Chapter 16: The Reproductive System

● The reproductive system appears to 1. Testes

“slumber” until puberty, when - Each golf ball-sized,
reproductive organs become approximately 4 cm (1.5
functional. inches) and 2.5 cm (1inch)
● The gonads (go′nadz; “seeds”), or wide. Connected to the trunk
primary sex organs, are the testes in via the spermatic cord, a
men and the ovaries in women. connective tissue sheath that
These produce sex cells or gametes encloses blood vessels,
and secrete hormones. nerves, and the ductus
● The male and female reproductive deferens.
systems are quite different, their joint - A fibrous connective tissue
purpose is to produce offspring. The capsule, the tunica albuginea
reproductive role of the man is to (“white coat”) surrounds each
manufacture male gametes called testis.
sperm and deliver them to the - Extensions of this capsule
woman’s reproductive tract. (septa) plunge into the testis
● The woman, in turn, produces and divide it into a large
female gametes, called ova number of wedge-shaped
(singular ovum), or eggs. If the lobules.
conditions are suitable, a sperm and - Interstitial cells: Lying in the
egg fuse to produce a fertilized egg, soft connective tissue
called a zygote. surrounding the seminiferous
● Once fertilization has occurred, the tubules. Functionally distinct
female uterus provides a protective cells that produce
environment in which the embryo, androgens—the most
later called the fetus, develops until important of which is
birth. testosterone.

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive 2. Duct System

System The accessory organs
forming the male duct system, which
transports sperm from the body, are
the epididymis, ductus deferens, and
urethra.
a. Epididymis
- a highly convoluted
tube about 6 m (20
feet) long that hugs
the posterior side of
the testis.
- s the first part of the
male duct system and
provides a temporary
Chapter 16: The Reproductive System

storage site for the urethra, but also prevents sperm from
immature sperm entering the urinary bladder
b. Ductus Deferens
- vas deferens, runs Accessory Glands and Semen
upward from the ● Seminal Vesicles: e located at the
epididymis via the base of the bladder. These large
spermatic cord hollow glands, each 6 to 7 cm (about
through the inguinal the shape and size of the little
canal into the pelvic finger), produce about 60 percent of
cavity and arches seminal fluid, the fluid portion of
over the superior semen.
aspect of the urinary ● Prostate - a single doughnut-shaped
bladder gland about the size of a peach pit. It
c. Urethra encircles the upper (prostatic) part of
- extends from the the urethra just inferior to the urinary
base of the urinary bladder. Prostate fluid is milky and
bladder to the tip of plays a role in activating sperm.
the penis, is the
terminal part of the Homeostatic Imbalance !!!
male duct system. ● Hypertrophy of the prostate, an
- Three regions: (1) increase in its size independent of
the prostatic the body’s growth, affects nearly
urethra, surrounded every older man and strangles the
by the prostate gland; urethra. This troublesome condition
(2) the membranous makes urination difficult and
urethra, spanning the enhances the risk of bladder
distance from the infections (cystitis) and kidney
prostatic urethra to damage
the penis; and (3) the
spongy (penile) ● Bulbourethral Glands- tiny,
urethra, running pea-sized glands inferior to the
within the length of prostate gland. They produce a
the penis and thick, clear mucus that drains into
opening to the body the penile urethra. It cleanses the
exterior via the urethra of trace acidic urine prior to
external urethral ejaculation, and it serves as a
orifice lubricant during sexual intercourse.
● Semen- a milky white, somewhat
When ejaculation occurs and sperm enter sticky mixture of sperm and
the prostatic urethra from the ejaculatory accessory gland secretions. The
ducts, the bladder sphincter (internal liquid portion acts as a transport
urethral sphincter) constricts. This event not medium for nutrients and chemicals
only prevents urine from passing into the that protect the sperm and aid their
movement.
Chapter 16: The Reproductive System

- Sperm are sluggish under acidic - Spermatogonia go through

conditions. The relative alkalinity of rapid mitotic divisions to build
semen as a whole (pH 7.2–7.6) up the stem cell line. From
helps neutralize the acidic birth until puberty, all such
environment (pH 3.5–4) of the divisions simply produce
female’s vagina, protecting the more stem cells.
delicate sperm. Semen also contains
antibiotic chemicals that destroy
certain bacteria, the hormone
relaxin, enzymes that enhance
sperm motility, and substances that
inhibit an immune response in the
female reproductive tract.

External Genitalia
● Scrotum - a divided sac of skin with
sparse hairs that hangs outside the
abdominal cavity, between the legs
at the root of the penis.
● Penis - functions to deliver sperm
into the female reproductive tract.
The skin covered penis consists of a
shaft, which ends in an enlarged tip,
the glans penis.
● Internally, the spongy urethra is
surrounded by three elongated
areas of erectile tissue, a spongy
tissue that fills with blood during
sexual excitement. This causes the
penis to enlarge and become rigid.
This event, called erection.

Male Reproductive Functions

● The chief role of the male in the
reproductive process is to produce
sperm and the hormone
testosterone.
a. Spermatogenesis
- begins during puberty and
continues throughout life.
- Sperm are formed in the
seminiferous tubules of the
testis, or spermatogonia.
Chapter 16: The Reproductive System

Testosterone Production different cells called follicle

● The interstitial cells produce cells
testosterone. - Ovulation: when the follicle,
● During puberty, as the seminiferous called a vesicular follicle or
tubules are being prodded by FSH to Graafian (graf′e-an) follicle,
produce sperm, the interstitial cells is mature, and the
are being activated by luteinizing developing egg is ready to be
hormone (LH), which is also ejected from the ovary.
released by the anterior pituitary
gland. 2. Duct System
● Secondary sex characteristics are a. Uterine Tubes - aka fallopian
features induced in nonreproductive tubes form the initial part of
organs by sex hormones. These the duct system. They
includes: receive the ovulated oocyte
- Deepening of the voice as and provide a site where
the larynx enlarges fertilization can occur.
- Increased hair growth all b. Uterus - located in the
over the body, particularly in pelvis between the urinary
the axillary and pubic regions bladder and rectum, is a
and on the face hollow organ that functions to
- Enlargement of skeletal receive, retain, and nourish a
muscles to produce the fertilized egg. During
heavier muscle mass typical pregnancy, the uterus
of the male physique increases tremendously in
● sexual infantilism happens If size and during the latter part
testosterone is not produced in a of pregnancy can be felt well
young man, his secondary sex above the umbilicus.
characteristics never appear, and his
other reproductive organs remain
childlike.

Anatomy of the Female Reproductive

System
1. Ovaries
- Ovaries are the primary
female reproductive organs.
- the shape of almonds but are
nearly twice as large.
- Ovarian follicles: tiny
saclike structures.
- Each follicle consists of an c. Vagina- is a thin-walled tube
immature egg, called an 8 to 10 cm (3 to 4 inches)
oocyte, surrounded by one long. It lies between the
or more layers of very bladder and rectum and
Chapter 16: The Reproductive System

extends from the cervix to Female Reproductive Functions and

the body exterior. Often Cycles
called the birth canal, the
vagina provides a ● sperm production in men continues
passageway for the delivery throughout life
of an infant and for the ● The total supply of eggs that a
menstrual flow to leave the female can release is already
body determined by the time she is born.
In addition, a female’s reproductive
External Genitalia and Female Perineum ability (that is, her ability to release
1. mons pubis - (“mountain on the eggs) begins during puberty,
pubis”) is a fatty, rounded area heralded by the beginning of her
overlying the pubic symphysis. After menstrual cycle, and usually ends in
puberty, this area is covered with her fifties.
pubic hair. ● The period in which a woman’s
2. Labia majora - which enclose two reproductive capability ends is called
delicate, hair-free folds, the labia menopause.
minora.
3. Vestibule - a region enclosed by the Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle
labia majora
4. Clitoris - a small, protruding ● When an ova, or female gametes
structure that corresponds to the are produced, it is a process called
male penis. Like the penis, it is oogenesis.
hooded by a prepuce and is ● Oogonia, the female stem cells,
composed of sensitive erectile tissue multiply rapidly to increase their
that becomes swollen with blood number, producing daughter cells
during sexual excitement. called primary oocytes.
5. Greater vestibular glands - ● At puberty, the anterior pituitary
mucus-producing gland, lubricates gland begins to release FSH
the distal end of the vagina during (follicle-stimulating hormone), which
intercourse. stimulates a small number of primary
6. Perineum - The diamond-shaped follicles to grow and mature each
region between the anterior end of month, and ovulation begins to occur
the labial folds, the anus posteriorly, each month. These cyclic changes
and the ischial tuberosities laterally. that occur monthly in the ovary
constitute the ovarian cycle.
● Ovulation - A secondary oocyte is
released from a follicle at the surface
of the ovary. The orange mass
below the ejected oocyte is part of
the ovary. The “halo” of follicle cells
around the secondary oocyte is the
corona radiata.
Chapter 16: The Reproductive System

Hormone Production by the Ovaries pass through the vagina as

menstrual flow (the “period”) for 3 to
● As the ovaries become active at 5 days. Average blood loss-50 to
puberty and start to produce 150ml. By day 5, growing ovarian
oocytes, they also begin to produce follicles are beginning to produce
ovarian hormones. more estrogens.
● The follicle cells of the growing and ● Days 6–14: Proliferative phase.
mature follicles produce estrogens,* Stimulated by a rising level of
which causes the appearance of estrogens produced by the growing
secondary sex characteristics in the follicles of the ovaries, the basal
young woman. Changes include: layer of the endometrium
- Enlargement of the regenerates the functional layer,
accessory organs of the glands form in it, and the
female reproductive system endometrial blood supply increases.
(uterine tubes, uterus, The endometrium once again
vagina, external genitals) becomes velvety, thick, and well
- Development of the breasts vascularized. (Ovulation occurs in
- Appearance of axillary and the ovary at the end of this stage, in
pubic hair response to the sudden surge of LH
- Increased deposits of fat in the blood.
beneath the skin in general, ● Days 15–28: Secretory phase. A
and particularly in the hips rising level of progesterone
and breasts production by the corpus luteum acts
- Widening and lightening of on the estrogen-primed
the pelvis endometrium and increases its blood
- Onset of menses, or the supply even more. Progesterone
menstrual cycle also causes the endometrial glands
● The second ovarian hormone, to grow and begin secreting
progesterone, is produced by the nutrients into the uterine cavity.
glandular corpus luteum. These nutrients will sustain a
developing embryo (if one is
The Menstrual Cycle present) until it has implanted. If
● The uterine cycle, or menstrual fertilization does occur, the embryo
cycle, is a series of cyclic changes produces a hormone very similar to
that the endometrium (mucosa of the LH that causes the corpus luteum to
uterus) goes through each month as continue producing its hormones.
it responds to changing blood levels ● If fertilization does not occur, the
of ovarian hormones. corpus luteum begins to degenerate
● Days 1–5: Menstrual phase. During toward the end of this period as the
this interval, the superficial functional LH blood level declines. Lack of
layer of the thick endometrial lining ovarian hormones in the blood
of the uterus is sloughing off causes the blood vessels supplying
(detaching) from the uterine wall. the functional layer of the
The detached tissues and blood
Chapter 16: The Reproductive System

endometrium to go into spasms and Pregnancy and Embryonic Development

kink. ● Pregnancy - refers to events that
occur from the time of fertilization
Mammary Glands (conception) until birth.
● The mammary glands are present in ● Conceptus - pregnant woman’s
both sexes, but they normally developing offspring.
function only in women. ● Gestation period - where the
● The mammary glands are modified development occurs, which extends
sweat glands that are part of the by convention from the last
skin. Each mammary gland is menstrual period (a date the woman
contained within a rounded is likely to remember) until birth,
skin-covered breast anterior to the approximately 280 days.
pectoral muscles. ● Embryo - From fertilization through
● Slightly inferior to the center of each week 8, the embryonic period, the
breast is a pigmented area, the conceptus to embryo.
areola, which surrounds a central ● Fetus - from week 9 through birth,
protruding nipple. the fetal period, the conceptus is
● Internally, each mammary gland called a fetus.
consists of 15 to 25 lobes that
radiate around the nipple. Accomplishing Fertilization
● Within each lobe are smaller ● For fertilization to occur, a sperm
chambers called lobules, which must reach the ovulated secondary
contain clusters of alveolar glands oocyte. The oocyte is viable for 12 to
that produce milk when a woman is 24 hours after ovulation, and sperm
lactating (producing milk). generally retain their fertilizing power
● Breast cancer is the second most within the female reproductive tract
common cause of death in American for 24 to 48 hours after ejaculation.
women; one woman in eight will ● For fertilization to occur, sexual
develop this condition. Breast cancer intercourse must occur no more than
is often signaled by a change in skin 2 days before ovulation and no later
texture, puckering, or leakage from than 24 hours after. At this point, the
the nipple. oocyte is approximately one-third of
the way down the uterine tube.
● It takes 1 to 2 hours for sperm to
complete the journey up the female
duct system into the uterine tubes,
even though they are only about 12
cm (5 inches) away.
● “The early bird catches the worm,”
because sperm that are in the best
position to be the fertilizing sperm
are the ones that come along after
hundreds of sperm have undergone
Chapter 16: The Reproductive System

acrosomal reactions to expose the ● After it is securely implanted, the

oocyte membrane. trophoblast part of the blastocyst
● Once the sperm has entered, the develops elaborate projections,
ovum sheds its remaining called chorionic villi, which combine
membrane surface receptors for with the tissues of the mother’s
sperm, preventing other sperm from uterus to form the placenta.
gaining entry. ● Once the placenta has formed, the
● Fertilization occurs at the moment platelike embryonic body, now
the genetic material of a sperm surrounded by a fluid-filled sac
combines with that of an ovum to called the amnion (am′ne-on), is
form a fertilized egg, or zygote attached to the placenta by a blood
(zi′gˉot), with a complete set of 46 vessel–containing a stalk of tissue.
chromosomes. ● Generally by the third week, the
placenta is functioning to deliver
Events of Embryonic and Fetal nutrients and oxygen to and remove
Development wastes from the embryonic blood.
● By the end of the second month of
● Cleavage - As the zygote journeys pregnancy, the placenta has also
down the uterine tube (propelled by become an endocrine organ and is
peristalsis and cilia), it begins to producing estrogens, progesterone,
undergo rapid mitotic cell and other hormones that help to
divisions—forming first two cells, maintain the pregnancy. At this time,
then four, and so on. the corpus luteum of the ovary
● By the time the developing embryo becomes inactive and degenerates.
reaches the uterus (about 3 days ● By the eighth week of embryonic
after ovulation, or on day 17 of the development, all the groundwork has
woman’s cycle), it is a morula, a tiny been completed. All the organ
ball of 16 cells that looks like a systems have been laid down, at
microscopic raspberry. least in rudimentary form, and the
● The primary germ layers are the embryo looks distinctly human.
ectoderm (which will become the ● In the ninth week of development,
nervous system and the epidermis of we refer to the embryo as a fetus.
the skin), the endoderm (which From this point on, the major
forms mucosae and associated activities are growth and organ
glands), and the mesoderm (which specialization, accompanied by
will become virtually everything changes in body proportions.
else). ● During the fetal period, the
● Implantation has usually been developing fetus grows from a
completed and the uterine mucosa crown-to-rump length of about 3 cm
has grown over the burrowed-in (slightly more than 1 inch) and a
embryo by day 14 after weight of approximately 1 g (0.03
ovulation—the day the woman would ounce) to about 36 cm (14 inches)
ordinarily be expecting to start her and 2.7 to 4.1 kg (6 to 10 pounds) or
period (menses). more.
Chapter 16: The Reproductive System
Chapter 16: The Reproductive System

Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother - Constipation happens

as well due to decline
A. Anatomical changes in motility of the
- The uterus reaches the level digestive tract during
of the xiphoid process and pregnancy
occupies the bulk of the ● Urinary System - The kidneys have
abdominal cavity. The the additional burden of disposing of
crowded abdominal organs fetal metabolic wastes, and they
press superiorly against the produce more urine during
diaphragm, which intrudes on pregnancy.
the thoracic cavity. As a ● Respiratory System -The nasal
result, the ribs flare, causing mucosa responds to estrogens by
the thorax to widen. becoming swollen and congested;
- The increasing bulkiness of thus, nasal stuffiness and occasional
the abdomen changes the nosebleeds may occur.
woman’s center of gravity, ● Cardiovascular System - Total
and many women develop an body water rises, and blood volume
accentuated lumbar increases by 25 to 40 percent to
curvature (lordosis), often accommodate the additional needs
accompanied by backaches, of the fetus. The rise in blood
during the last few months of volume also acts as a safeguard
pregnancy. against blood loss during birth
B. Physiological changes
● Gastrointestinal System Childbirth
- Many women suffer a. Initiation of Labor
nausea, commonly - During the last few weeks of
called morning pregnancy, estrogens reach
sickness, during the their highest levels in the
first few months of mother’s blood. This has two
pregnancy, until their important consequences: it
system adjusts to the causes the myometrium to
elevated levels of form abundant oxytocin
progesterone and receptors (so that it becomes
estrogens. more sensitive to the
- Heartburn is common hormone oxytocin), and it
because the interferes with progesterone’s
esophagus is quieting influence on the
displaced and the uterine muscle.
stomach is crowded - Braxton Hicks contractions,
by the growing or false labor.
uterus, which favors - Certain cells of the fetus
reflux of stomach acid begin to produce oxytocin,
into the esophagus which in turn stimulates the
placenta to release
Chapter 16: The Reproductive System

prostaglandins. Both ● Dystocia - oxygen delivery to the

hormones stimulate more infant is inadequate, leading to fetal
frequent and powerful brain damage (resulting in cerebral
contractions of the uterus. palsy or epilepsy) and decreased
- The combined effects of viability of the infant.
rising levels of oxytocin ● Individuals with external genitalia
and prostaglandins initiate that do not “match” their gonads are
the rhythmic, expulsive called pseudohermaphrodites.
contractions of true labor. ● hermaphrodites, rare individuals
b. Stage 2: Expulsion Stage who possess both ovarian and
- the period from full dilation to testicular tissues
delivery of the infant.
- the infant passes through
the cervix and vagina to the
outside of the body.
- A mother experiencing
natural childbirth (that is,
undergoing labor without
local anesthesia) has an
increasing urge to push, or
bear down, with the
abdominal muscles.
c. Stage 3: Placental Stage
- the delivery of the placenta is
usually accomplished within
15 minutes after birth of the
infant.
- The strong uterine
contractions that continue
after birth compress uterine
blood vessels, limit bleeding,
and cause the placenta to
detach from the uterine wall.
- The placenta and its
attached fetal membranes,
collectively called the
afterbirth.

Homeostatic Imbalances in the

Reproductive System
● Miscarriage - Natural termination of
a pregnancy before a fetus can
survive on its own