Consequentialist Theories: Maximize the Good

- There is something in consequentialist moral theories that we find appealing, something simple
and commonsensical that jibes with everyday moral experience. This attractive core is the notion
that right actions must produce that best balance of good and evil.
- The essential concern is how much good can result from actions performed.
- Ethical Egoism and Utilitarianism

ETHICAL EGOISM
- Ethical egoism is the theory that the right action is the one that advances one’s own best interest.
- It is a provocative doctrine, in part because it forces us to consider two opposing attitudes in
ourselves.
- On one hand, we tend to view selfish or flagrantly self-interested behavior as wicked, or at least
troubling. On the other hand, sometimes we want to look out for number one, to give priority to
our own needs and desires. We think, if we do not help ourselves, who will?
- Ethical egoism says that one’s only moral duty is to promote that most favorable balance of good
over evil for oneself.
- Each person must put his or her own welfare first. Advancing the interests of others is part of this
moral equation only if it helps promote one’s own good.
- Yet this extreme self-interest is not necessarily selfishness. Selfish acts advance one’s own
interests regardless of how others are affected.
- Self-interested acts promote one’s own interests but not necessarily to the detriment of others. To
further your own interests, you may actually find yourself helping others. To gain some
advantage, you may perform actions that are decidedly unselfish.
- An ethical egoist does not necessarily do whatever she desires to do or whatever gives her best
interests, and instant gratification may not be her best interests.
- Even ethical egoists have to consider the long-term effects of their actions. They also have to take
account their interactions with others.
- At least most of the time, egoists are probably better off if they cooperate with others, develop
reciprocal relationship, and avoid actions that antagonize people in their community or society.
- Ethical egoism comes into forms – act – egoism and rule-egoism.
- Act-egoism says that to determine right actions, you must apply the egoist principle to individual
acts. Ex. Act A is preferable to Act B because it promotes your self-interest better.
- Rule-egoism says that to determine right action, you must see if an act falls under a rule that if
consistently followed would maximize your self-interest. Ex. Act A is preferable to Act B
because it falls under aa rule that maximizes your self-interest better than any other relevant rule
applying to Act B.
- The Greek philosopher Epicurus (341 – 270 BCE), a famous ethical egoist from whose name we
derive the words “Epicure” and “Epecurean” gave a hedonist answer: “The greatest good is
pleasure, and the greatest evil, pain.”
- The duty of a good ethical egoist is to maximize pleasure for oneself.
- Other egoistic notions of the greatest good include self-actualization, security and material
success, satisfaction of desires, acquisition of power, and the experience of happiness.
- In a capitalist system, self-interest is supposed to drive people to seek advantages for themselves
in the marketplace, compelling them to compete against each other to build a better mousetrap at
 a lower price. Economists argue that the result of this clash of self-interests is a better, more
prosperous society.
Evaluating the Theory
- The primary argument for ethical egoism depends heavily on a scientific theory known as
“Psychological Egoism.”
- Psychological Egoism views that the motive for all our actions is self-interest.
- Here is the argument stated more formally:
a. We are not able to perform an action except out of self-interest.
b. We are not morally obligated to perform an action unless motivated by self-interest.
c. Therefore, we are morally obligated to do only what our self-interest motivates us to do.
Are there any good arguments against ethical egoism?
A. Criterion 1: Consistency with considered judgment
- A major criticism of ethical egoism is that it is not consistent with many of our considered moral
judgment.
Example:
Suppose a young man visit s his elderly, bedridden father. When he sees that no one else is around, he
uses a pillow to smother the old man in order to collect on his life insurance. Suppose also that the
action is in the son’s best interest; it will cause not the least bit of unpleasant feeling in him, and the
crime will remain his own terrible secret. According to ethical egoism, this heinous act is morally
right. The son did his duty.
- An ethical egoist might object to this line by saying that refraining from committing evil acts is
actually endorsed by ethical egoism – one’s best interests are served by refraining. You should
not murder or steal, for example, because it might encourage others to do the same to you, or it
might undermine trust, security, or cooperation in society, which would not be in your best
interests. For these reason, you should obey the law or the rules of conventional morality.

B. Criterion 2: Consistency with our moral experience

UTILITARIANISM
- Utilitarianism is one of the most influential moral theories in history.
- The English philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was the first to fill out the theory in
details, and the English philosopher and economist John Stuart Mill (1806-73) developed it
further.
 - Classical Utilitarianism – the kind of act –utilitarianism formulated by Bentham, is the simplest
form of the theory. It affirms the principle that the right action is the one that directly produces
the best balance of happiness over unhappiness for all concerned.
- Happiness is an intrinsic good- the only intrinsic good.
- What matters most is how much net happiness comes directly from performing an action.
- To determine the right action, we need only to compute the amount of happiness that each
possible action generates and choose the one that generates the most.
- Bentham called the utilitarian principle the “principle of utility” and asserted that all our actions
can be judged by it.
- Mill called it the “greatest happiness principle.”
- As Bentham says, “by utility is meant that property in any object, whereby it tends to produce
benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness or to prevent the happening of mischief, pain,
evil, or unhappiness to the party whose interest is considered.”
- An underlying tenet of utilitarianism is that you should promote the good of everyone concerned
and that everyone counts equally.
- As what Mill says, “The happiness which forms the utilitarian standard of what is right conduct,
is not the agent’s own happiness, but that of all concerned. As between his own happiness and
that of others, utilitarianism requires his to be as strictly impartial as a disinterested and
benevolent spectator.”
- Bentham’s view follows the “hedonic calculus” – it means, the level of happiness minus the level
of pain the product is now considered as the moral or immoral action.
- Utilitarianism means, “the greatest happiness for the greatest number.”
- Bentham and Mill differ on the nature of happiness and how it should be measured. Bentham
thinks that happiness varies only in quantity – different actions produce different amounts of
happiness. Mill contends that happiness can vary in quantity and quality. There are lower
pleasures, such as eating, drinking, having sex and there are higher pleasures, such as pursuing
knowledge, appreciating beauty, and creating art. For Mill, higher pleasures are superior than the
lower ones. The lower ones can be intense and enjoyable, but the higher ones are qualitatively
better and more fulfilling.
- For Mill, “it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied, better to be Socrates
dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.”
- But the problem posed against utilitarianism is the “individual preference.” It is because,
individuals have their own tastes and it could be argued that whatever is good for 5 persons may
not be good for another. In this case, how can it be proven by principle of utility that what is good
for 5 persons is what is truly good since it is considered as the greatest number, where in fact the
other one has his own preference?
Evaluating the Theory:
A. Criteria of Adequacy:
- We run into what some have called act-utilitarianism’s most serious problem: it conflicts with
commonsense view about justice.
- Justice requires equal treatment of persons. Id demands, for example, that goods such as
happiness be distributed fairly, that we not harm one person to make several other persons happy.
- Utilitarianism says that everyone should be included in utility calculations, but does not require
that everyone gets an equal share.