:

 Arrange a comfortable environment conducive to the purpose of the communication, for

example a warm and light room with minimal background noise.
 Be prepared to listen.
 Keep an open mind and concentrate on the main direction of the speaker's message.
 Avoid distractions if at all possible.
 Delay judgment until you have heard everything.
 Be objective.
 Do not be trying to think of your next question while the other person is giving
information.
 Do not dwell on one or two points at the expense of others.
 The speaker should not be stereotyped. Try not to let prejudices associated with, for
example, gender, ethnicity, social class, appearance or dress interfere with what is being
said. (See Personal Appearance)

Questioning

Effective questioning is an essential skill. Questioning can be used to:

 Obtain information.
 Start a conversation.
 Test understanding.
 Draw someone into a conversation.
 Show interest in a person.
 Seek support or agreement.

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Closed Questions Closed questions tend to seek only a one or two word answer (often simply
'yes' or 'no') and, in doing so, limit the scope of the response. Two examples of closed questions
are "Did you travel by car today?" and "Did you see the football game yesterday?" These types
of question mean control of the communication is maintained by the questioner yet this is often
not the desired outcome when trying to encourage verbal communication. Nevertheless, closed
questions can be useful for focusing discussion and obtaining clear, concise answers when
needed.

Open Questions Open questions broaden the scope for response since they demand further
discussion and elaboration. For example, "What was the traffic like this morning?" or "What do
you feel you would like to gain from this discussion?" Open questions will take longer to answer,
but they do give the other person far more scope for self-expression and encourage involvement
in the conversation..

Reflecting and Clarifying Reflecting is the process of feeding-back to another person your
understanding of what has been said. Although reflecting is a specialised skill used within
counselling, it can also be applied to a wide range of communication contexts and is a useful
skill to learn. Reflecting often involves paraphrasing the message communicated to you by the
speaker in your own words, capturing the essence of the facts and feelings expressed, and
communicating your understanding back to the speaker. It is a useful skill because:

 You can check that you have understood the message clearly.
 The speaker gets feedback as to how the message is received.
 It shows interest in, and respect for, what the other person has to say.
 You are demonstrating that you are considering the other person’s viewpoint.

Summarising A summary is an overview of the main points or issues raised. Summarising can
also serve the same purpose as 'reflecting'. However, summarising allows both parties to review
and agree the communication exchanged between them up to that point in time. When used
effectively, summaries may also serve as a guide to the next steps forward.

Closing Communication The way a communication is closed or ended will, at least in part,
determine the way a conversation is remembered. A range of subtle, or sometimes not so subtle,
signals are used to end an interaction. For example, some people may avoid eye contact, stand
up, turn their body away, or use behaviours such as looking at a watch or closing notepads or
books. All of these non-verbal actions indicate to the other person that the initiator wishes to end
the communication.

Closing an interaction too abruptly may not allow the other person to 'round off' what he or she is
saying so you should ensure there is time for winding-up. The closure of an interaction is a good
time to make any future arrangements. Last, but not least, this time will no doubt be
accompanied by a number of socially acceptable parting gestures

Non-Verbal Communication

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Interpersonal communication not only involves the explicit meaning of words, that is the
information or message conveyed, but also refers to implicit messages, whether intentional or
not, which may be expressed through non-verbal behaviours.

Non-verbal communications include facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the voice, gestures
displayed through body language (kinesics) and the physical distance between communicators
(proxemics). These non-verbal signals can give clues and additional information and meaning
over and above spoken (verbal) communication.

Non-verbal messages allow individuals to:

 Reinforce or modify what is said in words. For example, people may nod their heads
vigorously when saying "Yes" to emphasise that they agree with the other person, but a
shrug of the shoulders and a sad expression when saying "I'm fine thanks,” may imply
that things are not really fine at all!
 Convey information about their emotional state.
 Define or reinforce the relationship between people.
 Provide feedback to the other person.
 Regulate the flow of communication, for example by signalling to others that they have
finished speaking or wish to say something.

Many popular books on non-verbal communication present the topic as if it were a language that
can be learned, the implication being that if the meaning of every nod, eye movement, and
gesture were known, the real feelings and intentions of a person would be understood.
Unfortunately interpreting non-verbal communication is not that simple. As covered in our
Interpersonal Communication page, the way communication is influenced by the context in
which it occurs. For example, a nod of the head between colleagues in a committee meeting may
mean something very different to when the same action is used to acknowledge someone across a
crowded room.

Interpersonal communication is further complicated in that it is usually not possible to interpret a

gesture or expression accurately on its own. Non-verbal communication consists of a complete
package of expressions, hand and eye movements, postures, and gestures which should be
interpreted along with speech (verbal communication).

The types of interpersonal communication that are not expressed verbally are called non-verbal
communications. These include:

 Body Movements (Kinesics)

 Posture
 Eye Contact
 Paralanguage
 Closeness or Personal Space (Proxemics)
 Facial Expressions
 Physiological Changes

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Types of Non-Verbal Communication When we communicate, non-verbal cues can have as great
as an impact on the listener as the spoken word. There are many different aspects of non-verbal
communication including:

Body Movements (Kinesics)

Body movements include gestures, posture, head and hand movements or whole body
movements. Body movements can be used to reinforce or emphasise what a person is saying and
also offer information about the emotions and attitudes of a person. However, it is also possible
for body movements to conflict with what is said. A skilled observer may be able to detect such
discrepancies in behaviour and use them as a clue to what someone is really feeling. Research
work has identified the different categories of body movement that are detailed below with each
category describing the purpose they commonly serve:

Emblems: Gestures that serve the same function as a word are called emblems. For example, the
signals that mean 'OK', 'Come here!', or the hand movement used when hitch-hiking. However,
be aware that whilst some emblems are internationally recognised, others may need to be
interpreted in their cultural context.

Illustrators: Gestures which accompany words to illustrate a verbal message are known as
illustrators. For example, the common circular hand movement which accompanies the phrase
'over and over again', or nodding the head in a particular direction when saying 'over there'.

Affect Displays: These are facial expressions or gestures which show the emotions we feel.
These are often unintentional and can conflict with what is being said. Such expressions give
strong clues as to the true emotional state of a person.

Regulators: Gestures used to give feedback when conversing are called regulators, for example
head nods, short sounds such as 'uh-huh', 'mm-mm', and expressions of interest or boredom.
Regulators allow the other person to adapt his or her speech to reflect the level of interest or
agreement. Without receiving feedback, many people find it difficult to maintain a conversation.

Adaptors: Non-verbal behaviours which either satisfy some physical need such as scratching or
adjusting uncomfortable glasses, or represent a psychological need such as biting fingernails
when nervous. Although normally subconscious, adaptors are more likely to be restrained in
public places than in the private world of individuals where they are less likely to be noticed.
Adaptive behaviours often accompany feelings of anxiety or hostility.

Posture Posture can reflect people's emotions, attitudes and intentions. Research has identified a
wide range of postural signals and their meanings, such as:

Open and Closed Posture: Two forms of posture have been identified, ‘open’ and ‘closed’,
which may reflect an individual's degree of confidence, status or receptivity to another person.
Someone seated in a closed position might have his/her arms folded, legs crossed or be

20
positioned at a slight angle from the person with whom they are interacting. In an open posture
you might expect to see someone directly facing you with hands apart on the arms of the chair.
An open posture can be used to communicate openness or interest in someone and a readiness to
listen, whereas the closed posture might imply discomfort or disinterest.

Mirroring: Notice the way a loving couple relate to each other. You might like to observe a close
relationship in person or on television. You will see that the partners' postures will match, as if
one partner is a mirror reflection of the other. For example, if one partner drapes an arm over the
back of a chair this might be replicated in the other person's position. If one partner frowns, it
could be reflected in the other partner's facial expression. This 'mirroring' indicates interest and
approval between people and serves to reassure others of interest in them and what they are
saying.

Eye Contact Eye contact is an important aspect of non-verbal behaviour. In interpersonal

interaction, it serves three main purposes:

 To give and receive feedback: Looking at someone lets them know that the receiver is
concentrating on the content of their speech. Not maintaining eye contact can indicate
disinterest. Communication may not be a smooth process if a listener averts their eyes too
frequently.
 To let a partner know when it is their 'turn' to speak: This is related to the above point.
Eye contact is more likely to be continuous when someone is listening, rather than
speaking. When a person has finished what they have to say, they will look directly at the
other person and this gives a signal that the arena is open. If someone does not want to be
interrupted, eye contact may be avoided.
 To communicate something about a relationship between people: When you dislike
someone, you tend to avoid eye contact and pupil size is often reduced. On the other
hand, the maintenance of positive eye contact signals interest or attraction in a partner.

Paralanguage Paralanguage relates to all aspects of the voice which are not strictly part of the
verbal message, including the tone and pitch of the voice, the speed and volume at which a
message is delivered, and pauses and hesitations between words. These signals can serve to
indicate feelings about what is being said. Emphasising particular words can imply whether or
not feedback is required.

Closeness and Personal Space Every culture has different levels of physical closeness
appropriate to different types of relationship, and individuals learn these distances from the
society in which they grew up. In today's multicultural society, it is important to consider the
range of non-verbal codes as expressed in different ethnic groups. When someone violates an
'appropriate' distance, people may feel uncomfortable or defensive. Their actions may well be
open to misinterpretation.

In Western society, four distances have been defined according to the relationship between the
people involved, the study of personal space is termed proxemics. This term was used by the
anthropologist Edward Twitchell Hall:

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Intimate Distance (touching to 45cm)
Personal Distance (45cm to 1.2m)
Social Distance (1.2m to 3.6m)
Public Distance (3.7m to 4.5m)

These four distances are associated with the four main types of relationship - intimate, personal,
social and public. Each of the distances are divided into two, giving a close phase and a far
phase, thus making eight divisions in all. It is worth noting that these distances are considered the
norm in Western Society:

Intimate Distance: Ranges from close contact (touching) to the 'far' phase of 15-45cm. In British
society, it tends to be seen as an inappropriate distance for public behaviour and, as mentioned
above, entering the intimate space of another person with whom you do not have a close
relationship can be extremely disturbing.

Personal Distance: The 'far' phase of personal distance is considered to be the most appropriate
for people holding a conversation. At this distance it is easy to see the other person's expressions
and eye movements, as well as their overall body language. Handshaking can occur within the
bounds of personal distance.

Social Distance: This is the normal distance for impersonal business, for example working
together in the same room or during social gatherings. Seating is also important; communication
is far more likely to be considered as a formal relationship if the interaction is carried out across
a desk. In addition, if the seating arrangements are such that one person appears to look down on
another, an effect of domination may be created. At a social distance, speech needs to be louder
and eye contact remains essential to communication, otherwise feedback will be reduced and the
interaction may end.

Public Distance: Teachers and public speakers address groups at a public distance. Exaggerated
non-verbal communication is necessary if effective communication is to occur. Since subtle
facial expressions are lost at this distance so clear hand gestures are often used as a substitute.
Larger head movements are also typical of an experienced public speaker who is aware of
changes in the way body language is perceived at longer distances.

Understanding these distances allows individuals to approach others in non-threatening and

appropriate ways. Individuals can begin to understand how other people feel about them, how
they view the relationship and, if appropriate, adjust their behaviour accordingly.

As you can see, non-verbal communication is an extremely complex yet integral part of overall
communication skills. People are often totally unaware of the non-verbal behaviour they use. A
basic awareness of these aspects of communication strategies, over and above what is actually
said, can help to improve interaction with others. Knowledge of these signs can be used to
encourage individuals to talk about their concerns and can lead to a greater shared understanding.

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VISUAL COMMUNICATIION (WITH EXAMPLES)

Visual Communication Definition and examples Visual communication is communication

through visual aid and is described as the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can
be read or looked upon. Visual communication in part or whole relies on vision[1], and is
primarily presented or expressed with two dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography,
drawing, graphic design, illustration, colour and electronic resources. It also explores the idea
that a visual message[2] accompanying text has a greater power to inform, educate, or persuade a
person or audience.

visual communication - communication that relies on vision

communication - something that is communicated by or to or between people or groups
Visual Communication is the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be
read or viewed. The subject includes Graphic Design, Illustration and Animation for;
books, print, magazines, screen-based media, interactive web design, short film, design for
advertising, promotion, corporate identity, packaging design

video, picture - the visible part of a television transmission; "they could still receive the sound
but the picture was gone"
video - (computer science) the appearance of text and graphics on a video display
visual signal - a signal that involves visual communication
motion, gesture - the use of movements (especially of the hands) to communicate familiar or
prearranged signals
body language - communication via the movements or attitudes of the body
demo, demonstration - a visual presentation showing how something works; "the lecture was
accompanied by dramatic demonstrations"; "the lecturer shot off a pistol as a demonstration of
the startle response"
eye contact - a meeting of the eyes between two people that expresses meaningful nonverbal
communication; "it was a mere glance, but the eye contact was enough to tell her that he was
desperate to leave"
projection - the projection of an image from a film onto a screen
artwork, graphics, nontextual matter, art - photographs or other visual representations in a
printed publication; "the publisher was responsible for all the artwork in the book"
graphic design - visual communication by a skillful combination of text and pictures in
advertisements, magazines, books, etc.
chart - a visual display of information
graph, graphical record - a visual representation of the relations between certain quantities
plotted with reference to a set of axesVisual Aids

Visual aids are often used to help audiences of informative and persuasive speeches understand
the topic being presented. Visual aids can play a large role in how the audience understands and
takes in information that is presented. There are many different types of visual aids that range

23
from handouts to PowerPoint. The type of visual aid a speaker uses depends on their preference
and the information they are trying to present. Each type of visual aid has pros and cons that
must be evaluated to ensure it will be beneficial to the overall presentation. Before incorporating
visual aids into speeches, the speaker should understand that if used incorrectly, the visual will
not be an aid, but a distraction. Planning ahead is important when using visual aids. It is
necessary to choose a visual aid that is appropriate for the material and audience] The purpose of
the visual aid is to enhance the presentation.

Types of Visual Aids

Objects

 The use of objects as visual aids involves bringing the actual object to demonstrate on
during the speech. For example, a speech about tying knots would be more effective by
bringing in a rope.
 Pro: the use of the actual object is often necessary when demonstrating how to do
something so that the audience can fully understand procedure.
 Con: some objects are too large or unavailable for a speaker to bring with them.

Models

 Models are representations of another object that serve to demonstrate that object when
use of the real object is ineffective for some reason. Examples include human skeletal
systems, the solar system, or architecture.
 Pros: models can serve as substitutes that provide a better example of the real thing to the
audience when the object being spoken about is of an awkward size or composure for use
in the demonstration.
 Cons: sometimes a model may take away from the reality of what is being spoken about.
For example, the vast size of the solar system cannot be seen from a model, and the
actual composure of a human body cannot be seen from a dummy.

Graphs

 Graphs are used to visualize relationships between different quantities. Various types are
used as visual aids, including bar graphs, line graphs, pie graphs, and scatter plots.
 Pros: graphs help the audience to visualize statistics so that they make a greater impact
than just listing them verbally would.
 Cons: graphs can easily become cluttered during use in a speech by including too much
detail, overwhelming the audience and making the graph ineffective.

Maps

 Maps show geographic areas that are of interest to the speech. They often are used as aids
when speaking of differences between geographical areas or showing the location of
something.
 Pros: when maps are simple and clear, they can be used to effectively make points about

24
 certain areas. For example, a map showing the building site for a new hospital could
show its close location to key neighborhoods, or a map could show the differences in
distribution of AIDS victims in North American and African countries.
 Cons: inclusion of too much detail on a map can cause the audience to lose focus on the
key point being made. Also, if the map is disproportional or unrealistic, it may prove
ineffective for the point being made.

Tables

 Tables are columns and rows that organize words, symbols, and/or data.
 Pros: Good tables are easy to understand. They are a good way to compare facts and to
gain a better overall understanding of the topic being discussed. For example, a table is a
good choice to use when comparing the amount of rainfall in 3 counties each month.
 Cons: Tables are not very interesting or pleasing to the eye. They can be overwhelming if
too much information is in a small space or the information is not organized in a
convenient way. A table is not a good choice to use if the person viewing it has to take a
lot of time to be able to understand it. Tables can be visual distractions if it is hard to read
because the font is too small or the writing is too close together. It can also be a visual
distraction if the table is not drawn evenly.

Photographs

 Pros:Photographs are good tools to make or emphasize a point or to explain a topic. For
example, when explaining the shanty-towns in a third word country it would be
beneficial to show a picture of one so the reader can have a better understanding of how
those people live. A photograph is also good to use when the actual object cannot be
viewed. For example, in a health class learning about cocaine, the teacher cannot bring in
cocaine to show the class because that would be illegal, but the teacher could show a
picture of cocaine to the class. Using local photos can also help emphasize how your
topic is important in the audience's area.
 Cons: If the photograph is too small it just becomes a distraction. Enlarging photographs
can be expensive if not using a power point or other viewing device.

Drawings/Diagrams

 Pros: Drawings or diagrams can be used when photographs do not show exactly what the
speaker wants to show or explain. It could also be used when a photograph is too
detailed. For example, a drawing or diagram of the circulatory system throughout the
body is a lot more effective than a picture of a cadaver showing the circulatory system.
 Cons:If not drawn correctly a drawing can look sloppy and be ineffective. This type of
drawing will appear unprofessional.

Visual
Communicatio
n
25
Many insects communicate with visual signals. The color patterns and other markings
on the wings of butterflies and moths facilitate species recognition in much the same
way colored uniforms reveal the players' affiliations on a football field. Some insects
use bright colors, eyespots, or other distinctive patterns to scare away predators, to
advertise their ability to sting, or to mimic the appearance of another unpalatable
species. Other insects use dance-like body movements to attract a mate or to
communicate with nestmates. Most of these signals are effective only as long as they
are visible in daylight. But a few insects (fireflies, for example) can generate their
own light and use visual signals that can be seen at night.

Pros and Cons of Visual Communication

Advantages:
 Effective over long distances
 Can be used while moving
 Fast -- speed of light
 Effective in all directions (independent of
wind)
 Passive signals require no expenditure of
energy
Disadvantages:
 Requires a clear line of sight
 Visual signals may be intercepted by
predators
 Only effective in daylight (in fireflies, only
at night)
 Active signals may be metabolically
"expensive" to produce

Passive signals, such as eyespots and color patterns can serve as a form of "free
advertising". The colorful wings of a butterfly, for example, are a "billboard"
publicizing its species identity. Individual insects incur little or no metabolic cost for
displaying these messages because they are an integral part of the integument. It may
be prudent to hide these signals from a potential predator, so some insects have a way
to conceal their message when necessary. The red admiral butterfly, for example, has
bright, distinctive markings on the upper wing surface and drab, protective coloration
on the underside.

Active signals, like body movements and light flashes, are more costly to produce, but
they can be withheld from use at inappropriate times. They may also have a higher
information content because signal frequency, duration, or periodicity may convey
additional meaning.

26
In fireflies, for example, pulses of light are used in a courtship dialogue between a
male (usually flying) and a female (usually perched in the vegetation). Each species
has a unique flash pattern and response time. Males of Photinus pyralis emit a single
"J"-shape flash during a rising flight movement. A female responds with a single flash
after a two second interval. In Photinus consumilis, males emit a series of 3-5 short
flashes and the females respond with a double flash. Roles are reversed in some
tropical species where the females fly and the males signal from perches in the
vegetation.

Unlike humans, many insects have the ability to see ultraviolet light. Not surprisingly,
some species communicate using wavelengths in this part of the spectrum. Female
cabbage butterflies, for example, have ultraviolet-reflecting scales on the dorsal wing
surface. When they fly, each downstroke of the wing creates a brief "flash" of UV
that males apparently recognize as the flight signature of a potential mate. A "flashing
female" may attract several males who engage in aerial courship displays. In alfalfa
butterflies, only males have the UV-reflective scales. They flutter in front of the
females to create a flickering courtship display. Missing scales reduce the wings'
reflectivity -- a sign of aging that impairs a male's ability to seduce a mate.

The 7 Cs of Communication
A Checklist for Clear Communication

Messages must always be CLEAR.

© iStockphoto/pavlen

Think of how often you communicate with people during your day. You write emails,
facilitate meetings, participate in conference calls, create reports, devise presentations,

27
debate with your colleagues… the list goes on.

We can spend almost our entire day communicating. So, how can we provide a huge
boost to our productivity? We can make sure that we communicate in the clearest,
most effective way possible.

This is why the 7 Cs of Communication are helpful. The 7 Cs provide a checklist for
making sure that your meetings, emails, conference calls, reports, and presentations
are well constructed and clear – so your audience gets your message.

According to the 7 Cs, communication needs to be:

 Clear.
 Concise.
 Concrete.
 Correct.
 Coherent.
 Complete.
 Courteous.

In this article, we look at each of the 7 Cs of Communication, and we'll illustrate each
element with both good and bad examples.

1. Clear
When writing or speaking to someone, be clear about your goal or message. What is
your purpose in communicating with this person? If you're not sure, then your
audience won't be sure either.

To be clear, try to minimize the number of ideas in each sentence. Make sure that it's
easy for your reader to understand your meaning. People shouldn't have to "read
between the lines" and make assumptions on their own to understand what you're
trying to say.

Bad Example

Hi John,

I wanted to write you a quick note about Daniel, who's working in your department.
He's a great asset, and I'd like to talk to you more about him when you have time.

Best,

Skip

What is this email about? Well, we're not sure. First, if there are multiple Daniels in

28
John's department, John won't know who Skip is talking about.

Next, what is Daniel doing, specifically, that's so great? We don't know that either. It's
so vague that John will definitely have to write back for more information.

Last, what is the purpose of this email? Does Skip simply want to have an idle chat
about Daniel, or is there some more specific goal here? There's no sense of purpose to
this message, so it's a bit confusing.

Good Example

Let's see how we could change this email to make it clear.

Hi John,

I wanted to write you a quick note about Daniel Kedar, who's working in your
department. In recent weeks, he's helped the IT department through several pressing
deadlines on his own time.

We've got a tough upgrade project due to run over the next three months, and his
knowledge and skills would prove invaluable. Could we please have his help with this
work?

I'd appreciate speaking with you about this. When is it best to call you to discuss this
further?

Best wishes,

Skip

This second message is much clearer, because the reader has the information he needs
to take action.

2. Concise
When you're concise in your communication, you stick to the point and keep it brief.
Your audience doesn't want to read six sentences when you could communicate your
message in three.

 Are there any adjectives or "filler words" that you can delete? You can often
eliminate words like "for instance," "you see," "definitely," "kind of,"
"literally," "basically," or "I mean."
 Are there any unnecessary sentences?
 Have you repeated the point several times, in different ways?

Bad Example

29
Hi Matt,

I wanted to touch base with you about the email marketing campaign we kind of
sketched out last Thursday. I really think that our target market is definitely going to
want to see the company's philanthropic efforts. I think that could make a big impact,
and it would stay in their minds longer than a sales pitch.

For instance, if we talk about the company's efforts to become sustainable, as well as
the charity work we're doing in local schools, then the people that we want to attract
are going to remember our message longer. The impact will just be greater.

What do you think?

Jessica

This email is too long! There's repetition, and there's plenty of "filler" taking up space.

Good Example

Watch what happens when we're concise and take out the filler words:

Hi Matt,

I wanted to quickly discuss the email marketing campaign that we analyzed last
Thursday. Our target market will want to know about the company's philanthropic
efforts, especially our goals to become sustainable and help local schools.

This would make a far greater impact, and it would stay in their minds longer than a
traditional sales pitch.

What do you think?

Jessica

3. Concrete
When your message is concrete, then your audience has a clear picture of what you're
telling them. There are details (but not too many!) and vivid facts, and there's laserlike
focus. Your message is solid.

Bad Example

Consider this advertising copy:

The Lunchbox Wizard will save you time every day.

30
A statement like this probably won't sell many of these products. There's no passion,
no vivid detail, nothing that creates emotion, and nothing that tells people in the
audience why they should care. This message isn't concrete enough to make a
difference.

Good Example

How much time do you spend every day packing your kids' lunches? No more! Just
take a complete Lunchbox Wizard from your refrigerator each day to give your kids a
healthy lunch AND have more time to play or read with them!

This copy is better because there are vivid images. The audience can picture spending
quality time with their kids – and what parent could argue with that? And mentioning
that the product is stored in the refrigerator explains how the idea is practical. The
message has come alive through these details.

4. Correct
When your communication is correct, it fits your audience. And correct
communication is also error-free communication.

 Do the technical terms you use fit your audience's level of education or
knowledge?
 Have you checked your writing for grammatical errors? Remember, spell
checkers won't catch everything.
 Are all names and titles spelled correctly?

Bad Example

Hi Daniel,

Thanks so much for meeting me at lunch today! I enjoyed our conservation, and I'm
looking forward to moving ahead on our project. I'm sure that the two-weak deadline
won't be an issue.

Thanks again, and I'll speak to you soon!

Best,

Jack Miller

If you read that example fast, then you might not have caught any errors. But on
closer inspection, you'll find two. Can you see them?

The first error is that the writer accidentally typed conservation instead of
conversation. This common error can happen when you're typing too fast. The other

31
error is using weak instead of week.

Again, spell checkers won't catch word errors like this, which is why it's so important
to proofread everything!

5. Coherent
When your communication is coherent, it's logical. All points are connected and
relevant to the main topic, and the tone and flow of the text is consistent.

Bad Example

Traci,

I wanted to write you a quick note about the report you finished last week. I gave it to
Michelle to proof, and she wanted to make sure you knew about the department
meeting we're having this Friday. We'll be creating an outline for the new employee
handbook.

Thanks,

Michelle

As you can see, this email doesn't communicate its point very well. Where is
Michelle's feedback on Traci's report? She started to mention it, but then she changed
the topic to Friday's meeting.

Good Example

Hi Traci,

I wanted to write you a quick note about the report you finished last week. I gave it to
Michelle to proof, and she let me know that there are a few changes that you'll need to
make. She'll email you her detailed comments later this afternoon.

Thanks,

Michelle

Notice that in the good example, Michelle does not mention Friday's meeting. This is
because the meeting reminder should be an entirely separate email. This way, Traci
can delete the report feedback email after she makes her changes, but save the email
about the meeting as her reminder to attend. Each email has only one main topic.

6. Complete
32
In a complete message, the audience has everything they need to be informed and, if
applicable, take action.

 Does your message include a "call to action", so that your audience clearly
knows what you want them to do?
 Have you included all relevant information – contact names, dates, times,
locations, and so on?

Bad Example

Hi everyone,

I just wanted to send you all a reminder about the meeting we're having tomorrow!

See you then,

Chris

This message is not complete, for obvious reasons. What meeting? When is it?
Where? Chris has left his team without the necessary information.

Good Example

Hi everyone,

I just wanted to remind you about tomorrow's meeting on the new telecommuting
policies. The meeting will be at 10:00 a.m. in the second-level conference room.
Please let me know if you can't attend.

See you then,

Chris

7. Courteous
Courteous communication is friendly, open, and honest. There are no hidden insults or
passive-aggressive tones. You keep your reader's viewpoint in mind, and you're
empathetic to their needs.

Bad Example

Jeff,

I wanted to let you know that I don't appreciate how your team always monopolizes
the discussion at our weekly meetings. I have a lot of projects, and I really need time
to get my team's progress discussed as well. So far, thanks to your department, I

33
haven't been able to do that. Can you make sure they make time for me and my team
next week?

Thanks,

Phil

Well, that's hardly courteous! Messages like this can potentially start officewide
fights. And this email does nothing but create bad feelings, and lower productivity and
morale. A little bit of courtesy, even in difficult situations, can go a long way.

Good Example

Hi Jeff,

I wanted to write you a quick note to ask a favor. During our weekly meetings, your
team does an excellent job of highlighting their progress. But this uses some of the
time available for my team to highlight theirs. I'd really appreciate it if you could give
my team a little extra time each week to fully cover their progress reports.

Thanks so much, and please let me know if there's anything I can do for you!

Best,

Phil

What a difference! This email is courteous and friendly, and it has little chance of
spreading bad feelings around the office.

Variations

There are a few variations of the 7 Cs of Communication:

 Credible – Does your message improve or highlight your credibility? This is

especially important when communicating with an audience that doesn't know
much about you.
 Creative – Does your message communicate creatively? Creative
communication helps keep your audience engaged.

Key Points

34
All of us communicate every day. The better we communicate, the more credibility
we'll have with our clients, our boss, and our colleagues.

Use the 7 Cs of Communication as a checklist for all of your communication. By

doing this, you'll stay clear, concise, concrete, correct, coherent, complete, and
courteous.

Effective Communication
Effective communication helps us better understand a person or situation, enables us to resolve
differences, build trust and respect, and create environments where creative ideas, problem
solving, affection, and caring can flourish. As simple as communication seems, much of what we
try to communicate–and others try to communicate to us–gets misunderstood, which can cause
conflict and frustration in personal and professional relationships. By learning these effective
communication skills, you can better connect with your spouse, kids, friends, and coworkers.

What is effective communication?

In the information age, we have to send, receive, and process huge numbers of messages every
day. But effective communication is about more than just exchanging information. Effective
communication requires you to also understand the emotion behind the information. It can
improve relationships at home, work, and in social situations by deepening your connections to
others and improving teamwork, decision-making, caring, and problem solving. It enables you to
communicate even negative or difficult messages without creating conflict or destroying trust.
Effective communication combines a set of skills including nonverbal communication, attentive
listening, the ability to manage stress in the moment, and the capacity to recognize and
understand your own emotions and those of the person you’re communicating with.

While effective communication is a learned skill, it is more effective when it’s spontaneous
rather than formulaic. A speech that is read, for example, rarely has the same impact as a speech
that’s delivered (or appears to be delivered) spontaneously. Of course, it takes time and effort to
develop these skills and become an effective communicator. The more effort and practice you
put in, the more instinctive and spontaneous your communication skills will become.

Effective communication skills #1: Listening

Listening is one of the most important aspects of effective communication. Successful listening
means not just understanding the words or the information being communicated, but also
understanding how the speaker feels about what they’re communicating.

Effective listening can:

 Make the speaker feel heard and understood, which can help build a stronger, deeper
connection between you.
 Create an environment where everyone feels safe to express ideas, opinions, and

35
 feelings, or plan and problem solve in creative ways.
 Save time by helping clarify information, avoid conflicts and misunderstandings.
 Relieve negative emotions. When emotions are running high, if the speaker feels that he
or she has been truly heard, it can help to calm them down, relieve negative feelings, and
allow for real understanding or problem solving to begin.

Tips for effective listening

If your goal is to fully understand and connect with the other person, listening effectively will
often come naturally. If it doesn’t, you can remember the following tips. The more you practice
them, the more satisfying and rewarding your interactions with others will become.

 Focus fully on the speaker, his or her body language, and other nonverbal cues. If you’re
daydreaming, checking text messages, or doodling, you’re almost certain to miss
nonverbal cues in the conversation. If you find it hard to concentrate on some speakers,
try repeating their words over in your head—it’ll reinforce their message and help you
stay focused.
 Avoid interrupting or trying to redirect the conversation to your concerns, by saying
something like, “If you think that’s bad, let me tell you what happened to me.” Listening
is not the same as waiting for your turn to talk. You can’t concentrate on what someone’s
saying if you’re forming what you’re going to say next. Often, the speaker can read your
facial expressions and know that your mind’s elsewhere.
 Avoid seeming judgmental. In order to communicate effectively with someone, you
don’t have to like them or agree with their ideas, values, or opinions. However, you do
need to set aside your judgment and withhold blame and criticism in order to fully
understand a person. The most difficult communication, when successfully executed, can
lead to the most unlikely and profound connection with someone.
 Show your interest in what’s being said. Nod occasionally, smile at the person, and make
sure your posture is open and inviting. Encourage the speaker to continue with small
verbal comments like “yes” or “uh huh.”

Effective communication skills #2: Nonverbal

communication
When we communicate things that we care about, we do so mainly using nonverbal signals.
Wordless communication, or body language, includes facial expressions, body movement and
gestures, eye contact, posture, the tone of your voice, and even your muscle tension and
breathing. The way you look, listen, move, and react to another person tells them more about
how you’re feeling than words alone ever can.

Developing the ability to understand and use nonverbal communication can help you connect
with others, express what you really mean, navigate challenging situations, and build better
relationships at home and work.

 You can enhance effective communication by using open body language—arms

36
 uncrossed, standing with an open stance or sitting on the edge of your seat, and
maintaining eye contact with the person you’re talking to.
 You can also use body language to emphasize or enhance your verbal message—patting a
friend on the back while complimenting him on his success, for example, or pounding
your fists to underline your message.

Tips for improving how you read nonverbal communication

 Practice observing people in public places, such as a shopping mall, bus, train, café,
restaurant, or even on a television chat show with the sound muted. Observing how
others use body language can teach you how to better receive and use nonverbal signals
when conversing with others. Notice how people act and react to each other. Try to guess
what their relationship is, what they’re talking about, and how each feels about what is
being said.
 Be aware of individual differences. People from different countries and cultures tend to
use different nonverbal communication gestures, so it’s important to take age, culture,
religion, gender, and emotional state into account when reading body language signals.
An American teen, a grieving widow, and an Asian businessman, for example, are likely
to use nonverbal signals differently.
 Look at nonverbal communication signals as a group. Don’t read too much into a
single gesture or nonverbal cue. Consider all of the nonverbal signals you receive, from
eye contact to tone of voice and body language. Anyone can slip up occasionally and let
eye contact slip, for example, or briefly cross their arms without meaning to. Consider
the signals as a whole to get a better “read” on a person.

Tips for improving how deliver nonverbal communication

 Use nonverbal signals that match up with your words. Nonverbal communication
should reinforce what is being said, not contradict it. If you say one thing, but your body
language says something else, your listener will likely feel you’re being dishonest. For
example, you can’t say “yes” while shaking your head no.
 Adjust your nonverbal signals according to the context. The tone of your voice, for
example, should be different when you’re addressing a child than when you’re
addressing a group of adults. Similarly, take into account the emotional state and cultural
background of the person you’re interacting with.
 Use body language to convey positive feelings even when you're not actually
experiencing them. If you’re nervous about a situation—a job interview, important
presentation, or first date, for example—you can use positive body language to signal
confidence, even though you’re not feeling it. Instead of tentatively entering a room with
your head down, eyes averted, and sliding into a chair, try standing tall with your
shoulders back, smiling and maintaining eye contact, and delivering a firm handshake. It
will make you feel more self-confident and help to put the other person at ease.

Effective communication skills #3: Managing stress

37
Learn to recognize & reduce hidden stress

In small doses, stress can help you perform under pressure. However, when stress becomes
constant and overwhelming, it can hamper effective communication by disrupting your capacity
to think clearly and creatively, and act appropriately. When you’re stressed, you’re more likely
to misread other people, send confusing or off-putting nonverbal signals, and lapse into
unhealthy knee-jerk patterns of behavior.

How many times have you felt stressed during a disagreement with your spouse, kids, boss,
friends, or coworkers and then said or done something you later regretted? If you can quickly
relieve stress and return to a calm state, you’ll not only avoid such regrets, but in many cases
you’ll also help to calm the other person as well. It’s only when you’re in a calm, relaxed state
that you'll be able to know whether the situation requires a response, or whether the other
person’s signals indicate it would be better to remain silent.

Quick stress relief for effective communication

When stress strikes, you can’t always temper it by taking time out to meditate or go for a run,
especially if you’re in the middle of a meeting with your boss or an argument with your spouse,
for example. By learning to quickly reduce stress in the moment, though, you can safely face any
strong emotions you’re experiencing, regulate your feelings, and behave appropriately. When
you know how to maintain a relaxed, energized state of awareness—even when something
upsetting happens—you can remain emotionally available and engaged.

To deal with stress during communication:

 Recognize when you’re becoming stressed. Your body will let you know if you’re
stressed as you communicate. Are your muscles or your stomach tight and/or sore? Are
your hands clenched? Is your breath shallow? Are you "forgetting" to breathe?
 Take a moment to calm down before deciding to continue a conversation or postpone it.
 Bring your senses to the rescue and quickly manage stress by taking a few deep breaths,
clenching and relaxing muscles, or recalling a soothing, sensory-rich image, for example.
The best way to rapidly and reliably relieve stress is through the senses: sight, sound,
touch, taste, and smell. But each person responds differently to sensory input, so you
need to find things that are soothing to you.
 Look for humor in the situation. When used appropriately, humor is a great way to
relieve stress when communicating. When you or those around you start taking things
too seriously, find a way to lighten the mood by sharing a joke or amusing story.
 Be willing to compromise. Sometimes, if you can both bend a little, you’ll be able to find
a happy middle ground that reduces the stress levels for everyone concerned. If you
realize that the other person cares much more about something than you do, compromise
may be easier for you and a good investment in the future of the relationship.
 Agree to disagree, if necessary, and take time away so everyone can calm down. Take a
quick break and move away from the situation. Take a stroll outside if possible, or spend
a few minutes meditating. Physical movement or finding a quiet place to regain your
balance can quickly reduce stress.

38
Effective communication skills #4: Emotional awareness
Learn to recognize & accept your emotions

Emotions play an important role in the way we communicate at home and work. It’s the way you
feel, more than the way you think, that motivates you to communicate or to make decisions. The
way you react to emotionally-driven, nonverbal cues affects both how you understand other
people and how they understand you. If you are out of touch with your feelings, and don’t
understand how you feel or why you feel that way, you’ll have a hard time communicating your
feelings and needs to others. This can result in frustration, misunderstandings, and conflict.
When you don’t address what’s really bothering you, you often become embroiled in petty
squabbles instead—arguing with your spouse about how the towels should be hung, for example,
or with a coworker about whose turn it is to restock the copier.

Emotional awareness provides you the tools for understanding both yourself and other people,
and the real messages they are communicating to you. Although knowing your own feelings may
seem simple, many people ignore or try to sedate strong emotions like anger, sadness, and fear.
But your ability to communicate depends on being connected to these feelings. If you’re afraid
of strong emotions or if you insist on communicating only on a rational level, it will impair your
ability to fully understand others, creatively problem solve, resolve conflicts, or build an
affectionate connection with someone.

How emotional awareness can improve effective communication

Emotional awareness—consciousness of your moment-to-moment emotional experience—and

the ability to manage all of your feelings appropriately is the basis for effective communication.

Emotional awareness helps you:

 Understand and empathize with what is really troubling other people.

 Understand yourself, including what’s really troubling you and what you really want.
 Stay motivated to understand and empathize with the person you’re interacting with, even
if you don’t like them or their message.
 Communicate clearly and effectively, even when delivering negative messages.
 Build strong, trusting, and rewarding relationships, think creatively, solve problems, and
resolve conflicts.

Effective communication requires both thinking and feeling

When emotional awareness is strongly developed, you’ll know what you’re feeling without
having to think about it—and you’ll be able to use these emotional cues to understand what
someone is really communicating to you and act accordingly. The goal of effective
communication is to find a healthy balance between your intellect and your emotions, between
thinking and feeling.

39
Emotional awareness is a skill you can learn

Emotional awareness is a skill that with patience and practice can be learned at any time of life.
You can develop emotional awareness by learning how to get in touch with difficult emotions
and manage uncomfortable feelings, including anger, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise, and joy.
When you know how to do this, you can remain in control of your emotions and behavior, even
in very challenging situations, and communicate more clearly and effectively.

Elements of Effective Communication

Communication (from Latin "communis", meaning to share) is the activity of conveying
information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals,
signals, writing, or behavior.

Communication requires a sender, a message, and a recipient, although the receiver need not be
present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus
communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. Communication requires that
the communicating parties share an area of communicative commonality. The communication
process is complete once the receiver has understood the message of the sender.[
Human communication

Human, spoken and pictorial languages can be described as a system of symbols (sometimes
known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word
"language" also refers to common properties of languages. Language learning normally occurs
most intensively during human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use
patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them.
Languages seem to share certain properties although many of these include exceptions. There is
no defined line between a language and a dialect. Constructed languages such as Esperanto,
programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to
the properties shared by human languages. Communication is the flow or exchange of
information within people or group of people.

A variety of verbal and non-verbal means of communicating exists such as body language, eye
contact, sign language, haptic communication, chronemics, and media such as pictures, graphics,
sound, and writing.

Manipulative Communications was studied and reported by Bryenton in 2011. These are
intentional and unintentional ways of manipulating words, gestures, etc. to "get what we want",
by demeaning, discounting, attacking or ignoring instead of respectful interaction. Sarcasm,
criticism, rudeness and swearing are examples.

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also defines the communication to include

40
the display of text, Braille, tactile communication, large print, accessible multimedia, as well as
written and plain language, human-reader, augmentative and alternative modes, means and
formats of communication, including accessible information and communication technology.[1]

Feedback is critical to effective communication between participants.

Nonverbal communication

describes the process of conveying meaning in the form of non-word messages. Research shows
that the majority of our communication is non verbal, also known as body language. In fact, 63-
93% of communication is non-verbal.[citation needed] Some of non verbal communication includes
chronemics, haptics, gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact, object
communication such as clothing, hairstyles, architecture, symbols infographics, and tone of
voice as well as through an aggregate of the above.

Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage. These include voice lesson
quality, emotion and speaking style as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and
stress. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial
arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotional expressions in pictorial
form.

Oral communication

Oral communication, while primarily referring to spoken verbal communication, can also
employ visual aids and non-verbal elements to support the conveyance of meaning. Oral
communication includes speeches, presentations, discussions, and aspects of interpersonal
communication. As a type of face-to-face communication, body language and choice tonality
play a significant role, and may have a greater impact upon the listener than informational
content. This type of communication also garners immediate feedback.

Business communication

A business can flourish when all objectives of the organization are achieved effectively. For
efficiency in an organization, all the people of the organization must be able to convey their
message properly.[citation needed]

Written communication and its historical development

Over time the forms of and ideas about communication have evolved through the continuing
progression of technology. Advances include communications psychology and media
psychology; an emerging field of study. Researchers divide the progression of written
communication into three revolutionary stages called "Information Communication
Revolutions".[citation needed] During the first stage, written communication first emerged through the
use of pictographs. The pictograms were made in stone, hence written communication was not
yet mobile.

41
During the second stage, writing began to appear on paper, papyrus, clay, wax, etc. Common
The third stage is characterised by the transfer of information through controlled waves and
electronic signals.

Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to

create shared understanding. This process, which requires a vast repertoire of skills in
interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, gestures, and
evaluating enables collaboration and cooperation.[2]

Misunderstandings can be anticipated and solved through formulations, questions and answers,
paraphrasing, examples, and stories of strategic talk. Written communication can be clarified by
planning follow-up talks on critical written communication as part of the every-day way of
doing business. A few minutes spent talking in the present will save valuable time later by
avoiding misunderstandings in advance. A frequent method for this purpose is reiterating what
one heard in one's own words and asking the other person if that really was what was meant.[3]

Effective Communication

Effective communication occurs when a desired effect is the result of intentional or unintentional
information sharing, which is interpreted between multiple entities and acted on in a desired
way. This effect also ensures the message is not distorted during the communication process.
Effective communication should generate the desired effect and maintain the effect, with the
potential to increase the effect of the message. Therefore, effective communication serves the
purpose for which it was planned or designed. Possible purposes might be to elicit change,
generate action, create understanding, inform or communicate a certain idea or point of view.
When the desired effect is not achieved, factors such as barriers to communication are explored,
with the intention being to discover how the communication has been ineffective.

Barriers to effective human communication

Barriers to effective communication can retard or distort the message and intention of the
message being conveyed which may result in failure of the communication process or an effect
that is undesirable. These include filtering, selective perception, information overload, emotions,
language, silence, communication apprehension, gender differences and political correctness [4]

This also includes a lack of expressing "knowledge-appropriate" communication, which occurs

when a person uses ambiguous or complex legal words, medical jargon, or descriptions of a
situation or environment that is not understood by the recipient.

Physical barriers

Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the environment. An example of this is the natural
barrier which exists if staff are located in different buildings or on different sites. Likewise, poor
or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce new technology, may
also cause problems. Staff shortages are another factor which frequently causes communication
difficulties for an organization. Whilst distractions like background noise, poor lighting or an

42
environment which is too hot or cold can all affect people's morale and concentration, which in
turn interfere with effective communication.

System design

System design faults refer to problems with the structures or systems in place in an organization.
Examples might include an organizational structure which is unclear and therefore makes it
confusing to know who to communicate with. Other examples could be inefficient or
inappropriate information systems, a lack of supervision or training, and a lack of clarity in roles
and responsibilities which can lead to staff being uncertain about what is expected of them.

Attitudinal barriers

Attitudinal barriers come about as a result of problems with staff in an organization. These may
be brought about, for example, by such factors as poor management, lack of consultation with
employees, personality conflicts which can result in people delaying or refusing to
communicate, the personal attitudes of individual employees which may be due to lack of
motivation or dissatisfaction at work, brought about by insufficient training to enable them to
carry out particular tasks, or just resistance to change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas.

Ambiguity of words/phrases

Words sounding the same but having different meaning can convey a different meaning
altogether. Hence the communicator must ensure that the receiver receives the same meaning. It
is better if such words are avoided by using alternatives whenever possible.

Individual linguistic ability

The use of jargon, difficult or inappropriate words in communication can prevent the recipients
from understanding the message. Poorly explained or misunderstood messages can also result in
confusion. However, research in communication has shown that confusion can lend legitimacy
to research when persuasion fails.

Physiological barriers

These may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused—for example—by ill health,
poor eyesight or hearing difficulties.

Presentation of information

Presentation of information is important to aid understanding. Simply put, the communicator

must consider the audience before making the presentation itself and in cases where it is not
possible the presenter can at least try to simplify his/her vocabulary so that the majority can
understand.

Nonhuman communication

43
Every information exchange between living organisms — i.e. transmission of signals that
involve a living sender and receiver can be considered a form of communication; and even
primitive creatures such as corals are competent to communicate. Nonhuman communication
also include cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical transmissions between
primitive organisms like bacteria and within the plant and fungal kingdoms.

Animal communication

The broad field of animal communication encompasses most of the issues in ethology. Animal
communication can be defined as any behavior of one animal that affects the current or future
behavior of another animal. The study of animal communication, called zoosemiotics
(distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) has played an
important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition.
Animal communication, and indeed the understanding of the animal world in general, is a
rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so far, a great share of prior understanding
related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture
and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, has been
revolutionized.

Plants and fungi

Communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant
cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant
organisms, especially in the root zone. Plant roots communicate in parallel with rhizome bacteria
, with fungi and with insects in the soil. These parallel sign-mediated interactions are governed
by syntactic, pragmatic, and semantic rules, and are possible because of the decentralized
"nervous system" of plants. The original meaning of the word "neuron" in Greek is "vegetable
fiber" and recent research has shown that most of the intraorganismic plant communication
processes are neuronal-like.[8] Plants also communicate via volatiles when exposed to herbivory
attack behavior, thus warning neighboring plants. In parallel they produce other volatiles to
attract parasites which attack these herbivores. In stress situations plants can overwrite the
genomes they inherited from their parents and revert to that of their grand- or great-
grandparents.[citation needed]

Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their growth and development such as the
formation of mycelia and fruiting bodies. Fungi communicate with their own and related species
as well as with nonfungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, especially with
bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes, plants and insects through semiochemicals of biotic origin. The
semiochemicals trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, while if the same
chemical molecules are not part of biotic messages, they do not trigger the fungal organism to
react. This implies that fungal organisms can differentiate between molecules taking part in
biotic messages and similar molecules being irrelevant in the situation. So far five different
primary signalling molecules are known to coordinate different behavioral patterns such as
filamentation, mating, growth, and pathogenicity. Behavioral coordination and production of
signalling substances is achieved through interpretation processes that enables the organism to
differ between self or non-self, abiotic indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-

44
related species, and even filter out "noise", i.e. similar molecules without biotic content. [9]

Bacteria quorum sensing

Communication is not a tool used only by humans, plants and animals, but it is also used by
microorganisms like bacteria. The process is called quorum sensing. Through quorum sensing,
bacteria are able to sense the density of cells, and regulate gene expression accordingly. This can
be seen in both gram positive and gram negative bacteria. This was first observed by Fuqua et al.
in marine microorganisms like V. harveyi and V. fischeri.[10]

Communication cycle

Main article: Models of communication

Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

Communication major dimensions scheme

45
Communication code scheme

Linear Communication Model

Interactional Model of Communication

Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication

46
Transactional Model of Communication

The first major model for communication was introduced by Claude Shannon and Warren
Weaver for Bell Laboratories in 1949[11] The original model was designed to mirror the
functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary
parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into,
the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could
hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that
interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise.

In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of

communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form
(as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This
common conception of communication simply views communication as a means of sending and
receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability.
Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the
following elements:

1. An information source, which produces a message.

2. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
3. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
4. A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
5. A destination, where the message arrives.

Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within
this theory.

The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?

The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?

Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:

It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.

No allowance for differing purposes.

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 No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.

In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver's (1949) linear model of communication
and created the SMCR Model of Communication.[12] The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver
Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by
other scholars.

Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of
things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form),
channel (through which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and
Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a
message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message.[13] Between parties,
communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and
commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners
of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together,
communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target
can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of
beings).

Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels

of semiotic rules:

1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),

2. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
3. Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).

Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a
common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some
sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-
talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative
competences within social interactions.

In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional model of

communication.[14] The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that
individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.

In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second
attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses
on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be
interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from
one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself.
A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and
the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or
gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "

48
communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of
content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem
with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding
imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a codebook, and that
these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code
books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many
conceptual difficulties.

Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process,

rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the
theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to
use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie
1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built
themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he
called 'Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires
and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is
stone and 'Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their
authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape
communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).

Communication noise

In any communication model, noise is interference with the decoding of messages sent over a
channel by an encoder. There are many examples of noise:

Environmental noise

Noise that physically disrupts communication, such as standing next to loud speakers at a party,
or the noise from a construction site next to a classroom making it difficult to hear the professor.

Physiological-impairment noise

Physical maladies that prevent effective communication, such as actual deafness or blindness
preventing messages from being received as they were intended.

Semantic noise

Different interpretations of the meanings of certain words. For example, the word "weed" can be
interpreted as an undesirable plant in a yard, or as a euphemism for marijuana.

Syntactical noise

Mistakes in grammar can disrupt communication, such as abrupt changes in verb tense during a
sentence.

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Organizational noise

Poorly structured communication can prevent the receiver from accurate interpretation. For
example, unclear and badly stated directions can make the receiver even more lost.

Cultural noise

Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such as unintentionally offending a

non-Christian person by wishing them a "Merry Christmas".

Psychological noise

Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult. For instance, great anger or sadness
may cause someone to lose focus on the present moment. Disorders such as Autism may also
severely hamper effective communication.[15]

Effective Communication Techniques

One of the many important aspects in any organization is effective communication technique
between its most important assets, the employees. Here is an article which focuses on effective
communication techniques that are required not only at the workplace, but for the development
of overall personality in general.
No man is exempt from saying silly things; the mischief is to say them deliberately. - Montaigne.

Communication means transferring thoughts and ideas with an intention of delivering

information. This article is going to articulate some of the techniques for effective
communication. If you follow these techniques, surely success is not far away.

Listening
You have to listen to the other party. Do not commit the mistake of thinking that communication
is only a one-way street. Apart from speaking your mind out, communication is also about
listening and that too very carefully. Focus on what they are saying and reflect on that
conversation later. This will send out a message to them that you are grasping their point and
they should do the same when you are speaking.

Expression
Honesty is very important here. Whenever you are expressing yourself, talking truthfully and
honestly will send out a signal that you trust your audience. Speak clearly and properly. Also try
to be precise about the subject that you are speaking on. Do not beat around the bush. This will
only confuse your audience. Besides, if your audience is getting confused, the entire purpose of
your self-expression is getting defeated.

Taking Criticism Positively

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If someone comes to you with criticism, it's just a natural human response to defend your stance.
Try to take criticism positively and constructively. If the criticism is very hard to take and
emotional, then the chances are that the person you are communicating with is in distress. Try to
empathize with the person and resonate your words in a very mild language.

Avoiding Arguments
Most often than not, whenever you are trying to have a healthy conversation, it turns into an
argument. Arguing does nothing but wastes your time. Try to avoid getting into such situations.
And even if you get into such a situation, instead of trying to win the argument, find an amicable
solution in a constructive way.

Understanding the Audience

You need to be able to understand your audience, as they are the ones for whom you are
speaking. Do not send out your message before you are absolutely sure that they will grasp what
you are saying. For example; suppose the quality of work of a junior employee is really
hampering the overall performance of the team, and you are really concerned about his work, do
not issue an official warning straight away. Try to understand the perception of the employee and
then think of taking any action.

Feedback
It's one of the most common occurrence at the workplace, that a colleague does exactly opposite
to what you want him to do. You keep wondering, why has he done so. You keep thinking of
many reasons for that. Maybe the colleague did not listen to you or maybe he did not understand
what you said. But the worst possibility could be the deliberate inaction. What do you do in that
scenario? Well, you take a feedback. Without taking proper feedback, you wouldn't know the
perspective of the person in front of you. Only through feedback you will know why he or she
did or did not do what they were asked to do.

Communication does not simply refer to merely articulating words. Body language, hand
gestures, along with other factors, play an important role for communicating your point. I hope
that some of the techniques of effective communication mentioned here help the reader in more
than one way.

4 Barriers to Effective Communication &

What to Do About Them

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 I’m wondering how many words have actually been written about
communication. Suffice it to say there have been a great many. I suppose it is because we
haven’t cracked it yet, this ability to convey messages so that what we say is heard in the way
we mean it and conversely what we hear is received in the way it was meant. Indeed, the road
to clarity always seems to be under construction.

Even if we try to simplify our communication processes, barriers come up that can sabotage the
message and render it ineffective by the time it gets to those who must act on it. There are a lot
of reasons for this. Here are four that come to mind for me.

Cultural Barriers

There are many factors that make up what we refer to as “culture” but to me, cultural difference
is about attitudes and beliefs that come from our personal environment and experience. As such,
two people could get the same message but interpret it in two entirely different ways simply
because their frames of reference and language differ.

Here is an example from a Scandinavian advertising campaign. It was developed for the
vacuum cleaner Manufacturer, Electrolux, then interpreted and used, without modification, in
the company’s American campaign. It read, “Nothing Sucks like an Electrolux”

What To Do

 Consider the cultural makeup of the intended audience.

 Seek to understand where there are differences.
 Fashion the message to ensure that it says what you mean and also takes those differences
into account.

Linguistic Barriers

Variance in expression or colloquialism is common even among those who speak the same
language.

When my parents brought our family to Canada from England, there were a lot of expressions
we used that were interpreted differently in our new country. This once placed my mother in an
embarrassing situation when she was sitting around a table with her co-workers one day
discussing the time they each got up in the morning to get ready for work. When it came to my
mother’s turn to speak, she said, “My husband knocks me up every morning at 7:30”.

It was only after the laughter had died down did someone explain to her the North American

52
meaning associated with what she had just said.

What To Do

 Minimize the use of slang and idioms when delivering the message
 Keep the language used in the message simple and as free as possible from business speak
or (dare I say it) sports metaphors.
 Make clarity and simplicity the goal over showcasing linguistic ability.

Biases

We all have them. Bias is, after all, shaped by our experiences and who we are. It becomes an
obstacle to effective communication though when we consciously or subconsciously choose to
speak only to those who are more likely to understand and agree with us. It’s natural. But in
leadership, it is also important to extend the reach of our message to those whose biases do not
necessarily align with our own.

The workplace, for example, now employs more than one generation of people. Each generation
has its view of the world. Each generation also has its challenges. And yet, the messages you
send must finds ways to reach and engage everyone to be effective.

What To Do

 Acknowledge your own biases first

 Look through the lens of those who are least likely to align with your views
 Listen.
 Fashion your message to include something that everyone can relate to.

Assumptions

It was Oscar Wilde who said, “When you assume, you make an ass out of U and Me”

Assumptions sabotage effective communication and have the potential to lead everyone down
unintended paths. For instance, you may assume that because people are nodding while you
speak, they understand and agree with what you are saying. Similarly, if you invite questions
about your message and get none, it would be easy to assume there are none. The truth is, few
people will risk the potential embarrassment of being the only one who doesn’t agree with or
understand your message or doesn’t know what to ask. To assume they do would be a mistake.

What to do

 Work on the basis that all your assumptions could be false

 Make your assumptions known to others to determine their validity
 Anticipate questions and concerns that could come out of your message and bring them up
to encourage conversation

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Communication barriers are always going to be with us because humans are complex beings. I
think that’s what makes it a challenge…and sometimes a great source of fun. The following is a
fine illustration of how easily we can get things wrong even in everyday conversation.

ADDITIONAL NOTES

Communication - barriers
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AND HOW TO ACHIEVE EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION

Aiming to achieve effective communication is one thing – actually doing it is another. There are
several barriers to communication, including:

Barrier
Explanation

Language The communication message might not use vocabulary that is

understood by the receiver – e.g. too much use of technical or
financial jargon

Noise Various things stop a message from getting through or being

heard – e.g. poor connection, background noise, distractions, too
many people speaking

Overload Too much information can cause problems e.g. slow down
decision making

Emotion The relationship between the sender and receiver of

communication might adversely affect the message – which
could be ignored or misinterpreted

Gaps Too many intermediaries (e.g. too many layers in hierarchy

through which message has to be passed) might prevent or
distort the message

Inconsistency If people receive conflicting or inconsistent messages, then they

may ignore or block them

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Barriers to Effective Communication
There are many reasons why interpersonal communications may fail. In many
communications, the message may not be received exactly the way the sender intended and
hence it is important that the communicator seeks feedback to check that their message is clearly
understood.

There exist many barriers to communication and these may occur at any stage in the
communication process. Barriers may lead to your message becoming distorted and you
therefore risk wasting both time and money by causing confusion and misunderstanding.
Effective communication involves overcoming these barriers and conveying a clear and concise
message. Some common barriers to effective communication include:

 The use of jargon, over-complicated or unfamiliar terms.

 Emotional barriers and taboos.
 Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver.
 Differences in perception and viewpoint.
 Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.
 Physical barriers to non-verbal communication.
 Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.
 Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or stereotyping.
People often hear what they expect to hear rather than what is actually said and
jump to incorrect conclusions.
 Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different
cultures, as do the way in which emotions are expressed. For example, the concept
of personal space varies between cultures and between different social settings.

A skilled communicator must be aware of these barriers and try to reduce their impact by
continually checking understanding and by offering appropriate feedback.

A Categorisation of Barriers to
Communication
Language Barriers

Clearly, language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to communication. However, even

55
when communicating in the same language, the terminology used in a message may act as a
barrier if it is not fully understood by the receiver(s). For example, a message that includes a lot
of specialist jargon and abbreviations will not be understood by a receiver who is not familiar
with the terminology used. Regional colloquialisms and expressions may be misinterpreted or
even considered offensive. (See our page on effective speaking to help you get your message
across).

Psychological Barriers

The psychological state of the receiver will influence how the message is received. For
example, if someone has personal worries and is stressed, they may be preoccupied by personal
concerns and not as receptive to the message as if they were not stressed. Stress is an important
factor in Interpersonal relationships - see What is Stress? and Avoiding Stress for more
information. Anger is another example of a psychological barrier to communication, please see
our pages on anger: Introduction to Anger and Anger Management.

Physiological Barriers

Physiological barriers may result from the receiver’s physical state: for example, a receiver with
reduced hearing may not grasp to entirety of a spoken conversation especially if there is
significant background noise.

Physical Barriers

An example of a physical barrier to communication is geographic distance between the sender

and receiver(s). Communication is generally easier over shorter distances as more
communication channels are available and less technology is required. Although modern
technology often serves to reduce the impact of physical barriers, the advantages and
disadvantages of each communication channel should be understood so that an appropriate
channel can be used to overcome the physical barriers.

Systematic Barriers

Systematic barriers to communication may exist in structures and organisations where there are
inefficient or inappropriate information systems and communication channels, or where there is
a lack of understanding of the roles and responsibilities for communication. In such
organisations, individuals may be unclear of their role in the communication process and
therefore not know what is expected of them.

Attitudinal Barriers

Attitudinal barriers are behaviours or perceptions that prevent people from communicating
effectively. Attitudinal barriers to communication may result from personality conflicts, poor
management, resistance to change or a lack of motivation. Effective receivers of messages
should attempt to overcome their own attitudinal barriers to facilitate effective communication.
See Assertiveness and Empathy.

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Communication Flows in an Organization

In an organization, communication flows in 5 main directions-

1. Downward
2. Upward
3. Lateral
4. Diagonal
5. External

1. Downward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows from a higher level in

an organization to a lower level is a downward communication. In other words,
communication from superiors to subordinates in a chain of command is a downward
communication. This communication flow is used by the managers to transmit work-
related information to the employees at lower levels. Employees require this information
for performing their jobs and for meeting the expectations of their managers. Downward
communication is used by the managers for the following purposes -

Providing feedback on employees performance

Giving job instructions
Providing a complete understanding of the employees job as well as to
communicate them how their job is related to other jobs in the organization.
Communicating the organizations mission and vision to the employees.
Highlighting the areas of attention.

Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all
examples of downward communication. In order to have effective and error-free
downward communication, managers must:

 Specify communication objective

 Ensure that the message is accurate, specific and unambiguous.
 Utilize the best communication technique to convey the message to the receiver in
right form

2. Upward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows to a higher level in an

organization is called upward communication. It provides feedback on how well the
organization is functioning. The subordinates use upward communication to convey their
problems and performances to their superiors.

The subordinates also use upward communication to tell how well they have understood
the downward communication. It can also be used by the employees to share their views
and ideas and to participate in the decision-making process.

57
 Upward communication leads to a more committed and loyal workforce in an
organization because the employees are given a chance to raise and speak dissatisfaction
issues to the higher levels. The managers get to know about the employees feelings
towards their jobs, peers, supervisor and organization in general. Managers can thus
accordingly take actions for improving things.

Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys
etc all help in improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward
Communication are -performance reports made by low level management for reviewing
by higher level management, employee attitude surveys, letters from employees,
employee-manager discussions etc.

3. Lateral / Horizontal Communication: Communication that takes place at same levels of

hierarchy in an organization is called lateral communication, i.e., communication
between peers, between managers at same levels or between any horizontally equivalent
organizational member. The advantages of horizontal communication are as follows:

It is time saving.
It facilitates co-ordination of the task.
It facilitates co-operation among team members.
It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members.
It helps in solving various organizational problems.
It is a means of information sharing
It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department or
conflicts within a department.

4. Diagonal Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and

employees of other workgroups is called diagonal communication. It generally does not
appear on organizational chart. For instance - To design a training module a training
manager interacts with an Operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform
their task.

External Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and external
groups such as - suppliers, vendors, banks, financial institutes etc. For instance - To raise capital

the Managing director would interact with the Bank Manager.

Grapevine Communication (Informal Business Communication)

58Grapevine is an informal channel of business communication. It is called so because it stretches

 throughout the organization in all directions irrespective of the authority levels. Man as we know
is a social animal. Despite existence of formal channels in an organization, the informal channels
tend to develop when he interacts with other people in organization. It exists more at lower
levels of organization.

Grapevine generally develops due to various reasons. One of them is that when an organization
is facing recession, the employees sense uncertainty. Also, at times employees do not have self-
confidence due to which they form unions. Sometimes the managers show preferential treatment
and favor some employees giving a segregated feeling to other employees. Thus, when
employees sense a need to exchange their views, they go for grapevine network as they cannot
use the formal channel of communication in that case. Generally during breaks in cafeteria, the
subordinates talk about their superior’s attitude and behavior and exchange views with their
peers. They discuss rumour about promotion and transfer of other employees. Thus, grapevine
spreads like fire and it is not easy to trace the cause of such communication at times.
Examples of Grapevine Network of Communication

1. Suppose the profit amount of a company is known. Rumour is spread that this much profit is
there and on that basis bonus is declared.
2. CEO may be in relation to the Production Manager. They may have friendly relations with each
other.

Pros and Cons of Grapevine Communication

Advantages of Grapevine Communication

1. Grapevine channels carry information rapidly. As soon as an employee gets to know some
confidential information, he becomes inquisitive and passes the details then to his closest friend
who in turn passes it to other. Thus, it spreads hastily.
2. The managers get to know the reactions of their subordinates on their policies. Thus, the
feedback obtained is quick compared to formal channel of communication.
3. The grapevine creates a sense of unity among the employees who share and discuss their views
with each other. Thus, grapevine helps in developing group cohesiveness.
4. The grapevine serves as an emotional supportive value.
5. The grapevine is a supplement in those cases where formal communication does not work.

Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication

1. The grapevine carries partial information at times as it is more based on rumours. Thus, it does
not clearly depicts the complete state of affairs.
2. The grapevine is not trustworthy always as it does not follows official path of communication and
is spread more by gossips and unconfirmed report.
3. The productivity of employees may be hampered as they spend more time talking rather than
working.
4. The grapevine leads to making hostility against the executives.
5. The grapevine may hamper the goodwill of the organization as it may carry false negative
information about the high level people of the organization.

59
A smart manager should take care of all the disadvantages of the grapevine and try to minimize
them. At the same time, he should make best possible use of advantages of grapevine.

Grapevine Communication

Grapevine communication is the informal communication network within an organization.

The grapevine is used to spread information bypassing the formal communication structure. Just
like the grapevine plant: it spreads in random ways and it goes where it can.

The grapevine is formed by individuals and groups in an organization. The people in the groups
have something in common that links them together.

A person can belong to one or more groups. As an example, a manager can belong to a group of
women that go to lunch together every Friday. She can also belong to a group of managers in her
department that talk about work in informal ways. She could have a third group of people
scattered throughout the organization with which she shares other common interests outside of
work.

The manager in this example is likely to pass information across her three main, informal
networks. In some ways, she is verifying the accuracy of the rumors she hears. When more than
one of her networks is in agreement about a given rumor, she is bound to believe it’s true.

Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication

There are some intrinsic dangers in bypassing the organizational channels to get to the facts of
the matter. The main danger is that much of the information that gets spread through the
grapevine is not verified. Some of the information is likely false and difficult, if not impossible,
to verify.

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We discount information when the source is a known gossiper. But not completely... Even when
the source is someone known to spread rumors, we believe that where there's smoke... Since we
don’t know what part is fire and what is smoke, we accept the whole rumor. To justify our
participation in spreading the rumor, we tell ourselves that part of it must be true.

The main reason why we give credence to a rumor is that it seems to match what we think
about the situation or person that the rumor is about. We also tend to believe the person sharing
the rumor with us.

Another main disadvantage of grapevine communication is that it's often used to spread more
than rumors; it's used to spread gossip.

The terms rumors and gossip are used sometimes interchangeably, but rumors are not quite the
same as gossip. Both are pieces of information that can't be verified, but rumors tend to affect
organizations or groups of people, while gossip refers to more personal matters.

When gossip is being spread through the grapevine, people's reputations, careers, and lives can
get destroyed very rapidly.

Despite its disadvantages, the grapevine can serve a purpose.

Advantages of Grapevine Communication

Grapevine communication creates a social bond where none existed. People like to talk to one
another; whether they talk about work or family, or anything. Teams become more cohesive
when members talk to one another outside of the project or assignment they may be working on.
Informal communication lends itself to bonding.

The grapevine fills in a gap that is left when official information is missing, especially in
chaotic or changing times. Even in organizations where management is very proactive about
communicating change and keeping employees informed, the grapevine helps to fill in the
blanks.

The grapevine in many ways helps keep people honest; it can dissuade people from engaging
on behavior that they don’t want others to know about. This is a two edge sword. On one hand,
people will think twice about taking what they know is a wrong course of action. On the other
hand, they may also think twice about taking a necessary risk and doing the right thing, fearful
that appearances that may give rise to rumors.

Bottom Line Grapevine communication is part of the workplace, it can't be eliminated.

Recognizing its pros and cons can help you use it to your advantage. How Rumors Hurt People

We generally don't think about how rumors hurt people.

Many times we spread hearsay thinking we are being helpful. When I forward an email to others
about a new identity theft threat, I'm just trying to be helpful. But if I didn't take the time to

61
check if the email rumor I got was a hoax, then I will have wasted my time and the time of those
I forwarded the email to.

If an employee is told by another employee that management is considering layoffs, both

employees are now more anxious, and this is likely to affect their work.

Rumors do hurt people, and this is how:

• Rumoring is a waste of time and energy. Employees could use that energy on creating and
producing, and on improving their own lives. Instead, the time and energy is used to the
detriment of others.

• Rumors increase anxiety in an already anxious environment. When employees gossip about
others, there is always the nagging feeling of “who is next?” People wonder if they will be the
next targets of gossip, or if they already are.

• Perhaps the worst effect of rumors is that they hurt people in very real ways, they can destroy
relationships, careers and reputations.

• Rumoring creates camps and divides organizations. As people learn something through
hearsay, they tend to take sides.

• Rumors reduce the credibility of those spreading them.

• Rumoring reduces trust and confidence. Employees begin to withdraw, and they may not
take actions that could lend themselves to being the target of a rumor.

• All in all, rumors and gossip create a divided, stressful and harmful working environment.

Next time you hear a rumor, remember that people's careers and reputations may be harmed.
Check if the information is true before you share it.

Meetings
Interpersonal Communication Skills

Individuals attend meetings for a wide variety of reasons, including work, personal interests
and leisure activities. Most people will have to participate in meetings at some point in their
lives, be it within an organisation, a sports group, a Parent Teachers Association, church group or
one of a myriad of other committees.

This article examines how meetings are structured in a formal situation. It explores how good
preparation and an effective chairperson may contribute to the success of a meeting, giving a
sense of direction or purpose. Some meetings leave the participants feeling they have wasted
their time as little has been achieved and this can be due to many reasons. This article examines

62
the reasons why meetings may be less successful and steers you towards getting the most out of
meetings.

What is a Meeting?
A meeting is the coming together of three or more people who share common aims and
objectives, and who through the use of verbal and written communication contribute to the
objectives being achieved.

The Purpose of Meetings

Meetings are an important organisational tool as they can be used to:

Pool and develop ideas

Plan
Solve problems
Make decisions
Create understanding
Encourage enthusiasm and initiative
Provide a sense of direction
Create a common purpose

While meetings may differ in size, content and approach, effective meetings all have the
following three elements in common:

1. A distinctive purpose or aim

2. Use of effective communication
3. A controlled situation

Components of Meetings

A meeting can be divided into the following three main components:

Content is the knowledge, information, experience, expertise, opinions, ideas, attitudes and
expectations that each individual brings to a meeting.
Interaction is the way in which the participants work together to deal with the content of a
meeting. This includes the feelings, attitudes and expectations of the participants which have a
direct bearing on co-operation, listening, participation and trust.
Structure is the way in which both the information and the participants are organised to achieve
the purpose/objectives of the meeting.

63
TERMS USED IN MEETINGS

Ad hoc:from Latin, meaning 'for the purpose of', as for example, when a sub-committee is set up
specially to organise a works outing.

Adjourn: to hold a meeting over until a later date.

Adopt minutes: minutes are 'adopted' when accepted by members and signed up by the
chairman.

Advisory: providing advice or suggestion, not taking action

Agenda: a schedule of items drawn up for discussion at a meeting

AGM: Annual General Meeting: all members are usually eligible to attend

Apologies: excuses given in advance for inability to attend a meeting

Articles of Association: rules required by Company law which govern a company's activities

Attendance list: in some committees a list is passed round to be signed as a record of attendance

Bye-laws: rules regulating an organisation's activities

Casting vote: by convention, some committee chairmen may use a 'casting vote' to reach a
decision, if votes are equally divided

Chairman: leader or person given authority to conduct a meeting

Chairman's Agenda: based upon the committee agenda, but containing explanatory notes

Collective Responsibility: a convention by which all committee members agree to abide by a

majority decision

Committee: a group of people usually elected or appointed who meet to conduct agreed
business and report to a senior body

Consensus: agreement by general consent, no formal vote being taken

Constitution: set of rules governing activities of voluntary bodies

Convene: to call a meeting

Decision: resolution minutes are sometimes called 'decision minutes'

Eject: remove someone (by force if necessary) from a meeting

64
Executive: having the power to act upon taken decisions

Extraordinary Meeting: a meeting called for all members to discuss a serious issue affecting
all is called an Extraordinary General Meeting; otherwise a non-routine meeting called for a
specific purpose

Ex officio: given powers or rights by reason of office

Guillotine: cut short a debate – usually in Parliament

Honorary post: a duty performed without payment, e.g. Honorary Secretary

Information, Point of : the drawing of attention in a meeting to a relevant item of fact

Intra vires: within the power of the committee or meeting to discuss, carry out

Lie on the table: leave item to be considered instead at the next meeting (see table)

Lobbying: a practice of seeking members' support before a meeting

Minutes: the written record of a meeting; resolution minutes record only decision reached, while
narrative minutes provide a record of the decision-making process

Motion: the name given to a 'proposal' when it is being discussed at a meeting

Mover: one who speaks on behalf of a motion

Nem con: from Latin, literally, 'no one speaking against'

Opposer: one who speaks against a motion

Order, point of: the drawing of attention to a breach of rules or procedures

Other business: either items left over from a previous meeting, or items discussed after the
main business of a meeting

Point of order: proceedings may be interrupted on a 'point of order' if procedures or rules are
not being kept to in a meeting

Proposal: the name given to a submitted item for discussion (usually written) before a meeting
takes place

Proxy: literally 'on behalf of another person' - proxy vote

Quorum: the minimum number of people needed to be in attendance for a meeting to be

legitimate and so commence

65
Refer back: to pass an item back for further consideration

Resolution: the name given to a 'motion' which has been passed or carried; used after the
decision has been reached

Seconder: one who supports the 'proposer' of a motion or proposal by 'seconding' it

Secretary: committee official responsible for the internal and external administration of a
committee

Secret ballot: a system of voting in secret

Shelve: to drop a motion which has no support

Sine die: from Latin, literally, 'without a day', that is to say indefinitely, e.g. 'adjourned sine die'.

Standing Committee: a committee which has an indefinite term of office

Standing Orders: rules of procedure governing public sector meetings

Table: to introduce a paper or schedule for noting

Taken as read: to save time, it is assumed the members have already read the minutes

Treasurer: committee official responsible for its financial records and transactions

Ultra vires: beyond the authority of the meeting to consider

Unanimous: all being in favour Abstain Where a member refrains from voting either in favour
of or against a motion.
 3. Address the Chair Where a member wishes to speak they must go through the Chairperson,
e.g. ‘Madam Chairperson’ or ‘Mr Chairman’.
 4. Adjournment If a meeting is running out of time it may be necessary to adjourn the meeting
until a later date.
 5. Amendment This is a change to a proposed motion by the addition, deletion or modification
of words. An amendment must be proposed, seconded and voted upon in the usual way.
 6. Ballot A written vote with provision for preserving secrecy of each individual’s vote.
 7. Casting Vote An additional vote, usually held by the Chairperson, to enable a decision to be
made if the votes when counted equally ‘for’ and ‘against’ a motion.
 8. Majority The greater number of members either vote ‘for’ or ‘against’ a motion.
 9. Point of Order A query raised by a member regarding the procedure at a meeting or a query
relating to the standing orders or constitution, e.g. absence of a quorum.
Technology used in Meetings
 11. Video Conferencing Video Conferencing involves using multiple webcams by multiple
users and an internet connection. Therefore allowing meeting to take place over long distances
and cutting out the need to travel.
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Other Terminologies used in Meetings

Absolute majority: The number of votes required to achieve a majority if everyone who could
be present was actually present, whether they are there or not. For instance, if a committee has
13 members, the absolute majority would be 7 regardless of how many members were actually
present.

Adjournment: Putting off discussion and or decisions on a matter until another time.

Amendment: A suggested change to the wording of either a main motion or certain procedural
motions.

Amendment to an amendment: A suggested change to the wording of an amendment (not the

motion).

Articles or Articles of Association: See Constitution.

By Laws:

Casting Vote: The extra (or second) vote given to the chair of a meeting in some rules when the
vote is tied. A wise chairperson will always exercise the casting vote to preserve the status quo.

The Closure: The name of the procedural motion “That the question be put”.

Constitution: The set or rules about how the organisation runs. Longer established organisations
may call the constitution the “Articles” or “Articles of Association” or “Memorandum and
Articles”.

The constitution may also have sets of by laws or standing orders which detail the way certain
aspects of the organisation run such as the meetings.

Deliberative Vote: The vote which the person in the chair has by virtue of their membership of
the organisation.

Ex Officio: Latin meaning “by virtue of his or her office”. Means that a person is present at a
meeting or a member of a group because they hold a particular office in the organisation such as
president.

Formal motion: Technically refers to certain motions for which the wording standard wording
applies such as confirmation of minutes or acceptance of correspondence. Often used to mean a
procedural motion.

Foreshadowing Motions and Amendments: Advising a meeting that you intend to move
another motion on the same subject (usually called a counter motion or amendment) at a later
time. Foreshadowing has no specific procedural significance and is very much more a strategy
move than a rule.

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In camera: Means “privately, not in public”. Used to refer to discussions where people who are
not members of the group are excluded from the room.

Main Motion: The substantive motion or the motion moved before any amendments are
considered. Sometimes referred to as the “Original Motion”.

Memorandum and Articles (of Association): See constitution.

Notice of Motion: The process of advising a meeting in advance (in writing) that you intend to
move a particular motion at the next meeting or a particular meeting (eg. AGM).

Notice Paper: The official document which lists and gives notice of the matters to be discussed.
The term used in meetings such as local government or legislatures for the agenda.

Null and Void: Having no legal force or effect and cannot be enforced. A decision which cannot
be enforced legally is said to be null and void.

Original Motion: The main motion or substantive motion moved before any amendments are
considered.

Other Business: A term often used for “General Business” or business for which notice has not
been received.

Percentage Majority: The specific majority required under certain rules for certain questions to
be carried. Usually 66% or 75% and used mainly in matters of significance such as increases in
fees or changes to constitutions.

Point of clarification: Meeting folklore – there is no such thing. You probably want to ask a
question.

Point of explanation: Meeting folklore – there is no such thing. You probably want to ask a
question.

Point of Order: Drawing a meeting’s attention to a breach or irregularity in the proceedings.

Presiding Member/Presiding Officer: The term used for the person who presides at or chairs a
meeting.

Previous Question: The name of the procedural motion “That the question be not now put”.

Procedural Motion: A motion which is used to decide on a particular procedure within a

meeting. Sometimes called a formal motion.

Question: The particular matter about which a decision is being made. A motion, once moved
and seconded is referred to as the question before the chair. Similarly, an amendment, once
moved and seconded, is the question before the chair.

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Quorum: The minimum number of people required as stated in the rules of an organisation, for
a meeting to be formally opened and transact business.

Rescission: The process of formally making a decision to reverse a previous decision.

Rescission cannot occur if action has already occurred as a result of the first decision.

Resolution: A term used to refer to a decision. A motion once carried becomes a resolution. The
term however, is often used in informal meetings or committee meetings where a decision is
made without taking a formal vote.

Second Vote: Another term for casting vote.

Simple majority: The number required to pass a resolution. Determined as one or more than
half of the total number of people present at a particular meeting and eligible to vote.

Sine Die: Latin meaning “without a day being named”. Used when not detailing date and time of
an adjournment.

Standing orders: The set of rules which detail how the meetings will run and how often and
also how the organisation will administer itself.

Status Quo: Means “previous position” or “nothing changed”. Often used in a tied vote so the
status quo is maintained. In other words, the previous position remains unchanged.

Sub Judice: A matter is still under judicial consideration and is not yet decided.

Substantive motions: Called “Main Motions” in this book to minimise confusion. A motion
which is used to suggest a particular course of action about an issue or project the organisation is
concerned about or involved with. A motion concerned with the “business” of the organisation,
not the procedures of the meeting..

Ultra Vires: Latin meaning “beyond the power”. Means that an action or proposed motion is
beyond the power of the organisation or outside its rules.

Types of Meetings
There are many different types of meetings; here we focus on those used to:

69
  Inform
 Consult
 Solve problems
 Make decisions

Informing Meetings

These are the most straightforward meetings where one member, usually the chairperson, has
factual information or a decision which affects all those present, which he/she wishes to
communicate. Such meetings tend to be formal as their aims are to give the members a real
understanding and to discuss any implications or how to put such information to best use.

Consulting Meetings

These are meetings used to discuss a specific policy or innovation and can be used to get
participants' views of such a policy or idea. An example could be:

 Review a current policy

 State its deficiencies
 Suggest change
 Stress the advantages of such change
 Admit any weaknesses
 Invite comments

Problem Solving Meetings

These meetings are dependent upon the chairperson describing the problem as clearly as
possible. Members should be selected according to their experience, expertise or interest and
then given as much information as possible to enable them to generate ideas, offer advice and
reach conclusions. (See also Problem Solving)

Decision Making Meetings

These types of meetings tend to follow an established method of procedure:

 Description of the problem

 Analysis of the problem
 Draw out ideas
 Decide which is best
 Reach conclusions

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(See Decision Making)

Many organisations hold regular meetings to enable members to report and discuss progress and
work in hand, to deliberate current and future planning. Such meetings can contain elements of
each of the four above examples.

Planning and Preparation for a Meeting

Interpersonal Communication Skills

Of prime importance for the success of any meeting is the attitude and leadership of the
chairperson. In a meeting, the chairperson is the leader and, as such, has to perform the same
function as the leader of any working group. For a meeting to be effective, the chairperson has
to:

 Plan, organise and control the discussion of subjects on the agenda.

 Maintain the group by encouraging and developing harmonious relationships.
 Motivate the individuals by encouraging all to contribute, rewarding their efforts and
supporting them in any difficulties.

Before any meeting, the chairperson should ask and resolve the following questions:

 What is the purpose of the meeting?

 Is a meeting appropriate?
 How should the meeting be planned?
 Who should attend the meeting?
 What preparation is required for the meeting?

What is the Purpose of the Meeting?

All meetings must have a purpose or aim and the chairperson must ask themself such questions
as:

 What is to be achieved by this meeting?

 Is advice required on a particular issue?
 Has a problem arisen that needs prompt discussion?
 Is this a regular meeting to keep members 'in touch'?

Is a Meeting Appropriate?

The chairperson should always consider whether a meeting is necessary or if some other means
of communication is more appropriate,for example memos or emails targeted to individuals
inviting comment. Unnecessary meetings may waste time, lead to frustration and negativity and
may lower motivation to participate in future meetings.

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How Should the Meeting be Planned?

This will very much depend on the type of meeting to be held. There should be some rationale
behind every meeting, no matter how low-level or informal, and this will largely dictate the
content and indicate how planning should proceed.

Who Will Attend the Meeting?

This is often decided by the nature of the meeting itself. In a small organisation, a meeting
could well include all members of staff, whereas a working party or committee meeting will
already have its members pre-determined. In a large organisation or department, staff attending
might well be representing others. It is important that the full implications of such representation
are realised by the individuals concerned as they are not merely speaking for themselves.
Meetings outside the workplace may include members of the board of directors or other
interested parties.

What Preparations are Needed for the Meeting?

If maximum contribution is to be forthcoming from all participants, the purpose of the meeting
should be recognised by all. The most tangible expression of this is the agenda which should be
circulated beforehand to all those invited to the meeting. The agenda should:

 Give the time and place of the meeting.

 List the topics to be covered, indicating who will introduce them.
 Have any relevant papers attached.
 Give the time the meeting will close.

The Agenda: This is the outline plan for the meeting. In most formal meetings it is drawn up
by the secretary in consultation with the chairperson. The secretary must circulate the agenda
well in advance of the meeting, including any accompanying papers. The secretary also requests
items for inclusions in the agenda.

Regular meetings often start with the minutes from the last meeting followed by 'matters
arising' which forms a link with what has happened in the previous meeting. Most meetings
conclude with 'any other business' (AOB) which gives everyone the opportunity for any genuine
last minute items to be raised; though more formal meetings may have AOB items listed on the
agenda. An example of an agenda might be:

 Apologies for absence.

 Minutes of last meeting.
 Matters arising (from minutes of last meeting).
 Item 1 -Training & Development
 Item 2 - Report on Funding.
 Item 3 - Finance & Equipment

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  A.O.B.
 Time and date of next meeting.

There can of course be more items on the agenda.

KANGUNDO ROAD MEDICAL ASSOCIATION

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF KANGUNDO ROAD MEDICAL ASSOCIATION

HELD ON FRIDAY, 26TH MARCH 2010 AT 10.00 A.M. AT THE KAYOLE HOSPITAL CONFERENCE
ROOM

Present

1. Dr. John Odongo Chairman

2. Dr. Jane Kioko Member
3. Dr. Agnes Mworia Member
4. Prof. Francis Kamau Member
5. Dr. Aggrey Oira Member
6. Mr. James Lalampaa Membrer
7. Ms Susan Kariuki Member
8. Miss Dorcas Kanai Member
9. Dr. David Njoroge Treasurer
10. Mrs. Catherine Mjoba Secretary
Absent with Apology

1. Dr. Roseline Mwendo On safari to Sudan

2. Dr. Davdson Nkadu On duty in Nakuru
3. Dr. Julius Odongo On duty in Mombasa
4. Mrs June Keter On maternity Leave
MIN 1/10/21: PRELIMINARIES

The chairman called the meeting to order at 10.00 a.m. Opening prayers were
conducted by Dr. David Njoroge. The agenda for the day was presented as follows:

(i) Preliminaries
(ii) Reading and Confirming Minutes of Last Meeting
(iii) Matters Arising
(iv) Housing Re;port
(v) Treasurer’s Rep;ort
(vi) Any Other Business

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The Agenda was proposed by Mrs. Catherine Mjoba and seconded by Mr. James Lalampaa and
was adopted.

MIN 2/10/21: READING AND CONFIRMING MINUTES OF THE LAST MEETING

Minutes of the last meeting held on 20th December 2009 were read, corrected and
confirmed as a true record of the business transacted on the day. The minutes were proposed
by Dr Agnes Mworia and seconded by Prof. Francis Kamau. The minutes were adopted for
discussion.

MIN 2/10/21: MATTERS ARISING

The following matters arose from the minutes under discussion:

(a) Excursion: Members appreciated the organization of the excursion to Lake Bogoria
during the month of March. They had time to bond and to make amends for any
disagreements which may have taken place during the various discussions. Everybody
enjoyed the excursion to the full. Credit was given to Dr.Agnes Mworia for making all
arrangements of travel and accommodation.
(b) Bereavement: Prof. Francis Kamau thanked members for supporting him during the
demise of his beloved father. The Association was ably represented by five members
who condoled the family.
(c) Dividends: Members observed that the dividends received in the previous financial year
were not sufficient and felt that they got a raw deal. Most felt that they should have
received at least seven per cent but only received five per cent. The treasurer
responded by informing members that during the year in question, members did not
borrow from the Association since they had received hefty salary increases from their
employer.
MIN 3/10/21: HOUSING REPORT

The housing committee led by Ms Susan Kariuki reported that at the time of the meeting,
the Association had acquired twenty acres of prime land at Runda. At the same time, the
housing units which were under construction in Taasia – Embakasi were nearing
completion. Members would be requested to set up a day to view both the Runda land and
the houses in Taasia. It was further reported that the land at Runda cost sixty million which
had been approved by the members during the last Annual General Meeting. The
Supervisory Committee had all along been involved in the developments of the said
acquisitions and developments.

Members expressed satisfaction with the progress. They authorized the Chairman to set

74
 out a date when members would visit the two sites and view the developments made in the
interim period.

MIN 4/10/21: TREASURER’S REPORT

The Treasurer tabled the balance sheet for the year. He presented some exerpts from his
report. It was observed that during the financial period in question, a lot of money had
been saved because of outsourcing some services. At the same time, members had not
spent a lot of money on allowances which had boosted the returns to the Association. The
Treasurer proposed a dividend at eight per cent. This motion was unanimously carried.

There being no other business, the meeting ended at 2.00 p.m. closing prayers were
conducted by Dr. Jane Kioko.

MINUTES APPROVED FOR CIRCULATION

____________________________________
____________________________________

CHAIRMAN SECRETARY

_____________________________________ ____________________________________

DATE DATE

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Conducting a Meeting
Continued from Meetings

If appropriate preparations have been made, then the scene is set for an effective meeting.
Participants will arrive knowing what is to be discussed and with sufficient background
information to make relevant contributions. If appropriate, they will have consulted with people
they represent and discussed any pertinent issues.

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The Skills of the Chairperson

In a more formal meeting, the chairperson will outline the purpose of the meeting and remind
members why they are there. In such a meeting there is little need to refer to this procedure as
this is implicit in the established etiquette, namely:

 The chairperson controls the meeting.

 All remarks are addressed through the chair.
 Members do not interrupt each other.
 Members aim to reach a consensus.
 A vote is taken if consensus is not reached.
 The majority wins the vote.
 All members accept the majority decision.

This is one model but alternative models may be adopted.

When discussion is underway, it is the chairperson's responsibility to ensure that it continues to

flow smoothly by involving all members present and by not permitting one or two people to
dominate the meeting. Summarising by the chairperson during meetings can:

 Indicate progress, or lack of.

 Refocus discussion that has wandered off the point.
 Conclude one point and lead into the next.
 Highlight important points.
 Assist the secretary if necessary.
 Clarify any misunderstanding.

The chairperson should pace the meeting, ensuring it runs to time. If the planning has been
properly executed, this should not prove to be a problem. At the end of a meeting, the
chairperson should remind members what they have achieved and thank them for their
contributions. Finally, the time and date of the next meeting should be arranged. Again it is to
be noted that this is one model and that succesful outcomes can be achieved in different ways
with different strategies for different purposes.

The Role of the Members

While emphasis has been placed on the role of the chairperson, the participation of all members
is of great importance. To ensure an effective meeting, all participants should:

 Undertake any necessary preparation prior to the meeting.

 Arrive on time.
 Keep an open mind.

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  Listen to the opinions of others.
 Participate.
 Avoid dominating the proceedings.
 Avoid conflict situations.
 Avoid side conversations which distract others.
 Ask questions to clarify understanding.
 Note down any action agreed upon.
 After the meeting, undertake any agreed action and brief others as appropriate.

Why Meetings May be Ineffective

Also see: Negotiation

There are many reasons why meetings are not effective, some of which are listed below:

 The meeting is unnecessary and revolves around discussion of trivial issues, thus wasting
members’ valuable time.
 The meeting lacks a clarity of purpose, i.e., the aims and objectives are not clearly defined.
 Inappropriate style of leadership, i.e., the chairperson dominates and closes down or disregards
other contributions.
 The chairperson exercises little control and allows one or two members to dominate the
proceedings.
 The meeting is too large thereby limiting the flow of discussion and preventing all members being
able to contribute.
 Decisions emerge that are not truly representative.
 Problems are talked about rather than being talked through.
 Decisions are delayed or not acted upon.
 No clear-cut decisions are made.
 Minutes are inaccurate or seen as being manipulated by the chairperson or secretary for his/her
own purposes.
 The wrong people are present, thus preventing the meeting proceeding effectively, e.g., those
present have to refer back to another person and are therefore unable to comment effectively.

Summary
There are many types of meetings and many reasons why meetings may be ineffective. For
meetings to be effective, participation is required from all those present. The key skills of
communication and listening are all important. To ensure the success of a meeting, good
preparation is essential and the role of the chairperson is paramount. If these conditions are met,
then all participants will leave a meeting feeling a sense of accomplishment

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77
Roles in Groups
See Also our Leadership Skills Section

This article looks at the various roles people take on as part of a group. The roles and
responsibilities of the leader or facilitator and the individual members working within the
group or team are examined. The word 'role' refers to how a person will behave and what
function they will perform within the group as a whole. Group roles are not necessarily static –
people may adopt different roles at different times during the group’s lifecycle. Likewise the
role of the leader or facilitator will change and evolve as group dynamics change and evolve
over time.

Leadership/Facilitator Roles

The term ‘facilitator’ is sometimes used rather than leader, because the role is often not so much
one of directing, than enabling the group to achieve its aims. In many groups, the leader may
eventually take a back seat, handing over the leadership role to other members of the group.

There are many different theories of leadership and people have tried to describe leaders in many
different ways. White & Lippett identified three styles of leadership: autocratic; democratic; and
laissez-faire in 1960, these styles are still used today to define different leader types. Different
styles of leadership may be appropriate at different stages in a group’s development. Different
people with different personalities will adopt different leadership styles – some may be more
appropriate than others at any given time. Leaders may change their style and/or adapt a style
that encompasses more than one of the styles listed here:

Autocratic

The Autocratic leader takes full control of the group and dictates what will happen – the
direction of the group and the steps needed to complete the aims and objectives. Autocratic
leaders tend to praise and criticize individuals with the group, rather than the group as a whole.
Although very much in control of the direction of the group the autocratic leader will tend to
distance themselves from the actual work of the group after having told the group what to do.

Democratic

The Democratic leader runs the group as a democracy, giving choice whenever possible and
appropriate. The democratic leader will allow group members to decide how they wish to work
in order to best complete the aims and objectives of the group. The democratic leader is more
likely to be present in the group, offering advice and alternative ways of accomplishing a task
when appropriate.

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Laissez-Faire

The Laissez-Faire leader is very laid back in their approach. Laissez-Faire leaders give
complete freedom to individual and group decisions and rarely make suggestions or attempt to
direct the group in any particular way. Although happy to help with advice and supply
information the lasses-faire leader will only do so when asked. It could be argued that the
laissez-faire leader does not lead at all, in the traditional sense of the word, they are often a
figure-head with expert knowledge that can be called upon if needed by the group.

Fred Fiedler developed the Contingency Theory of Leadership in 1967, suggesting that when a
group situation is highly favourable or unfavourable to the leader a task-oriented approach is
more effective. When however a group situation is only moderately favourable to the leader then
a relationship-oriented style is more appropriate.
There are two basic types of task leadership and group maintenance leadership:

 Task Leadership Roles usually include giving and seeking information from the group, asking the
opinions of all group members, keeping the group energised, evaluating performance and giving
direction to the group.
 Maintenance Leadership Roles usually include encouraging engagement of group members,
relieving any tensions that form within the group, building rapport, trust and respect, resolving
conflict and drawing people into the group – increasing cohesiveness.

Groups often require both types of leadership, as individuals within the group tend to fall into
one of the two categories; that is they are either more task or relationship (maintenance)
orientated. Some leadership roles may need to be taken by other members of the group in order
to compensate for this mismatch in psychology.

Team Roles
What are Groups and Teams?

To understand how a group operates it is necessary not only to look that the role of the group
leader but also at the roles of the individual members of the group. We use the word ‘role’ in
this context to describe how people behave, contribute and relate with others, in other words we
attempt to categorise personality types so that strengths and weaknesses can be identified and
recognised amongst the group members. Meredith Belbin’s work on Team Roles or Functions is
often used to investigate how individuals behave or what functions they perform in a group.

Belbin identifies nine group roles, or clusters of behaviour. These roles have been categorised as
either function (or task-oriented) or cerebral (people-oriented), fitting with the task and
relationship roles of leadership as described above. Belbin’s team roles are:

79
Shaper:

The Shaper is a dynamic, outgoing member of the team; they are often argumentative,
provocative and impatient. These traits may mean that they cause friction with other, especially
people-orientated, members of the group. Due to the personality of the Shaper they push the
group towards agreement and decision making, keen to remove barriers and embrace challenges.

Implementer:

Implementers get things done – they have the ability of transforming discussions and ideas into
practical activities. Implementers are conscientious, wanting things to be done properly. They
are very practical and organised in nature hence their ability to get the job done. Implementers
can be stuck in their ways, not always open to new ideas and way of doing things. Implementers
would rather stick to old, tried and tested methods than to embrace change and innovation.

Completer-Finisher:

The Completer/Finisher is a task-orientated member of the group and as their name implies they
like to complete tasks. The Completer/Finisher can be an anxious person worried about
deadlines and targets – they are perfectionists and have good attention to detail but also worry
about delegating tasks. They would rather do something themselves and know that it was done
properly than delegate to somebody else.

Coordinator/ Chairperson:

The Coordinator is often a calm, positive and charismatic member of the team. Coordinators
take on leadership or chairperson roles by clarifying goals and objectives, helping to allocate
roles, responsibilities and duties within the group. The Coordinator has excellent interpersonal
skills, being able to communicate effectively with team members through good listening, verbal
and non-verbal communication.

Team Worker:

The Team Worker helps by giving support and encouragement to the other members of the
team. This team-oriented member is concerned about how others in the team are managing.
Team Workers have sensitive, outgoing personalities and are happy to listen and act as the team
counsellor. Team Workers are usually popular members of the team, able to effectively
negotiate and work towards the good of the group. Team Workers can, however, be indecisive in
group decisions – torn between the welfare of members and the ability of the team to deliver.

Resource Investigator:

The Resource Investigator is a strong communicator, good at negotiating with people outside the
team and gathering external information and resources. Resource Investigators are curious and
sociable in their nature they are open to new ideas and ways of accomplishing tasks. Being
flexible, innovative and open to change, Resource Investigators are listened to by other team
80
members. Sometimes, however, they are unrealistic in their optimism.

Plant:

The Plant is an intellectual and individualistic member of the team. The Plant is innovative and
will suggest new and creative ways of problem solving within the team. Sometimes the ideas of
the Plant may be impracticable due to their highly creative nature – they may ignore known
constraints when developing their ideas. Plants are often introverts who may have poor
communication skills, they are loners and enjoy working away from the rest of the group.

Monitor Evaluator:

The Monitor Evaluator is unlikely to get aroused in group discussions – they tend to be clever
and unemotional, often detected from other members of the team. They critically evaluate and
analyse the proposals, ideas and contributions of others in the team. Monitor Evaluators
carefully weigh up advantages and disadvantages, strengths and weaknesses of ideas and
proposals and therefore are usually good decision makers.

Specialist:

The Specialist has expert knowledge in some area that is vital to the success of the group. The
specialist provides knowledge and skills in this narrow area. Dwelling on practicalities in their
expert area the Specialist may have problems applying their expertise to the wider goals of the
team. Specialists tend to be single-minded and professional.

Summary of Roles

It is perfectly possible for people to adapt to different team roles at different times. Although
you may recognise your personality type in the descriptions above you will almost certainly
adopt different roles in different scenarios. Team roles often become more prevalent when a
team or group has had time to reach maturity and develop cohesiveness.

Find more at: http://www.skillsyouneed.co.uk/IPS/roles_in_groups.html#ixzz2Kr1sTSKY

FORMAL REPORT WRITING

PLANNING, WRITING AND ORGANIZING A REPORT

Writing report is no different than sitting down to write a letter in terms of the

approach taken.

1. Determine your purpose(s).

81
2. Consider your audience.
3. Analyze the problem(s).

4. Conduct your research.

5. Evaluate your results.

6. Prepare your outline.

1. Determine Your Purpose(s)

a) what need will your finished report will satisfy?

report to the client

reference for future cases

the rationale for the legal costs

an explanation of why the case should/should not be pursued

all of the above?

b) what decisions will be made as a result of your report?

to appeal or not to appeal?

to continue on as legal counsel for the client?

c) is the report informational, interpretive or analytical?

are you simply “reporting” on what happened or are you also offering your

opinion and recommendations?

d) what needs to be determined?

is it the justification/explanation of the judge’s decision?

the estimated cost?

explanation of the course taken and the reasons the course failed or

succeeded

You can narrow the focus of your investigation where possible by sorting out:

which issue(s) is(are) important to your case and why

who is involved

82
where the potential problem(s) is(are)
When all of this is done, prepare a written statement of purpose to help guide all

other efforts in putting the report together.

2. Consider Your Audience

who are the primary recipients?

who are the secondary recipients?

the needs of all of the readers must be considered

3. Analyze the Problem/Issue(s)

determine what information you need (preliminary work for this is done when

determining the purpose of the report)

a. what is(are) the issue(s)?

b. what caused the issue(s) to arise?

c. how will the issue(s) be resolved/argued/explained/defended?

this becomes your research checklist

try to factor your problems/issues into a series of questions for analysis

4. Conduct Your Research

identify primary and secondary sources of research

primary sources include unpublished information such as surveys, interviews,

experiments, questionnaires, personal observation and organizational files to

name a few

secondary sources include published information such as books, magazines,

Newspapers, government reports, etc.

both sources are required in order to prepare a formal report

ALL sources used are referenced in your formal report on a list that can be

called a source list, bibliography, reference list, et.

5. Prepare a Work Plan

83
use it as your work outline
use it to confirm purpose, nature, methods, and other important

considerations with the person who authorized the report or the intended

receiver

6. Conduct the Research & Analyze the Results

have you collected all of the information you need to answer your reader’s

questions about each issue as defined in the purpose of the report?

what is the answer to the initial research question?

what gaps in information exist? why?

what conclusions can be drawn from the information?

are they reasonable and logical?

what action(s) should be taken?

7. Conclusions & Recommendations

once you have analyzed your results and you are satisfied with them, you can

formulate conclusions and recommendations

COMPONENTS OF A FORMAL REPORT

A. Front Matter/Prefatory Parts

B. Body of Report

C. Back Matter/Supplementary Parts

FRONT MATTER/PREFATORY PARTS

cover

title fly

title page

letter of authorization

letter of acceptance

letter/memo of transmittal

84
table of contents
list of illustrations

Cover

gives report a professional appearance (often printed on heavier stock)

includes title and subtitle (author’s name and date are optional)

Title Fly

contains only the report title and is optional, follows cover page

Title Page

contains title and subtitle

“prepared for” name, title, address of person for whom report is intended

“prepared by” author’s name, title, company, dept., address, phone, fax

date of submission

Letter of Authorization/Acceptance

these items are included if applicable (usually when considerable time and

money are being used in preparing the report and/or sensitive or negative

information is involved

Letter of Transmittal

also called a cover letter, officially conveys report to the reader

identifies the report being sent, the person to whom it’s directed and reason

for sending

communicates the purpose of the report but detailed summary and

conclusions are not included here as they form part of the executive summary

written in informal tone, also a good place to acknowledge work of others

generally close with goodwill messages

should include all elements of a formal letter, even if not being mailed (inside

address for example)

85
Table of Contents
list of the report’s primary and secondary headings

reveals report’s overall structure

page numbers are placed next to each heading – leaders (…….) join the

heading to the page number

List of Illustrations

appears on a separate page immediately following the table of contents

lists all figures and tables (visual aids) that are included in the document

may be referred to as “exhibits”

title and page number of every illustration must be included

BODY OF REPORT
executive summary

introduction

body/text discussion

summary

conclusions

recommendations

Synopsis or Executive Summary

an overview of what the report says, it is a condensed version of the report

it is one of the most important parts of a report as it is often referred to in

order to reference critical/key points

in addition, it is often used as the main document circulated to several people

when the entire report is too lengthy

the summary is either descriptive or informative in nature

descriptive summaries are synopses that act like expanded table of contents

that tell the reader what to expect in the pages to follow – they state what the

86
report is intended to accomplish in terms of scope and purpose (scope refers
to any limitations that define the report’s coverage)

informative summaries are an abbreviated version of the actual report

including conclusions, recommendations and a description of the purpose,

scope and methods used

information in an executive summary is presented in the same order that it

comes in the actual report

should not contain tables, charts, footnotes, jargon, abbreviations or exhibits

should contain headings that will help the reader

bulleted and numbered lists are appropriate to use in executive summaries

can be up to 1/10 of the length of the actual report although it is

recommended that it be shorter if at all possible

Introduction

acts as an opening to your entire report

has six basic functions: clarify the subject (definitions, background

information, historical background), state the purpose of the report (e.g. your

report provides an overview or presents a new approach to an old problem),

define the scope of the report (how broad your coverage of the information

will be), describe your plan for developing your subject (chronological, cause

& effect), clarify your research methods (e.g. describe a survey that was the

source of your data), set the style of the report (use of informal/formal

language)

most challenging part of the report to write, often written after the report is

completed

Body/Text Discussion

this is the substance of the report

87
record of your ideas, content of your data (arranged by chronological, cause
and effect, deductive/inductive methods)

headings are used to guide the reader through the content which follows

whatever order allows the information to be presented in a logical sequence

Summary

condenses the most important information from the report

presented in the same order as the information appears in the body of the

report

Conclusions

logical results of the evidence presented in the report

must be linked to purpose and methods described in the introduction

to write effective conclusions: a) assume that your conclusions will be read

independently of the rest of the report; restate your purpose and methods

avoiding jargon/abbreviations b) organize your results according to how they

are presented in the body of your report (usually, most important conclusions

first)

Recommendations

specific actions you suggest as a result of the information you have

presented

should be financially realistic and appropriate to the problem

must flow logically from the findings of your report (findings must support the

recommendations)

BACK MATTER/SUPPLEMENTARY PARTS

bibliography

appendices

glossary

88
index
Bibliography

a list of references used in researching the report

lists all references used, regardless of whether you cited them specifically in

your report

alphabetized

Appendices

all supportive material, data, charts, etc., that are either secondary to the

main issues in your report or that are too bulky to include in the body of the

report

examples include surveys, interviews, text of legal statues, etc.

each appendix should be limited to one type of supplemental material e.g.

Appendix A – Statutes, Appendix B – Court Documents, Appendix C –

Witness Statements, etc.

Glossary

an alphabetized list of words with definitions or explanations that are

unfamiliar or technical in nature

Index

an alphabetized list of report topics that includes the page on which the topic

appears

usually reserved for long, complex reports

Taken from: Business Communication: Process and Product, 2nd Edition, Guffey etal.

Office Etiquette Essentials

Office Etiquette Essentials
Taken individually these infractions seem minor: You forget to put your cellphone on vibrate,

89
and suddenly “Disco Inferno” is blaring through the conference room. You order a pastrami
sandwich for lunch, unaware that a cubicle wall away your co-workers are gagging from the
smell. You let your eyes swerve to your computer screen while a junior associate tells you about
her relationship problems.

While these might seem like small slips, they can create deep resentments between co-workers.
“It’s like a marriage. It’s the little things that get under your skin and mount up after awhile,”
says Jacqueline Whitmore, founder of EtiquetteExpert.com and author of Business Class.

Christine Pearson, professor of management at Thunderbird School of Global Management in

Glendale, Ariz. and coauthor of The Cost of Bad Behavior, says 96% of Americans report
experiencing rudeness at work, and 48% say they are treated uncivilly at least once a week.

In Pictures: How To Annoy Your Co-Workers Without Really Trying

This kind of manners meltdown can have a direct affect on the bottom line. According to surveys
conducted by Pearson and her colleagues, 48% of poorly treated employees have intentionally
decreased their productivity and 12% say the boorish behavior compelled them to quit.
Workplace rudeness costs employers an average of $50,000 per worker. “There are very high
costs associated with even seemingly inconsequential inconsiderate words and actions,” adds
Pearson.

The good news, however, is that most of us don’t intend to offend, says Peter Post, a director at
the Emily Post Institute and author of The Etiquette Advantage in Business. “The vast majority
of employees don’t want to be rude to their co-workers. They want to be liked,” says Post.

The problem, he says, comes when people fail to examine their behavior from other people’s
perspectives. The account executive who can easily tune out her co-workers’ conversations
might not realize that her own voice carries across three departments. Meanwhile, she’s
infuriated each time she goes into the kitchen and sees the IT director’s dirty dishes–does he
think she’s his mother? He does not, says Post. “He’s just thinking, ‘I’ll get to them in a little
while, because that’s how my brain works.’ You have two competing ideas of what is proper
behavior,” says Post.

Overwhelmed and Under-Mannered

Misunderstandings like this are compounded by the fact that an increasing number of offices are
set up with open floor plans or cubicles. “We’re working in tighter spaces, hearing each other’s
conversations, smelling each other’s lunch,” says author Whitmore.

We’re also more distracted than ever by technology. Sara, a public relations manager from
Overland Park, Kan., describes her frustration with a co-worker who stays glued to his
BlackBerry during team meetings. “The implication is that he is so important that staying in
touch with the world is more important than our weekly team meeting and even our VP’s time,”
she complains.

90
Of course the smartphone-addicted employee probably doesn’t think he’s being rude. On the
contrary, he thinks he’s doing a good job by responding to customer needs in real time. Beverly
Langford, president of LMA Communication and author of The Etiquette Edge, says that the
expectation that employees be immediately accessible 24/7–and the increasing number of ways
in which they can be reached–has caused employees to feel more overwhelmed and less mindful
of their P’s and Q’s.

“We are asked to do more with less,” says Langford. “Technology, which was supposed to make
our lives easier, has increased expectations on our productivity. Deadlines are shorter, and we are
required to handle multiple situations and tasks.”

The added pressure and information overload also make us increasingly irritated and snappy
when, for example, a co-worker pops by to ask a quick question. “Each time there is an
interruption, we have to start over again,” Langford says.

A Return to Courtesy

When confronting a colleague about his or her annoying behavior, focus on solving the problem
and maintaining the relationship rather than venting your anger or embarrassing the other
person, advises Post. Speak to them in private and let them know that if the situation were
reversed, you hope they’d approach you about it. Ask the perpetrator if she was aware of the
effect her actions had on others–i.e., “Were you aware of how distracting it is to smell your
anchovy pizza every day?”–and discuss possible solutions.

To ensure you also aren’t unwittingly driving co-workers to distraction, start viewing your
actions from the perspective of those around you. So instead of automatically writing the e-mail
in text-speak because it’s faster, ask yourself if this seems professional–or even intelligible–to
the recipient. “Make the choice that builds the relationship, rather than just the one that is good
for you,” says Post.

However, even the most self-aware person can have blind spots, so Pearson suggests asking a
trusted colleague if there are areas in which you can improve. If you’re the boss, get feedback
via anonymous surveys from your staff. You might also consider hiring a coach to shadow you.

And quit multitasking, says Pearson. Not only is it insulting to others, but it doesn’t work–
research has shown that multitasking reduces both your effectiveness and your efficiency.

Finally, make sure the words “please,” “thank you” and “you’re welcome” are a regular part of
your vocabulary. “In many of the cases it requires only a minor change,” says Pearson. “Just
saying ‘Thanks, great job’ can make a world of difference.”

Taken individually these infractions seem minor: You forget to put your cellphone on vibrate,
and suddenly “Disco Inferno” is blaring through the conference room. You order a pastrami
sandwich for lunch, unaware that a cubicle wall away your co-workers are gagging from the
smell. You let your eyes swerve to your computer screen while a junior associate tells you about
her relationship problems.

91
While these might seem like small slips, they can create deep resentments between co-workers.
“It’s like a marriage. It’s the little things that get under your skin and mount up after awhile,”
says Jacqueline Whitmore, founder of EtiquetteExpert.com and author of Business Class.

Christine Pearson, professor of management at Thunderbird School of Global Management in

Glendale, Ariz. and coauthor of The Cost of Bad Behavior, says 96% of Americans report
experiencing rudeness at work, and 48% say they are treated uncivilly at least once a week.

In Pictures: How To Annoy Your Co-Workers Without Really Trying

This kind of manners meltdown can have a direct affect on the bottom line. According to surveys
conducted by Pearson and her colleagues, 48% of poorly treated employees have intentionally
decreased their productivity and 12% say the boorish behavior compelled them to quit.
Workplace rudeness costs employers an average of $50,000 per worker. “There are very high
costs associated with even seemingly inconsequential inconsiderate words and actions,” adds
Pearson.

The good news, however, is that most of us don’t intend to offend, says Peter Post, a director at
the Emily Post Institute and author of The Etiquette Advantage in Business. “The vast majority
of employees don’t want to be rude to their co-workers. They want to be liked,” says Post.

The problem, he says, comes when people fail to examine their behavior from other people’s
perspectives. The account executive who can easily tune out her co-workers’ conversations
might not realize that her own voice carries across three departments. Meanwhile, she’s
infuriated each time she goes into the kitchen and sees the IT director’s dirty dishes–does he
think she’s his mother? He does not, says Post. “He’s just thinking, ‘I’ll get to them in a little
while, because that’s how my brain works.’ You have two competing ideas of what is proper
behavior,” says Post.

Overwhelmed and Under-Mannered

Misunderstandings like this are compounded by the fact that an increasing number of offices are
set up with open floor plans or cubicles. “We’re working in tighter spaces, hearing each other’s
conversations, smelling each other’s lunch,” says author Whitmore.

We’re also more distracted than ever by technology. Sara, a public relations manager from
Overland Park, Kan., describes her frustration with a co-worker who stays glued to his
BlackBerry during team meetings. “The implication is that he is so important that staying in
touch with the world is more important than our weekly team meeting and even our VP’s time,”
she complains.

Of course the smartphone-addicted employee probably doesn’t think he’s being rude. On the
contrary, he thinks he’s doing a good job by responding to customer needs in real time. Beverly
Langford, president of LMA Communication and author of The Etiquette Edge, says that the
expectation that employees be immediately accessible 24/7–and the increasing number of ways
in which they can be reached–has caused employees to feel more overwhelmed and less mindful

92
of their P’s and Q’s.

“We are asked to do more with less,” says Langford. “Technology, which was supposed to make
our lives easier, has increased expectations on our productivity. Deadlines are shorter, and we are
required to handle multiple situations and tasks.”

The added pressure and information overload also make us increasingly irritated and snappy
when, for example, a co-worker pops by to ask a quick question. “Each time there is an
interruption, we have to start over again,” Langford says.

A Return to Courtesy

When confronting a colleague about his or her annoying behavior, focus on solving the problem
and maintaining the relationship rather than venting your anger or embarrassing the other
person, advises Post. Speak to them in private and let them know that if the situation were
reversed, you hope they’d approach you about it. Ask the perpetrator if she was aware of the
effect her actions had on others–i.e., “Were you aware of how distracting it is to smell your
anchovy pizza every day?”–and discuss possible solutions.

To ensure you also aren’t unwittingly driving co-workers to distraction, start viewing your
actions from the perspective of those around you. So instead of automatically writing the e-mail
in text-speak because it’s faster, ask yourself if this seems professional–or even intelligible–to
the recipient. “Make the choice that builds the relationship, rather than just the one that is good
for you,” says Post.

However, even the most self-aware person can have blind spots, so Pearson suggests asking a
trusted colleague if there are areas in which you can improve. If you’re the boss, get feedback
via anonymous surveys from your staff. You might also consider hiring a coach to shadow you.

And quit multitasking, says Pearson. Not only is it insulting to others, but it doesn’t work–
research has shown that multitasking reduces both your effectiveness and your efficiency.

Finally, make sure the words “please,” “thank you” and “you’re welcome” are a regular part of
your vocabulary. “In many of the cases it requires only a minor change,” says Pearson. “Just
saying ‘Thanks, great job’ can make a world of difference.”

PUBLIC RELATIONS AND CUSTOMER CARE

What is public relations/customer care?
Public relations is about deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain
understanding between an organization and its public. the main goals of public relations/customer care
is to enhance a company’s reputation. it also entails assisting the customers if they have any problems
with the company. public relations also helps the company to achieve its full potential. they provide
feedback to the company from the public. This usually takes the form of research regarding what ares
the public is most happy and unhappy with.

93
Public Relations and customer care are about communication with the various publics. It can be viewed
to consist of all planned communications outwards and inwards between the organization and its
publics for the purpose of achieving specific objectives such as mutual understanding. With this in
mind, it is important for the PRO (Public Relations Officer) to have tools which she/he can use so as to
communicate effectively with the publics.

It would be important to note that previously, the government departments did not employ the services
of Public Relations Officers. However, today, every government department as well and parastatals have
customer care departments. Even the Government has a ‘Government Spokesman”

> Aspect of communications that involves promoting a desirable image for a person or group
seeking public attention.

> Form of communication that is primarily directed toward gaining public understanding and
acceptance. It tends to deal with issues rather than specifically with products or services. Public
relations uses publicity that does not necessitate payment in a wide variety of media and is often placed
as news or items of public interest. Because public relations communications are placed in this manner,
they offer a legitimacy that advertising does not have, since advertising is publicity that is paid for. The
practice of PR is used to build rapport with the various publics a company, individual, or organization
may have (i.e., employees, customers, stockholders, voters, competitors, or the general population).
Publicity releases, employee-training seminars, and house organs are examples of instruments used in
public relations

The Importance of Public Relations

The Public Relations Department seeks to foster the organization of human relations on the basis of
cooperation and harmony to ensure mutual understanding among various cultural, economic and social
institutions on the one hand and the public on the other in order to establish friendly relations between the
public and proper organization of various types.

Goals of Public Relations

Some of the main goals of public relations are to create, maintain, and protect the organization's
reputation, enhance its prestige, and present a favorable image. Studies have shown that consumers often
base their purchase decisions on a company's reputation, so public relations can have a definite impact on
sales and revenue. Public relations can be an effective part of a company's overall marketing strategy. In
the case of a for-profit company, public relations and marketing should be coordinated to be sure they are
working to achieve the same objectives.

94
The Need For Public Relations:

Public Relations as an activity and public relations contacts can be external or internal. The external
relations target the public outside in the external environment, while internal relations concern the staff
within the institution. External relations interrelate with internal relations to gain the trust of the
public dealing with the University and to obtain support for its policies and strategies through real and
genuine media.

Many organizations use the following techniques to communicate with the publics of the organization:

 Press
 Private Media
 Conferences
 Sponsorship
 Exhibitions

The Concepts and Principles of Public Relations and Fundamentals of the Concept

These are the aids that are used by institutions and organizations to create a climate of mutual trust with
their employees and clientele in particular and the public in general, in order to obtain support
for University policies and to encourage continued development. An effort is made to represent the
University as an integrated group that harmonizes socially and generates economic activity within the
framework of institutional loyalty and providing factual and clear information. These principles
and concepts depend on three basic criteria:

1. The common public interest.

2. The introduction of a unified concept to all.
3. Being free from any concept of advocates and advertising.

The active role of public relations with the internal and external public:

Public relations can be divided into two types:

 External Public Relations: The activities relating to communications between the

institution and the public space include the role of external relations and its impact on the
public and effective support through the supply of real data and information through
various media to serve the public, to transfer the vast amount of information and to
identify reactions to announced and public activity.
 Internal Public Relations: The activities related to communications with the public. These
depend on gaining the understanding and trust of employees, resisting
mistaken notions, and encouraging employees to feel like they belong to the institution

95
 and to act in team spirit. To achieve this result, reliable media and other means such as
meetings, publications, and various activities are planned and executed.

Many PR plans focus on four different types of publics:

 internal publics
 external publics

Internal publics include everyone who is an integral part of the organization. Employees are the most
obvious and most numerous internal publics; others include stockholders, employees' families, and
other closely-tied associates.

In the preliminary stages of planning, any group or sub-group that has a distinguishing characteristic that
sets it apart should be listed as a separate public or potential target audience. Instead of listing
employees as a single public, for instance, it would be much better to distinguish hourly employees,
salaried employees, factory workers, clerical staff, maintenance workers, day shift employees, night shift
employees, full-time employees, part-time employees, probationary employees, front-line supervisors,
middle-managers, department heads, women, men, etc. That way you're less likely to overlook anyone
or to ignore distinguishing characteristics that might make their perceptions of the organization different
than other people's or that might affect the best ways of communicating with them.

Don't be concerned if the groups are not mutually exclusive. It's highly likely that some people will fit in
more than one of them. Using the examples cited above, an employee could be in all of the following
groups: salaried employees, factory worker, night shift employees, middle-manager, and women. We all
belong to many different publics and groups, and their importance to us and our consciousness of them
changes constantly depending on the circumstances in which we find ourselves. And, just as these
"memberships" have shifting significance to us, there may be occasions when First Prize Glass wants to
talk to its employee as a night shift worker, other times when it wants to talk to her as a middle-
manager, and still others when it wants to talk to her as a woman.

Later in the planning process it may be decided that some of these differences are insignificant and can
be ignored. In that case, two or more groups from the preliminary list can be combined in a single larger
target audience.

Also realize that listing a group as a public does not necessarily mean that the public relations staff will
be solely responsible for dealing with this public. In some cases, the public relations staff may have very
few, if any, dealings with certain publics. The company's finance department, for instance, may take the
lead and have final responsibility for all interactions with stockholders. Nonetheless, stockholders are
still an important public and need to be included as such in the overall public relations plan.

Please note that the sample lists which follow are not all-inclusive, nor have they been edited or pared
down to make them more manageable. They're rough drafts of a work in progress, not a finished
product, and they're meant as a starting point to get you thinking about the possible publics and target

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audiences that ought to be included in First Prize Glass's public relations plan. Further thinking by the
public relations staff and discussion with other managers within First Prize Glass would undoubtedly
yield dozens of additional target audiences that would at least double, if not triple or quadruple, these
preliminary lists.

Internal publics Examples

hourly factory workers, general laborers, glass-making

artisans, designers, union representatives, office staff, part-
time and/or seasonal staff, off-premises sales and distribution
staff, supervisors and mid-level managers,

executive management team, corporate board of directors,

stockholders

In an educational institution, internal publics would include-

the students, lecturers, non-teaching staff among others

External publics in simplest terms include everyone with whom the organization wants to interact that
isn't a part of the organization and thereby one of its internal publics.

For some practitioners, this distinction between internal and external publics is the only one that
matters. They simply don't bother with any further categorization of their publics. Others, as is done
here, prefer to organize publics/target audiences into four categories, two of which -- media and
regulatory publics -- could just as accurately be considered sub-categories of external publics.

External publics

customers prospective customers prospective employees

employees' families local civic leaders all members of the local

community nearby residents affected by plant operations

suppliers and vendors the glassware industry the trophy

97 industry direct competitors professional and trade
associations union officials and union headquarters office
staffs local banks and financial institutions Chambers of
Commerce
 UNEP, UNESCO, Organizations where students go for
attachment, educational institutions where students
undertake their TP, Kenya Bureau of Standards (For ISO) as
well as other government departments. The list may also
include the SAGAS (Semi Autonomous Government Agencies)
Suppliers and Contractors also fall in this category

Role of Public Relations in Improving Employee Communication

Public relations seeks to improve, support and reinforce link between employees and the management
through use of various media e.g. meetings, letters, bulletin boards, notice boards, handbooks,
suggestion boxes among others. The following are ways through which PR can help in improving
employee communication.

 Promoting awareness and understanding of organizational goals

 Interpreting management and personnel policies
 Improving employee information needs
 Providing channels for and stimulating two-way communication
 Encouraging favourable employee attitude and increasing productivity
 Making all employees ambassadors for the organization and general public

Benefits of Good PR

 Fewer customer complaints,

 Greater customer satisfaction
 Good business recommendations, image
 Increased business opportunities
 Satisfied employees hence higher staff retention

In addition to the above, there are some specific issues which should be communicated to employees in
order to enhance good customer care/PR. They include:

 Explaining company policy and how management is performing

 Integrating staff in situations where one company buys-off another
 Explaining new technology
 Safety issues
 News about staff and staff development
 Management structure
 Employee benefits
 Feedback and results.

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PUBLIC RELATIONS ACTIVITIES

o Dealing with difficult clients

o Countering negative publicity
o Writing and distributing press releases, photographs and feature articles to the press
o Organizing press conferences, reception and facility visits
o Maintaining a media information centre
o Arranging press, radio, and television interviews for the management
o Editing and producing staff/college magazines or bulletins
o Organizing public relations exhibitions and displays
o Organizing research activities on issues of the company
o Analyzing feedback and evaluating the results of efforts in relation to the declared objectives.

Advantages of a PR Department

 A PR manager is familiar with his/her own organization and can easily explain issues
 The PR manager can establish lines of communication inside the organization and so get reliable
information quickly
 The PR manager is in a position to give the management advise on a daily basis
 In case of an emergency, the PR manager is able to act swiftly or make quick decisions
pertaining the emergency
 A PR manager may have specialist knowledge or experience of trade, industry or subject with
which the organization is concerned.
 Issues of negative publicity will be handled swiftly and promptly
 The organization will always be catered for in case of any matters
 Customers will be handled quickly thus giving the firm a good name.

Disadvantages of a PR Department

 If not handled promptly, some issues may give the company a bad name.
 It might be too expensive to sort out negative publicity
 If the PR manager is not well-trained and qualified, he/she could be a liability to the
 organization
 The PR manager may lack sufficient executive status to enjoy the respect of the management
and the media.
 Management may not have agreed a job description which enables a PR manage to set out the
responsibilities
 The PR manager may not have internal motivation and this may lead to him not performing his
job well
o There could elements of sabotage in the organization and this blame may be made on
the department.

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QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND PR

We are living in a very competitive world and all organizations are competing for clients. It is then
imperative that organizations employ all means at their disposal. Quality management is about good
leadership and ensuring resources are used effectively and efficiently As observed elsewhere, all
organizations cannot do without quality management.

Today, society is increasingly multicultural and thus public relations practitioners must be sensitive to
the needs of all in society. Communicating effectively in the light of this diversity of society and
globalization has become a major challenge.

The public relations department must employ technology coupled with good management practices.
Managers must ensure that they guide those who work under them well. The bureaucratic barriers
have to be removed and all members of the department be involved in the decision making process.

Both external and internal publics must coexist. Globalization of business operations has resulted in the
globalization of PR. This is manifested in the rapid expansion of businesses leading them to move to
other countries to seek external locations and markets. This has been influenced by the major
technological changes that have occurred, acquisition of companies by overseas investors. To effectively
embrace quality management, organizations and their managers must:

 Be flexible – because what works well in one place may not work in another
 Use local PR practitioners to assist with handling local culture.
 Work through PR agencies in dealing with local media in order to maximize returns.
 Develop community relations programs
 Continuously carry out research on customer satisfaction
 Aim at being ISO certified.
 Be accessible
 Assess the environmental impact before taking major decisions
 Being ethical at all times.

Assignment

1. Discuss the qualities of a good PR manager

2. Explain the importance of customer care to organizations
3. Identify different ways in which companies can promote their products and services.
4. Your department has received negative publicity lately. Advice the Head of Department how the
department can counter this negative publicity.

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Examples of business correspondence (all letters)
KAYA BOMBO MUSEUMS LTD

P.O. BOX 237 -0122

KILIFI

MEMORANDUM
TO: All Managers

FROM: THE CHEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER

DATE: 24TH FEBRUARY, 2014

REF: KBM/INT/5/12

SUBJECT: ACCESS TO THE HISTORICAL SITES

You attention is drawn to the fact that there are some restricted sites in our forests. This is in line with
the cultural heritage of the Miji Kenda Sub-Tribes. When our organization was allowed to run the affairs
of these historical sites, there was an agreement that no person should venture in the sacred caves and
that it was our duty to ensure that is done.

However, it has been noted with concern that when foreign tourists visit our organization, some tour
guides have been taking them as far as the sacred sites and this has brought a lot of friction between
this organization and the custodians of the forests.

The purpose of this memo is to remind ourselves about the importance of heeding to the agreements
and ensuring this is followed to the letter. It is also important to inform and educate those who work
under us to ensure that the rules and regulations are followed to the letter. There are good reasons for
this restriction.

Please advise the staff working under you accordingly.

RS

MEMORANDUM

JOSIM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

101
P.O. BOX 2349 – 00100
KAKAMEGA

INTERNAL MEMORANDUM
TO: All Students

FROM: The Dean of Students

DATE: 4th June, 2013

SUBJECT: Educational Trips

As you are well aware, the Institute encourages both academic and co-curricular trips to any part of the
country where there are interests. During the music festivals, games and sports, drama and other visits,
students have been arriving quite late – sometimes after midnight.

While the Institute has not encountered any challenges during the said trips, you realize that other
institutions have not been lucky. Those who have encountered problems such as accidents have
continued to increase.

It is for the above reason that the Ministries of Education and Higher Education Science & Technology
respectively have directed through MOHEST/235/vol. 20 dated 30th March 2012 that all institutional
vehicles should not travel after 6.00 p.m. This is meant to reduce the number of accidents involving
school vehicles.

The purpose of this memo is for information and to request that all adhere to this directive. In the
meantime, the Institute’s management is working on modalities to ensure that trips are not affected.

M. R. D

Cc Principal

All Heads of Departments

NOTICE

102
MUSIC AND DRAMA CLUB
KENYA TECHNICAL TEACHERS COLLEGE

P.O. BOX 44600 -00100

NAIROBI

4TH June, 2013

NOTICE
VICTORY DANCE
Members of the Music and Drama Club are invited to the Victory Dance on Friday, 8th June, 2013 in the
Social Hall. The dance commences at 8.00 p.m. The guest of honour will be the Patron who will be
accompanied by the Deputy Patron.

The dance will also be used to raise funds for the club’s trip slated for July 2012.

Bring a friend along

James Wesonga

Club Secretary

Dated 20th May, 2013

ADVERTISEMENT

ABISAIL ENGINEERING COMPANY

P.O. BOX 28970 00001

MACHAKOS
4th June, 2013

VACANCY – TRAINEE MECHANICAL ENGINEER

103
Our Company is involved in the manufacture of water pipes, water pumps, maize hullers and a host of
other agricultural equipment. We have branches in Nairobi, Nakuru, Eldoret and Kisumu.
We are looking for a Trainee Mechanical Engineer. The suitable person should have a Higher Diploma in
Mechanical Engineering from a recognized institution. In addition the person should have a minimum
three years working experience in a busy engineering concern. The salary attached to this post is
negotiable. There will be other benefits including subsidized house allowance.

If you qualify for this position, apply to the undersigned attaching copies of academic and professional
qualifications so as to reach the company not later than Thursday, 14th June 2013.

The Human Resource Manager

Abisail Engineering Compnay

P. O. Box28970 – 00001

MACHAKOS

SAMPLE APPLICATION LETTER – FULLY BLOCKED STYLE

P. O. Box 324 – 00320,

AHERO

7th July, 2013

The General Manager,

Ahero Rice Growers Ltd.,
P. O. Box 242 – 2340,
SONDU.

Dear Sir,

APPLICATION FOR A JOB AS A COMPUTER TECHNICIAN

I wish to apply for the position of Assistant Manager – Web Design as advertised in yesterday’s issue of
the Kisumo City Daily. In the advertisement, you had indicated that you would like to employ a self
motivated person and I believe I have what it takes.

I am a lady aged 24 years and single. I attended Kisumo Day Secondary School between 2003 and 2006
where I attained an overall grade C+. In 2007, I joined the Kenya Technical Teachers College for a three-
year Diploma in Information Communication Technology (ICT), which I completed with a Distinction

104
pass. I have also attained other qualifications including C++, Cisco Systems among others.
In the last two years, I have gained useful experience as a web designer assistant with Kisumo Municipal
Council.

Attached, please find copies of my certificates, testimonials and recommendation letters for your
perusal and action. I have also attached a comprehensive curriculum vitae.

I hope you will consider my application.

Yours faithfully,

Jecktone Onyango

Encl.

SAMPLE LETTER OF COMPLAINT

Meru Mulika Enterprises Ltd.,

P. O. Box 2456 – 002000,
MAUA – Meru.

Ref: MME/PR/4/2011
14th July, 2013
FOR
The THE ATTENTION
General Manager, OF JOSEPH KIRAITU
Hides
P. International
O. Box–4568 Ltd.,
NKUBU Meru–Central.
03467,
Dear Mr. Kiraitu,
Poor Services
Your firm has been supplying goods to us for the last three years. During the said period, you
have supplied goods according to the laid down rules and regulations and in accordance with the
contract which we sign every year. We have had no reason to complain about the goods we have
procured from you. However, since our financial year started in January 2013, all has not been
well.

In April 2013, your company supplied to us with 200 medium density mattresses although we
had ordered high density orthopedic ones. It took the intervention of our procurement officer to
have the mattresses exchanged. This had caused a lot of agony to our clients who had travelled
from various parts of the world for conferences and other recreational activities.
In our June 2011 order, a number of items were not supplied yet we had placed this order at least

105
15 days before the delivery date. We had even sent an email of the said order which was
acknowledged by your marketing manager. The items not supplied included the following:

ITEM DESCRIPTION TOTAL COST

Ksh.
20 sacks Muhoroni Sugar 80,000
40 reams Photocopying Paper 20,000
40 beds Vono Spring 400,000
60 bales Assorted Baking Flour 72,000

Most of the items stated above are consumer goods whose use is normally immediate. By not
supplying the goods meant that we had to use cash to source the goods which is not allowed in
the accounting as it becomes difficult to balance our books. In addition, we are forced to
procure the goods at a higher price which is not good for business. Our auditors have questioned
why we have to purchase goods using cash while we have a supplier who is supposed to be
reliable.

The purpose of this letter is to lodge a complaint with your firm on this state of affairs. Please
note that this trend cannot be allowed to continue while we have a contract with you. We have
always kept our side of the bargain by ensuring that we order goods long before the delivery date
and paid for the same promptly.

We request that you investigate why all of a sudden our transactions are not smooth. There
could be an internal problem that you need to solve. This will ensure that you spend more time
sourcing for goods than solving problems which have been caused by your staff.

We hope this matter will be taken seriously so that we are not forced to terminate our contract
with you.

Yours sincerely,

Rosemary Chebii
Public Relations Manager

106
SAMPLE LETTER WITH SPECIAL NOTATIONS

P. O. BOX 28930 – 10987

KAKAMEGA

22 October 2013
The Secretary
Teachers Service Commission
Private Bag
NAIROBI

Thro’
The Chief Principal
Kenya Technical Teachers College

Dear Sir

REQUEST FOR SPECIAL LEAVE

I wish to request for a one-month special leave with effect from 1st December 2013. The reason
for this application is that I have been nominated by my church to attend a course in Counseling
at the University of Cape Town. The course ends on 20th January 2013
I feel that this course is important as the knowledge I acquire will also assist me in the
counseling the students at the college where I work. The course is fully sponsored and I will not
need any special assistance.
Attached, please find a copy of the invitation letter for your perusal and record. I hope you will
grant me permission to attend this important course.
Yours faithfully

John Leparakuo
TSC NO 22449900

Encl.

107
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