MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

SET LESSON
AND 1
SET OPERATIONS
TOPIC

Topic 1: Set and Set Operations

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. discuss sets, equality of sets, subsets, power set and equivalence
of sets;
2. evaluate set operations and Venn diagram; and
3. evaluate problem solving using Venn diagram.

The idea of a set is very basic in the study of mathematics. It must be introduced
before a course in Algebra, Geometry or Analysis is taught. Words like army, fleet, bundle,
and school, as well as solutions, numbers and answers connote sets.

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TOPIC 1: SET AND SET OPERATIONS

SUB-TOPICS

1.1 Sets
1.2 Finite and Infinite Sets
1.3 Equality of Sets
1.4 Subsets
1.5 Power Set
1.6 Equivalence of Sets
1.7 Set Operations and Venn Diagram

1.1 SETS
A set is intuitively defined as a collection of well-defined objects.

Example 1 A class of Math for Engineers students is a set.

Example 2 The days in a week is a set.
Example 3 The set of even numbers is a set of numbers divisible by 2.

Generally, sets are denoted by capital letters like 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and so on. If 𝐴 is a set,
the objects belonging to 𝐴 are called elements. Unless otherwise specified, these
elements are denoted by small case letters such as 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and so on. Thus, if 𝑎 belongs to
set 𝐴 we may write 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 which is read as “𝑎 is an element of 𝐴”. If 5 does not belong to
set 𝐴, we write 5 ∉ 𝐴.

Describing Sets
There are two (2) common methods of describing set, namely:
1. The Roster or Tabular Method
By this method, the elements are enumerated or listed and enclosed in braces.

Example 4 If 𝑉 is the set of vowels in the English alphabet, then by

roster method, we write
𝑉 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}

2. The Rule or Set-builder Form

By this method, the general property of elements is given.

Example 5 If 𝑉 is the set of vowels in the English alphabet, then by

roster method, we write

𝑉 = {𝑥|𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑡}

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1.2 FINITE AND INFINITE SETS
Consider the following sets
𝑉 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}

𝑆 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
𝑍 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, … }
𝐸 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, … }

Counting their elements, set 𝑉 has 5, 𝑆 has 6 but we can only say that 𝑍 and 𝐸
have many elements. Sets 𝑉 and 𝑆 are called finite sets while 𝑍 and 𝐸 are called infinite
sets.
Therefore, a set is finite if for any nonnegative integer 𝑛, 𝑆 has exactly 𝑛 distinct
elements. Otherwise, 𝑆 is an infinite set.

1.3 EQUALITY OF SETS

Consider the collections 𝑉 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} and 𝑊 = {𝑎, 𝑖, 𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑒, 𝑜, 𝑢, 𝑖}. The
elements in 𝑉 are the letters 𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜 and 𝑢 which exactly the same letters that belong to
𝑊. Writing these sets by the se-builder form, we have
𝑉 = {𝑥|𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑡}.
Thus, two seta are equal if every element in one is an element of the other.
Otherwise, the sets are unequal.

Example 6 The set 𝑃 of prime numbers less than 15 is written

𝑃 = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}
and the set 𝑀 of odd numbers less than 15 is written
𝑀 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}.

We can see that 2 belongs to 𝑃 but not to 𝑀. Likewise, 1

and 9 belong to 𝑀 but not to 𝑃. Here, we say
𝑀 ≠ 𝑃.

1.4 SUBSETS
Consider the sets 𝑉 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}, 𝑇 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖} and 𝑆 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑒}. Every
element in 𝑇 belongs to 𝑉 but the element 𝑏 in 𝑆 does not belong to 𝑉. We say 𝑇 is a
subset of 𝑉 whereas 𝑆 is not a subset of 𝑉.
If for two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, every element in 𝐴 is in 𝐵, then 𝐴 is called a subset of 𝐵,
denoted by 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵.
We can also define the equality of sets using the concept of a subset.
Consider again the following sets: 𝑉 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} and 𝑊 =
{𝑎, 𝑖, 𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑒, 𝑜, 𝑢, 𝑖}. Since, every element in 𝑊 is in 𝑉, we have 𝑊 ⊆ 𝑉 and since every
element in 𝑉 is in 𝑊, we have 𝑉 ⊆ 𝑊. That is, 𝑉 and 𝑊 are each other’s subset. Hence,
𝑉 = 𝑊.
If for the sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 where 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵 and if there is at least one element
in 𝐵 that is not in 𝐴, then 𝐴 is called a proper subset of 𝐵 denoted by 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵.
From the sets 𝑉, 𝑇 and 𝑆 given above, 𝑇 ⊂ 𝑉 but 𝑆 ⊄ 𝑉.
Any set 𝐴 has trivial subsets, namely, the set 𝐴 itself and the empty set, the set
which has no elements and is denoted by ∅ 𝑜𝑟 { }.

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1.5 POWER SET
Consider set 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}, the power set of 𝐷, denoted by 𝑃(𝐷), is the set of all
the subsets of 𝐷, that is 𝑃(𝐷) = {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}, ∅ .
The number of subsets 𝑛 of a given set is given by the formula 𝑛 = 2 where 𝑘 is
the number of elements in the set is. Thus, set 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3} has 𝑛 = 2 = 8 subsets.

1.6 EQUIVALENCE OF SETS

Consider set 𝑅 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Comparing this set with 𝑉 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}, we find
that they have the same number of elements , 5, but they have different characteristics.
It is noticed that for each element in 𝑅 there corresponds an element in 𝑉, or vice versa.
This tells us that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of 𝑅 and
𝑉. When the sets are so related that there is a one-to-one correspondence between their
elements, they are called equivalent sets. Thus, 𝑅 and 𝑉 are equivalent sets, written 𝑅~𝑉.

1.7 SET OPERATIONS AND VENN DIAGRAM

Set Operations
1. Union
The union od two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and read as
"𝐴 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵", is the set of all elements that belong to 𝐴 or to 𝐵 or to both 𝐴 and
𝐵. The union operation is commutative. Thus form Example 7, 𝑅 ∪ 𝑆 = 𝑆 ∪ 𝑅.

Example 7 Consider sets 𝑊 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8}, 𝑅 = {1, 3, 5, 7},

𝑆 = {2, 4, 6, 8} and 𝑍 = {2, 3, 5, 8}. Then

𝑅 ∪ 𝑆 = 𝑊 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8}
𝑅 ∪ 𝑍 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8}
and 𝑆 ∪ 𝑊 = 𝑊.

2. Intersection
The intersection of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, and read as
“𝐴 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵", is the set of all elements that belong to both 𝐴 and 𝐵.

Example 8 The elements 3 and 5 are common to the sets 𝑅 and 𝑍

above so
𝑅 ∩ 𝑍 = {3, 5}.
Similarly, all the elements in 𝑍 are in 𝑊, thus,
𝑊 ∩ 𝑍 = 𝑍.
But the sets 𝑅 and 𝑆 do not have common elements, thus,
𝑅 ∩ 𝑆 = ∅.

The intersection operation is commutative. That is, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴.

If 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 has at least one element, 𝐴 and 𝐵 are called joint sets. If 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 =
∅, then 𝐴 and 𝐵 are called disjoint sets.

3. Set Complement
The set consisting of all the elements under consideration is called the
universal set, denoted by 𝑈. For example, in the sets given above, we can let 𝑈 =
𝑊 = {1, 2, 3, 4, ,5, 6, 7, 8} and the sets 𝑅, 𝑆, and 𝑍 are its subsets.

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The complement of a set 𝐵, denoted by 𝐵′ and read as “B prime”, is the
set of elements in the universal set that are not in 𝐵.

Example 9 In the given sets where 𝑈 = 𝑊,

𝑅 = 𝑆,
𝑆 =𝑅
𝑍 = {1, 4, 6, 7}
𝑈′ = ∅ and
∅ =𝑈

4. Set Difference
The difference of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 − 𝐵 and read as
"𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵", is the set of elements in 𝐴 which are not in 𝐵, that is, the set
of elements in the first set that are not in the second set.

Example 10 Referring to the sets 𝑊, 𝑅, 𝑆, and 𝑍 given above,

𝑊 − 𝑅 = 𝑆 = {2, 4, 6, 8}
𝑊 − 𝑆 = 𝑅 = {1, 3, 5, 7}
𝑆 − 𝑍 = {4, 6}
𝑍 − 𝑅 = {2, 8} 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑅 − 𝑆 = 𝑅.

The Venn Diagram

The elements of a set can be represented by dots (or point) on the plane and the
collection of these can be enclosed by figures. This representation of sets is called Venn
Diagram and the operations are done by shading.

Example 11 Let the Universal set 𝑈 be the set of points in a

parallelogram, 𝐶 be the set of points in a circle and 𝑇 be
the set of points in a triangle.

Figure 1 Given diagram

𝐶 ∩ 𝑇 is given by

Figure 2 𝐶∩𝑇

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Example 11 Let the Universal set 𝑈 be the set of points in a
parallelogram, 𝐶 be the set of points in a circle and 𝑇 be
the set of points in a triangle.

𝐶 − 𝑇 is given by

Figure 3 𝐶−𝑇
𝐶 ∪ 𝑇 is given by

Figure 4 𝐶∪𝑇
(𝐶 − 𝑇)′ is given by

Figure 5 (𝐶 − 𝑇)′

Solutions of Verbal Problems Using Venn Diagram

Not all verbal problems can be solved by algebraic formulations. However, they
can be solved using Venn diagrams. Consider the following illustrations.

Problem: Ms. Julieta Cruz took survey of three TV programs watched by the students
in her class. The figures she gathered were as follows:
News (N) 17 students
Concerts (C) 23 students

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Sports (S) 19 students
News and Concerts 6 students
News and Sports 4 students
Concerts and Sports 9 students
News, Concerts and Sports 3 students
(a) How many students were there in the class?
(b) How many students viewed only one program?

Solution:
Using geometric figures represent the set of students who watched a particular
TV program.

Figure 6 Venn diagram of the given problem.

In the intersection of the circles, we have 3, since there were three students who
watched all three TV programs; in the intersection of 𝐶 and 𝑆 we have 9 = 3 + 6; in the
intersection of 𝑁 and 𝑆 we have 4 = 3 + 1; and in the intersection of 𝑁 and 𝐶 we have
6 = 3 + 3. Now we can observe that in set 𝑁 there are 17 = 10 + 3 + 3 + 1 students;
in 𝐶 there are 23 = 11 + 3 + 3 + 6; and in 𝑆 there are 19 = 9 + 6 + 3 + 1. To answer
(a) we add all the numbers in the Venn Diagram, that is, 10 + 3 + 3 + 1 + 9 + 6 + 11 =
43 students in the class of Ms. Cruz. For (b) we add the numbers that are not in any of the
intersection, that is, there are 10 + 11 + 9 = 30 students who viewed only one program.

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TASK
Format:
A-4 Size Bond Paper
Font Style – Arial Narrow Font Size – 11
Margins – 1” all sides Write Full Name, Date and Section, Task Number
Attach images of the graph neatly. Handwritten is also acceptable.

A. Describe the following sets using both the roster and the rule method.
1. 𝑃 = the set of prime numbers less than or equal to 20
2. 𝐷 = the set of days in a week

B. Given the sets

𝑂 = {𝑥/𝑥 is an odd integer} and
𝐸 = {𝑥/𝑥 is an even integer}

Determine whether each of the following statement is true or false:

1. 4 ∈ 𝐸 3. 6 ∈ 𝑂
2. 9 ∈ 𝐸 4. −7 ∈ 𝑂

C. Determine whether the et is finite or infinite.

1. the set of counting numbers
2. the set of letters in English alphabet
3. the set of even integers
4. the set of students in Mathematics
5. the set of counting numbers divisible by 5

D. Consider the following sets:

𝐴 = set of distinct letters in the word “ability”
𝐿 = set of distinct letters in the word “liability”
𝑀 = set of distinct letters in the word “mathematics”
𝑇 = set of distinct letters in the word “temporary”
1. Determine the equal sets.
2. Determine the equivalent sets.

E. Let 𝑾 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕, 𝟖, 𝟗}, 𝑿 = {𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕, 𝟗}, and 𝒀 = {𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟕, 𝟖}.

Determine if each of the following statements is true or false. If false give the reason
for its falsity.
1. 𝑋 ⊆ 𝑊 3. 𝑋 ⊆ 𝑌
2. 𝑌 ⊆ 𝑋 4. 𝑌 ⊆ 𝑊
F. If 𝑨 and 𝑩 are two sets such that 𝑨 = 𝑩, will it follow that 𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩? Why?

G. Let 𝑭 = {𝒂, 𝒃}. Find the power set of 𝑭.

H. Given the following sets

𝑈 = {𝑥/𝑥 is a counting number less than or equal to 11}
𝐴 = {𝑥/𝑥 is an even counting number less than 12}
𝐵 = {𝑥/𝑥 is a positive odd integer less than 13}
𝐶 = {𝑥/𝑥 is a prime number less than 11}
Find:
1. (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
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2. 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
3. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵

I. If in the following diagram, the parallelogram represents set 𝑷, the triangle set 𝑻,
and the circle set 𝑪, shade the area represented by
1. 𝑃 ∪ 𝑇
2. 𝑃 ∩ 𝑇
3. 𝑃 − (𝐶 ∩ 𝑇)
4. 𝑇 ∪ 𝐶
5. (𝑃 ∪ 𝑇) ∩ 𝐶

Figure 7 Given diagram for I.

J. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false for any two sets 𝑨
and 𝑩.
1. 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
2. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐵
3. 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
4. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴
5. If 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴, then (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝐵
6. If 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴, then (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝐵

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UNIT 7.TEST
8.

1. Describe the following sets by both the roster and the rule method.
(a) The set of month in a year
(b) The set of distinct letters in the word “meteorology”

2. Determine if each set is finite or infinite.

(a) The residents of Occidental Mindoro
(b) The odd numbers
(c) The distinct letters in the word “eternity”

3. Consider the following sets:

𝑋 is the set of distinct letters in “plausible”
𝑌 is the set of distinct letters in “pause”
𝑍 is the set of distinct letters in “liable”
Decide whether each statement below is true or false.
(a) 𝑌 is a subset of 𝑋
(b) 𝑌=𝑍
(c) 𝑋 − 𝑍 is a subset of 𝑌
(d) 𝑌 and 𝑍 are equivalent sets
(e) 𝑌 and 𝑍 are disjoint sets

4. Let 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ}
𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑒, 𝑔}
𝐵 = {{𝑏, 𝑑, 𝑓, ℎ}
𝐶 = {𝑏, 𝑒, 𝑔, ℎ}
Find:
(a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶
(b) (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
(c) 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′
(d) (𝐶 − 𝐵) ∪ 𝐴

5. Find the power set of 𝐻 = {2, 5}

6. In the given diagram shade the area represented by

(a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
(b) (𝐶 ∪ 𝐵)
(c) 𝐴 − (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

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Figure 8 Given diagram for number 6.

7. Solve by Venn Diagrams:

During the University recognition program students were awarded for their
excellence in three fields as follows:
20 were awarded for academic excellence (𝐸)
12 for the arts (𝐴)
15 for sports (𝑆)
8 for academic excellence and the arts
5 for academic excellence and sports
3 for arts and sports
1 for the three fields
(a) How many awardees were there?
(b) How many students received exactly two awards?
(c) How many received only on award?

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THE NATURE LESSON

OF
MATHEMATICS
2
TOPICS

Topic 1: Mathematics in Nature

Topic 2: Expressions vs. Sentences
Topic 3: Problem Solving

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. identify patterns and numbers in nature;
2. draw the Fibonacci spiral;
3. derive the recursive equation describing Fibonacci series;
4. evaluate the nth term of the sequence;
5. define the characteristics of mathematical language;
6. differentiate expressions and sentences;
7. convert expressions and sentences mathematically with
conventions in languages; and
8. perform operations on mathematical expressions and sentences
correctly.
9. translate verbal problems into mathematical equivalents;
10. evaluate verbal problems involving linear equations, ratio and
proportion, variation and quadratic equation; and
11. perform different techniques in solving problems.

Understanding is built upon a solid foundation. In this unit, you will encounter
mathematics which can be found in nature; numbers and shapes that explain the patterns
in our surroundings; and mathematical problems which can be solved using algebraic
approach. Upon encountering these topics, you will further gain knowledge about
mathematics in nature and the nature of mathematics.

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TOPIC 1: MATHEMATICS IN NATURE

TOPICS

1.1 Patterns in Nature

1.2 Numbers in Nature
1.3 Other Patterns in Nature

1.1 PATTERNS IN NATURE

Patterns in nature are categorized into two (2) categories, namely:
1. Self-Organized Patterns/Inherent Organization
These patterns are caused by the emergence of group order where
individuals within the group synchronize their behavioural state with each other.
The collective response is the way a group as a whole can interact with its
environment. Consider Figure 1 as an example of self-organized pattern.
Quanta Magazine provides an excellent article on the remarkable self-
organization of ants (refer to Figure 2). In part, the article says, “Give a colony of
garden ants a week and a pile of dirt, and they’ll transform it into an underground
edifice about the height of a skyscraper in an ant-scaled city. Without a blueprint
or a leader, thousands of insects moving specks of dirt create a complex, sponge-
like structure with parallel levels connected by a network of tunnels. Some ant
species even build living structures out of their bodies: Army ants and fire ants in
Central and South America assemble themselves into bridges that smooth their
path on foraging expeditions, and certain types of fire ants cluster into makeshift
rafts to escape floods… “It all results from local interactions between the
individuals,” said Garnier, a former student of Theraulaz’s who now studies living
ant bridges. “The final structure emerges without central coordination.”

Figure 1 Starlings in flight. (See full video at https://vimeo.com/79911232)

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Figure 2 To speed their foraging excursions, army ants build bridges with their own
bodies, allowing others to race across a gap.
(Source: https://www.quantamagazine.org/ants-build-complex-structures-with-a-few-simple-rules-
20140409/)

Consider the following images for examples of self-organized patterns.

Example 1. Activator molecules that are near each other strengthen and mutually
reinforce their effect. At the same time they diminish the effect of
activators that are far away, inhibiting their ability to activate their own
nearby neighbors.

Figure 3 2-D cell automatons for developing the zebra coat pattern
(Source:https://www.naturalhistorymag.com/htmlsite/master.html?https://www.naturalhistorymag.com
/htmlsite/0603/0603_feature1.html)

Example 2. Richie Khandelwal articulates that they appear in the mineral deposits
between layers of sedimentary rocks, in the path of a lightning bolt as it
crashes to the ground, in the undulating ripples of windblown sand on a
desert dune. When the forces of wind, gravity, and friction act on the sand
dunes, the innumerable grains of sand ricochet and tumble. As one grain
lands, it affects the position of the other grains, blocking the wind or
occupying a site where another grain might have landed. Depending on
the speed of the wind and the sizes and shapes of the grains of the sand,
this dynamic process creates a regular pattern of stripes or ripples

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Figure 4 Stripped or rippled pattern observed on the desert sand.

(Source: https://tue.iitm.ac.in/teachingandpresentations/teaching/undergraduate%20courses /vy305-
molecular-architecture-and-evolution-of-functions/presentations/presentations-2006/P7.pdf)

2. Invoked Organization
These patterns are caused by the emergence of group order where the
resulting works have a behavioural state and order. The output is the way a group
as a whole can interact with its environment. Consider Figure 5 as an example of
the output of invoked organization pattern.

Figure 5 Honeycomb as an example pattern by Invoked Organization

(Source:https://www.naturalhistorymag.com/htmlsite/master.html?https://www.naturalhistorymag.com
/htmlsite/0603/0603_feature1.html)

Hexagon is the most efficient and least wasteful shape found in nature.
The compressive characteristics of the shape allow it to be one of the strongest
structures in the world. Previous studies on the geometry of the beehive have
indicated that no other shape can create more space with less material
(hereva.com, 2017). This means that bees know a way to construct a more
economical structure.

1.2 NUMBERS IN NATURE

1. Fibonacci Series
Leonardo Fibonacci began the study of this sequence by posing the following
problem in his book, Liber Abaci:

“How many pairs of rabbits will be produced in a year, beginning with a

single pair , if in every month each pair bears a new pair which becomes productive
from the second month on?”
15
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

By Functional Notation, 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑓(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑓(𝑛 − 2) using, 𝑓(0) =

1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(1) = 1. Arithmetically, 𝑎 +𝑎 =𝑎 .
In finding the nth term of the Fibonacci series, consider the following
derivation of 𝑎 , given 𝑛.
The following is the derived recursive equation describing the relationship
between the terms of the Fibonacci series:

General Recursive Equation:

𝑎 = 𝐵𝜆
Fibonacci: Sequence (Recursive Equation):
𝑎 +𝑎 =𝑎
Derivation of 𝑎 given any 𝑛:
𝐵𝜆 + 𝐵𝜆 = 𝐵λ
1
[𝐵𝜆 + 𝐵𝜆 = 𝐵𝜆 ]
𝐵𝜆

+ =

𝜆( ) ( )
+𝜆 ( )
= 𝑥( ) ( )

1+𝜆 =𝜆
𝜆 −𝜆−1 = 0
a = 1; b = −1; c = −1

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝜆=
2𝑎
−(−1) ± (−1) − 4(1)(−1)
𝜆=
2(1)

1 ± √5
𝜆=
2
√ √
𝜆 = ; 𝜆 =

𝑎 =∝ 𝜆 + 𝛽𝜆

1 + √5 1 − √5
𝑎 =∝ +𝛽
2 2

@ 𝑛 = 0; 𝑎 = 0

1 + √5 1 − √5
0 =∝ +𝛽
2 2

0 =∝ +𝛽 →Eq. 1
@ 𝑛 = 1; 𝑎 = 1

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
1 + √5 1 − √5
1 =∝ +𝛽
2 2
√ √
1= ∝+ 𝛽 →Eq. 2

Solve Eq. 1 & Eq. 2 to get the value of ∝ & 𝛽

From Eq. 1:
0 =∝ +𝛽
∝= −𝛽
Eq. 1 in Eq. 2:

1 + √5 1 − √5
1= ∝+ 𝛽
2 2
1 + √5 1 − √5
1= (−𝛽) + 𝛽
2 2
1 = −√5𝛽
−1
𝛽=
√5
@ Eq. 1:

0 =∝ +𝛽

∝= −𝛽

−1
∝= −
√5

1
∝=
√5

∵ 𝑎 =∝ 𝜆 + 𝛽𝜆

𝒏 𝒏
𝟏 𝟏 + √𝟓 𝟏 𝟏 − √𝟓
∴ 𝒂𝒏 = −
√𝟓 𝟐 √𝟓 𝟐

Figure 6 shows the Fibonacci sequence in nature. Also, another video reference
that gives more examples for Fibonacci sequence, golden ratio and other patterns in
nature is shown by the following link: https://vimeo.com/9953368.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Figure 6 (a) A pine cone exhibits the pattern of spirals of both directions – 13
clockwise and 8 anticlockwise (b) The seed of the cone flower following a
spiral pattern (c) The nautilus creates a spiral shell.
(Source:https://www.naturalhistorymag.com/htmlsite/master.html?https://www.naturalhistorymag.com
/htmlsite/0603/0603_feature1.html)

Figure 7 Video thumbnail for more examples of Fibonacci sequence, golden ratio
and other patterns in nature (See full video at https://vimeo.com/9953368).

2. Golden Ratio (1.61803399)

Golden ratio is a number commonly encountered when taking ratios of
distances in simple geometric figures such as pentagons, decagons and
dodecagons. It is denoted by PHI (ø), and is called the divine proportion, golden
mean, or golden section.
Phi can be expressed in the following two series:

a. ∅ = [1, 1, 1, … ] = 1 +

b. ∅ = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + √1 + …

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Figure 8 shows an example of a golden ration in a sea shell. The graph is drawn
by bisecting one of the vertices of two equal angles of an isosceles triangle
projected to the opposite side, following the steps until there are no triangles can
be drawn. Connecting the vertices of the drawn triangles, form a spiral. The said
ratio between two distances is the golden ratio.

Figure 8 The pattern of the logarithmic graph based on the golden rule is same to
that of the pattern found in sea shells.
(Source: https://www.goldennumber.net/nautilus-spiral-golden-ratio/)

1.3 OTHER PATTERNS IN NATURE

1. Fractals
A fractal is a detailed pattern that looks similar at any scale and repeats
itself over time. A fractal's pattern gets more complex as you observe it at larger
scales. This example of a fractal shows simple shapes multiplying over time, yet
maintaining the same pattern. Examples of fractals in nature are snowflakes, trees
branching, lightning, and ferns (refer to Figure 9).

Figure 9 Fractals
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal)

2. Spiral
A spiral is a curved pattern that focuses on a center point and a series of
circular shapes that revolve around it. Examples of spirals are pine cones,
pineapples, hurricanes. The reason for why plants use a spiral is because they are
constantly trying to grow but stay secure. A spiral shape causes plants to condense
themselves and not take up as much space, causing it to be stronger and more
durable against the elements (refer to Figure 10).

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Figure 10 Spirals
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral)

3. Voronoi
A Voronoi pattern provides clues to nature’s tendency to favor efficiency:
the nearest neighbor, shortest path, and tightest fit. Each cell in a Voronoi pattern
has a seed point. Everything inside a cell is closer to it than to any other seed. The
lines between cells are always halfway between neighboring seeds. Other
examples of Voronoi patterns are the skin of a giraffe, corn on the cob,
honeycombs, foam bubbles, the cells in a leaf, and a head of garlic (refer to Figure
11).

Figure 11 Voronoi
(Source: https://i.gifer.com/9yEj.gif)

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

TASK
Format:
A-4 Size Bond Paper
Font Style – Arial Narrow Font Size – 11
Margins – 1” all sides Write Full Name, Date and Section, Task Number
Attach images of the graph neatly. Handwritten is also acceptable.

A. Fill the missing values of the given pattern.

1. 2, 3, 8, __, __, …
2. __, __, 15, 24, 39, 63, …
3. __, __, 39, 63, 102, 165, …
4. 8, 13, 21, 34, __, __, …
5. 55, __, 144, 233, __, 610, …
6. 1864, ___, ___, 7896, 12776, 20672, …
7. __, __, 495, 801, 1296, 2097, …
8. 18, 30, __, __, 126, 204, 330, …
9. __, __, 275, 445, 720, 1165, …
10. 89, 144, __, __, 610, 987, 1597, …

B. Answer the following questions.

1. A man put a pair of rabbits. How many rabbits will be produced after 1 year if in
every month, each pair begets a new pair?
2. Using a graphing paper, draw a Fibonacci Spiral by creating squares whose side
measurements are always the measurement of the next square.
a. First draw a square that measures 1 square unit.
b. Draw a second square of 1 square unit to the left of the drawn square.
c. Draw a 2 x 2 square above the squares just drawn; making sure that one side of
the square is the length of the two squares just drawn.
d. Draw a 3 x 3 to the right of the other 3 squares.
e. Continue this pattern until the graphing paper is filled up by similar squares.
C. Make a reaction paper about the video. (https://vimeo.com/9953368)
D. Research some mathematical patterns which can be seen in our surroundings.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

ASSESSMENT
Name: ____________________________________________ Score: _________
Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________ Date: __________
WORKSHEET NO. ___
A. Answer the following NEATLY.
1. How many pairs of rabbits will be produced in a year, beginning with a single
pair, if in every month each pair bears a new pair which becomes productive from
the second month on?

2. Write all the digits of the following nth term of Fibonacci Series: (show your
solutions)
a. 50th c. 40th term

b. 55th d. 60th term

3. Why do we need to study patterns and numbers in nature?

4. Why is mathematics essential?

EXPLORATORY EXERCISE

INSTRUCTION: Answer the following NEATLY.

1. Graph the fibonacci series/golden ratio using isosceles traingles.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

TOPIC 2: EXPRESSIONS VS. SENTENCES

TOPICS

2.1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language

2.2 Expressions vs. Sentences
2.3 Open Sentences
2.4 Truth of Sentences
2.5 Conventions in Languages

2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

People frequently have trouble understanding mathematical ideas. Not
necessarily because the ideas are difficult but because they are presented in foreign
language – the language of mathematics.
The characteristics of mathematical language are divided into three (3), namely:
1. Precise - able to make very fine distinctions
2. concise - able to say things briefly
3. Powerful - able to express complex thoughts with relative ease.

2.2 EXPRESSIONS VS. SENTENCES

An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is a correct
arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of
interest. An expression does NOT state a complete thought; in particular, it does not make
sense to ask if an expression is true or false. Some of the examples in mathematical
expressions are:
1. Numbers: -1; 2; 0; 9
2. Functions: 𝑥 + 2; 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 7
3. Sets: {1, 2, 3}; {−12, −10, 2, 4}
4. Ordered Pairs: (10, 5); (−1, 3)
1 −3
5. Matrices:
4 6
6. Vectors: 𝐴⃗; 𝐶⃗

A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct

arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought. It makes sense to
ask about the TRUTH of a sentence: Is it true? Is it false? Is it sometimes true/sometimes
false? If two or more expressions are compared with mathematical operations, then the
resulting form is a mathematical sentence. However, if the sentence is true or not, then
it is a matter of analysis and discussions. Some of the examples are the following:
1. Equation: 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 7; 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}
2. Inequality: 𝑥 + 2 < 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 7; 𝑥 + 2 ≥ −3𝑥 + 7

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
2.3 OPEN SENTENCES
A group of numbers and symbols is called a mathematical phrase. If a phrase
contains a variable which is used to denote any value, then the phrase is called an open
phrase.
Example.
Mathematical Phrase Open Phrase
3(4 + 5) 3(𝑥 + 5)
15 + 28 𝑛 + 28
(7 ∙ 2) + 15 (7 ∙ 𝑥) + 15
A phrase is simply a group of symbols which does not express a complete thought.
A mathematical sentence is a group of symbols that expresses a complete thought. Thus,
when we say “four squared plus ten equals twenty six,” we are stating a mathematical
sentence which can be written as 4 + 10 = 26. However, if we choose a variable, say 𝑥,
instead of the number 4, then our sentence becomes “the square of a number plus ten
equals twenty six” which can be written 𝑥 + 10 = 26. This sentence is called an open
sentence since we do not know the value of 𝑥. Therefore, an open sentence is a statement
that contains one or more variables which become either true or false when specific
values are assigned to the variable.

Example 1 Represent the following English statements by

mathematical equation:

1. “𝑥 is 25 more than 𝑦” or
“𝑥 is greater than 𝑦 by 25”
Equation: 𝑥 = 24 + 𝑦
2. “The sum of 𝑥 and 𝑦 is 45”
Equation: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 45
3. The sum of four consecutive integers is 46.
Equation: 𝑥 + (𝑥 + 1) + (𝑥 + 2) + (𝑥 + 3) = 46, where
𝑥 is the smallest of the four integers.
4. “𝑥 is twice 𝑦”
Equation: 𝑥 = 2𝑦
5. “𝑥 is 15 less than twice 𝑦”
Equation: 𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 15
6. “Myla’s age is 5 more than twice it was 7 years ago.”
Equation: 𝑥 = 5 + 2(𝑥 − 7)

2.4 TRUTH OF SENTENCES

Sentences can be true or false. The notion of truth (i.e., the property of being true
or false) is of fundamental importance in the mathematical language. Consider the
following examples: (a) 5𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 7𝑥; (b) 5𝑥 – 2𝑥 = 𝑥; and (c) 𝑥 = 1. Considering
example (a), we say that the sentence is true since for any value of 𝑥, the expression on
the left side is always equal to the expression on the right side of the equation. However,
considering example (b), we say that the sentence is false since for any value of 𝑥, the
expression on the left side is always not equal to the right side expression. Moreover, we
can make this sentence true by changing the verb (=) used. In order for this sentence to
be true, can write: 5𝑥 – 2𝑥 ≠ 𝑥; or 5𝑥 – 2𝑥 > 𝑥. Further, considering example (c), we
cannot say if the sentence is true or false since 1 is dependent on the value of 𝑥. If 𝑥 is

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
really equal to 1, then the given sentence is true but the variable 𝑥 is an open expression
which means, it can have any value. Apparently, we say that example (c) is sometimes
true/sometimes false.

2.5 MATHEMATICAL CONVENTIONS

Mathematics also has its conventions, which help readers distinguish between
different types of mathematical expressions. The following are the list of examples of
mathematical conventions in which you should be familiar with:
1. the use of commas;
2. simplification of expressions;
3. the use of symbols as representation;
4. rounding off of numbers (unless otherwise stated);
5. the use of bars in repeating decimals;
6. graphical representation of data;
7. proper writing of equation when introducing new variable; and
8. proof statements like: If-then, Thus, So, Therefore, It follows that, Hence.

Mathematical Conventions Dealing with Linear Equations

A linear equation is a statement which can be written in the form
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 with 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑥 is of the first degree.
The expressions on both sides of the equal sign are called the sides or members of
the equation.
A solution or root of the equation is a number that makes the equation a true
statement. It is said that a root or a solution satisfies the equation.
The solution set is the set of all solutions or roots of an equation. To solve an
equation means to find all solutions.
An identity is an equation that is true for every value of the variable, for which all
expressions are defined. Every allowable number is a solution of an identity. Consider
Example 3.2

Example 2 Discuss why the following equation is true.

4𝑥 − 25 − (2𝑥 − 5)(2𝑥 + 5) = 0

Solution:
The given equation is true since the left side expression is always
equal to 0, the right side expression, for every real value of the variable 𝑥.

If an equation is not an identity, then it is a conditional equation. Consider Example

3.

Example 3 Discuss why the following equations are considered

conditional equation.
𝑥=7
4𝑥 + 9 = 7𝑥 + 18
Solution:
The equation 𝑥 = 7 is a conditional equation since it is true only if
𝑥 has the value 7. The equation 4𝑥 + 9 = 7𝑥 + 18 is also conditional
since it is satisfied only by 𝑥 = −3, but not by 𝑥 = 5 or any other real
number.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Two equations are equivalent if every solution of one is also a solution of the
other. Thus two equations are equivalent if and only if they have the same solution set.
To solve equations, extensive use of the concept of equivalent equations will be
used. To do this, we will use some of the properties of real numbers given earlier, namely,
𝑎 = 𝑏 is equivalent to 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 for every 𝑐
𝑎 = 𝑏 is equivalent to 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏𝑐 for every 𝑐 ≠ 0

For instance, the equations 𝑥 − 32 = 14 and 𝑥 − 32 + 32 = 14 + 32 are

equivalent and so are the equations 6𝑥 = 30 and = .

Steps in solving a linear equation:

1. Remove grouping symbols, if any, by using the distributive property.
2. Remove denominators, if any, by multiplying both sides of the equation by the
least common denominator. Denominators must not be zero. Also, be careful not
to multiply by zero in any form because the resulting equation will not be
equivalent to the preceding one.
3. Group all terms containing the variable you are solving to one side and all the
other terms to the other side, and then solve for the variable.

The above steps will be illustrated by the following examples.

Example 4 Solve the following equations:

1. 5𝑥 − 6 = 9

2. 6𝑥 − 7 = 2𝑥 + 1

3. − = +

4. + = ( )
+

5. = 1+

Solution:

1. 5𝑥 − 6 = 9 given
5𝑥 = 15 adding 6 to both sides
𝑥=3 dividing both sides by 5

2. 6𝑥 − 7 = 2𝑥 − 1 given
6𝑥 − 2𝑥 = 1 + 7 adding 7 and −2𝑥 to both
sides
4𝑥 = 8 combining similar terms
𝑥=2 dividing both sides by 4

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 4 Solve the following equations (continue…):

Solution:

3. Since LCD of the fractions is 12, we will multiply both sides by 12

to eliminate fractions.

12 − = 12 + multiply both sides by the

LCD 12
6𝑥 − 8 = 9𝑥 + 1 distributive axiom
6𝑥 − 9𝑥 = 1 + 8 adding 8 and −9𝑥 to both
sides
−3𝑥 = 9 combining similar terms
𝑥 = −3 dividing both sides by −3

4. Simplify the equation by multiplying both sides by the LCD 8(𝑥 +

1), which should be equal to 0, which means that 𝑥 ≠ −1
𝑥 5 5 3
8(𝑥 + 1) + = 8(𝑥 + 1) +
𝑥+1 8 2(𝑥 + 1) 4

8𝑥 + 5(𝑥 + 1) = 4(5) + 6(𝑥 + 1) Distributive axiom

8𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 5 = 20 + 6𝑥 + 6 Distributive axiom
8𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 6𝑥 = 20 + 6 − 5 adding −6𝑥 − 5 to both
sides
7𝑥 = 21 combining terms
𝑥=3 multiplying both sides by
1/7.

Since the only restriction was 𝑥 ≠ −1, then 𝑥 = 3 is a

solution, and the solution set, SS= { 3 }. In fact each side of the
given is 11/8 when 𝑥 = 3.
5. We will multiply both sides by the LCD 𝑥 − 3 and will therefore
stipulate that 𝑥 ≠ 3.

2𝑥 = 1(𝑥 − 3) + 6 multiply both sides by 𝑥 − 3

2𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3 + 6 distributive axiom
2𝑥 − 𝑥 = −3 + 6 adding −𝑥 to both sides
𝑥=3 combining terms
∴ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 5 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

In Example 4 number 5, if there is a solution of the original equation, it must be

𝑥 = 3. However, 3 cannot be a solution of the given equation since replacing 𝑥 by 3
involves division by 0. So the given equation has no solution, that is, SS= { }. In other
words, the first step, multiplying by 𝑥 − 3, was in effect multiplying by 0. The number 3
in this example is called an extraneous root of the given equation because it is not a root
of the given equation.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
REMARK 2.1
Do not multiply each side of an equation by 0 in any form.

Example 5 Solve the following equations (assume to avoid division by

0):

1. + =( )( )

2. − =

3. 𝑆 = 𝜋𝑟 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ for ℎ
Solution:

1. Simplify the equation by multiplying both sides by the LCD (𝑥 −

2)(𝑥 − 5), which should not be equal to 0, which means that 𝑥 ≠
2 and 𝑥 ≠ 5.

2(𝑥 − 2) + 5(𝑥 − 5) = 7 multiplying by the LCD (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 −

5).
2𝑥 − 4 + 5𝑥 − 25 = 7 distributive axiom
7𝑥 − 29 = 7 combining terms
7𝑥 = 36 adding 29 to both sides
𝑥= dividing both sides by 7
Since the restrictions are 𝑥 ≠ 2 and 𝑥 ≠ 5, then 𝑥 = is a
solution and the solution set, SS= .

2. 6(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2) − 1(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) = 2(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3),

multiplying both sides by LCD (2𝑥 −
1)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2)
6(𝑥 − 𝑥 − 6) − (2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 2) = 2(2𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 3)
multiplying the binomials

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 5 Solve the following equations (assume to avoid division by

0):

1. + =( )( )

2. − =

3. 𝑆 = 𝜋𝑟 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ for ℎ

Solution (continue…)

2. 6(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2) − 1(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) = 2(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3),

multiplying both sides by LCD (2𝑥 −
1)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2)

6(𝑥 − 𝑥 − 6) − (2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 2) = 2(2𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 3)

multiplying the binomials
6𝑥 − 6𝑥 − 36 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 4𝑥 − 14𝑥 + 6

distributive axiom
4𝑥 − 9𝑥 − 34 = 4𝑥 − 14𝑥 + 6
combining terms
5𝑥 = 40 adding 14𝑥 + 34 − 4𝑥
𝑥=8 dividing both sides by 5

The solution of the given equation is 𝑥 = 8 since this

number does not make any denominator equal to zero. SS = { 8 }.

3. 𝑆 = 𝜋𝑟 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ given
𝑆 − 𝜋𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ adding −𝜋𝑟 to both sides
=ℎ dividing both sides by 2𝜋𝑟

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

TASK
Format:
A-4 Size Bond Paper
Font Style – Arial Narrow Font Size – 11
Margins – 1” all sides Write Full Name, Date and Section, Task Number
Attach images of the graph neatly. Handwritten is also acceptable.

A. Translate each of the following to a mathematical phrase.

1. the sum of 28 and 32
2. 56 diminished by 3 times 5
3. the sum of 35 and the product of 4 and 8
4. the quotient of 30 and the difference of 8 and 2
5. one-half the product of 7 and 10

B. Translate each of the following to an open phrase.

1. 𝑥 increased by one-half of 𝑦
2. the product of 𝑎 and 𝑏
3. 𝑟 less than twice 𝑠
4. the product of the reciprocal of 𝑚 and 𝑛
5. a number increased by twice its square

C. Translate each of the following to an open sentence.

1. the sum of 𝑑 and 0 is 𝑑
2. 8 taken from a number equals 35
3. the sum of 4𝑎 and 8𝑎 is 12𝑎
4. five times a certain number is 90
5. 4 less than 3 times a number is 23

D. Decide whether the equation is an identity or conditional equation.

1. 𝑥 − 9 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3)
2. (3𝑥 − 2) = 9𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 4

E. State whether the two equations are equivalent or not.

1. 7𝑥 − 2 = 4𝑥 + 3
3𝑥 = 1

2. 8𝑥 + 5 = 5𝑥 + 8
3 = 3𝑥

F. Find the solution set of the following equations:

1. 3𝑥 = 5𝑥 + 4
2. 3(𝑦 + 2) = 8𝑦 + 1
3. + 3 = + 4
4. −2 =
5. − =( )( )

G. Solve each formula for the specified variable.

1. I = Prt for r (simple interest)
2. D = RT for R (uniform motion)

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
3. 𝐶 = (𝐹 − 32) for F (temperature)
4. 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ for 𝑏 (area of a triangle)
5. 𝐶 = 2𝜋 𝑟 for 𝑟 (circumference of a circle)

ASSESSMENT
Name: ____________________________________________ Score: _________
Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________ Date: __________
WORKSHEET NO. ____
A. Translate each of the following to a mathematical phrase.

Mathematical Phrase Equivalent

1. the square of the sum of 16 and 32
2. five squared less than 9 9 squared
3. the reciprocal of 7 plus 2
4. the sum 4 squared and 3 cubed
5. the square root of 9 times one-third of 12

B. Translate each of the following to an open phrase.

Mathematical Phrase Equivalent

1. three times 𝑛 decreased by 7
2. 4 times the square root of 𝑥
3. 7 less than one-fourth of 𝑚
4. the sum of 𝑥 and 𝑦 squared
5. twice the product of 𝑎 and the sum of 𝑐 and
𝑑

C. Translate each of the following to an open sentence.

Mathematical Phrase Equivalent

1. the sum of twice a number and the number
itself is 15
2. 3 less than 4 times a number is greater than
12
3. 2 added to 4 times a number is less than 30
4. the square of a number is 81
5. 6 times the equation of a number is 54

D. Decide whether the equation is an identity or conditional equation.

1. 𝑥 − 1 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1)
2. 𝑥 − 5 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2)

E. State whether the two equations are equivalent or not.

1. 2𝑥 = 17
𝑥 = 17 − 2

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
2. 5 + 3𝑥 = 11
3𝑥 = 11/5

F. Find the solution set of the following equations:

1. = = 2𝑡 + 3

2. + =

3. =

4. =

5. = 2𝑤 − 5

G. Solve each formula for the specified variable.

1. 𝐴 = ℎ(𝑏 + 𝑏 ) for ℎ (area of a trapezoid)

2. 𝑎 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 for 𝑑 (arithmetic sequence)

3. 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 for y (equation of a line)

4. 𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 ℎ for ℎ (volume of a cylinder)

5. 𝑆 = for 𝑟 (geometric series)

EXPLORATORY EXERCISE

INSTRUCTION: Answer the following NEATLY.

1. Show that the following equations have no solution and discuss why.
a. +1=

b. =7−

c. − 11 =

d. = 10 −

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TOPIC 3: PROBLEM SOLVING

SUB-TOPICS

3.1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

3.2 Verbal Problems Leading to Quadratic Equations

3.1 VERBAL PROBLEMS LEADING TO LINEAR EQUATIONS

In many applications of Algebra, the problems are stated in words and are called
word/verbal problems. They give relationship between known numbers and unknown
numbers to be determined. In this section we solve verbal problems by using first-degree
equations in one variable. After determining the unknown numbers from the statement
of the problem, it is necessary to represent these numbers by symbols using only one
variable. After this is done, two algebraic expressions for the same number are obtained
and an equation is formed from them. The general procedure may be summarized as
follows:
1. Read the problem carefully and make sure the situation is thoroughly understood.
2. Make a list of conditions or relationship stated in the problem.
3. Determine the number of unknowns required in the problem.
4. If there is more than one unknown, determine from the conditions listed in step
1, which it is best to denote by a letter, say 𝑥. After having done this, express each
of the unknowns in terms of 𝑥 by translating algebraically some of the conditions
listed in step 1.
5. Form an equation by translating algebraically one of the conditions listed in step
1, which has not been used in step 3.
6. Solve this equation for 𝑥, and use the value of 𝑥 thus found to find the values of
the other values of the other unknowns in step 3.
7. Check the results by re-reading the conditions listed in step 1, replacing the
unknown quantities by their values and seeing if the conditions are satisfied.
The following examples illustrate how various English statements can be represented
by linear equations:
1. “𝑥 is 25 more than 𝑦” or
“𝑥 is greater than 𝑦 by 25”
Equation: 𝑥 = 24 + 𝑦
2. “The sum of 𝑥 and 𝑦 is 45”
Equation: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 45
3. The sum of four consecutive integers is 46.
Equation: 𝑥 + (𝑥 + 1) + (𝑥 + 2) + (𝑥 + 3) = 46, where 𝑥 is the smallest of the
four integers.
4. “𝑥 is twice 𝑦”
Equation: 𝑥 = 2𝑦
5. “𝑥 is 15 less than twice 𝑦”
Equation: 𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 15

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
6. “Myla’s age is 5 more than twice it was 7 years ago.”
Equation: 𝑥 = 5 + 2(𝑥 − 7)
7. “The interest earned on P1800 if part of it is invested at 5 percent and the rest at
6% is P106.50.”
Equation: 0.05𝑥 + 0.065(1,800 − 𝑥) = 106.50, where 𝑥 dollars are at 5 percent
= 0.05 and 1,800 − 𝑥 dollars are at 6 % = 0.065

Study the following examples:

Example 1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

1. The sum of three numbers is 34. The second is 3 less than the first,
and the third is 5 more than twice the first. What are the numbers?

Solution:
1) Conditions of the problem
a. The sum of the three numbers is 34.
b. The second is three less than the first.
c. The third is 5 more than twice the first.
2) Number of unknown is ----3
3) Representations of the unknowns:
Let
𝑥 = the first number
𝑥 − 3 = the second no. (translation of 1b)
2𝑥 + 5 = the third no. (translation of 1c)
4) Formulation of the equation of the equation
𝑥 + (𝑥 − 3) + (2𝑥 + 5) = 34 (translation
of 1a)
5) Solution of the equation
4𝑥 + 2 = 34
4𝑥 = 32
𝑥 = 8, the first number
𝑥 − 3 = 5, the second number
2𝑥 + 5 = 21, the third number
6) Checking the answers
a. The sum of 8, 5, and 21 is 34.
b. 5 is three less than 8.
c. 21 is 5 more than 2(8) or 16.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

2. Separate 48 into two parts such that twice the smaller is 6 more than
the larger part.
Solution.
Let 𝑥 = the smaller part
Then 48 − 𝑥 = the larger part
Equation.
Twice the smaller is 6 more than the larger.
2𝑥 = (48 − 𝑥) + 6
2𝑥 = 48 − 𝑥 + 6
2𝑥 + 𝑥 = 54
3𝑥 = 54 checking the answers,
𝑥= 1. 18 + 30 = 48
𝑥 = 18 2. 2(18) = 30 + 6
36 = 36
Hence,
𝑥 = 18, the smaller part
48 − 𝑥 = 30, the larger part

3. Find the three consecutive odd numbers such that the sum of the
first and the second number is 31 more than the third number.
Solution.
Let 𝑥 be the first odd number
Then 𝑥 + 2 be the next consecutive odd number.
And 𝑥 + 4 be the third consecutive odd number.
first number + second number = third number + 31

𝑥 + (𝑥 + 2) = (𝑥 + 4) + 31
𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 + 4 + 31
2𝑥 − 𝑥 = 35 − 2
𝑥 = 33, first number
𝑥 + 2 = 35, second number
𝑥 + 4 = 37, third number

Checking the answers,

33 + 35 = 31 + 37
68 = 68

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

4. The difference between 2 numbers is 24. If the larger number is
divided by the smaller, the quotient is 4 and the remainder is 3. Find
the numbers.
Solution:
Let 𝑥 be the smaller number.
Then 𝑥 + 24 is the larger number

Equation:
Larger number divided by the smaller, the quotient is 4 and the
remainder is 3, that is,
= 4+
𝑥 + 24 = 4𝑥 + 3
−4𝑥 + 𝑥 = 3 − 24
−3𝑥 = −21
𝑥=
𝑥 = 7, the smaller number
𝑥 + 24 = 31, the larger number

Checking the answer,

=4+

5. A father is now three times as old as his son. In 12 years the father
will be twice as old as his son is then. How old is each now?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 be the son’s present age.
The conditions of the problem may be out in a tabular
form as follows:
Present Age Age in 12 years
Son 𝑥 𝑥 + 12
Father 3𝑥 3𝑥 + 12
Equation: The father’s age will be twice the son’s age in 12 years.
3𝑥 + 12 = 2(𝑥 + 12)
3𝑥 + 12 = 2𝑥 + 24
3𝑥 − 2𝑥 = 24 − 12
𝑥 = 12, the son’s present age
3𝑥 = 36, the father’s present age.
Checking the answer:
The son’s age in 12 years will be 12 + 12 = 24
The father’s age in 12 years will be36 + 12 = 48.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

6. The length of a rectangular room is 3 feet more than twice its width.
If the perimeter of the room is 72 feet, find its dimensions.
Solution:
Let 𝑥 represent the number of feet in the width, then
2𝑥 + 3 represents the number of feet in the length.
The following sketch will help set up the open
sentence that will yield the solution to the problem.

Equation:
Twice the length + twice the width = Perimeter
2L + 2W =P
2(2𝑥 + 3) + 2𝑥 = 72
4𝑥 + 6 + 2𝑥 = 72
6𝑥 = 72 − 6
𝑥=
𝑥 = 11, width of the rectangle
2𝑥 + 3 = 25, length of the rectangle
Problems that involve motion usually state a relation between the distances travels,
between the rates (or speed), or between the periods of time involved.
The fundamental formula for use in solving such problem is
𝒅 = 𝒓𝒕,
represents the period of time. In applying the formula the units of
measurement of the rate, time and distance must be consistent. “𝑑”
and “𝑟” must be expressed in the same unit of time. The formula can be
solved for 𝑟 and 𝑡 in order to get the two additional formulas:
𝒅 𝒅
𝒓= 𝒕
and 𝒕 = 𝒓

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

7. Two cares are 456 miles apart, and are traveling towards each other
at rates of 42 miles per hour and 34 miles per hour, respectively. In
how many hours will they meet?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 represent the number of hours it takes them to
meet. Since 𝑟𝑡 = 𝑑, then
42𝑥 = the distance the first car travels before they meet
and
34𝑥 = the distance the second car travels before they
meet.
The following sketch will help in writing the equation.

Distance the first car travelled + Distance the second car

travelled = 456
42𝑥 + 34𝑥 = 456
76𝑥 = 456
456
𝑥=
76
𝑥 = 6 hours

Checking the answer,

42(6) + 43(6) = 456
252 + 204 = 456
456 = 456
.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

8. An airplane went 960 miles in the same time that a second plane
went 1,200 miles. The speed of the second plane was 40 miles an
hour faster than that of the first. How fast did each plane travel?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 represent the rate of the first plane.
𝑥 + 40 represent the rate of the second plane.
We have the following table:

rate (𝑟) distance (𝑑) time=

First plane 𝑥 960 960
𝑥
Second 𝑥 + 40 1,200 1,200
plane 𝑥 + 40

Equation:
960 1200
=
𝑥 𝑥 + 40
960(𝑥 + 40) = 1,200𝑥
960𝑥 + 38,400 = 1,200𝑥

38,400 = 1,200 − 960𝑥

240𝑥 = 38,400
38,400
𝑥=
240
𝑥 = 160 miles / hr., rate of the 1st plane
𝑥 + 40 = 200 miles / hr., rate of the 2nd plane
Checking the answer:
,
=

6=6

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

9. One runner took 3minutes to complete a race and another required
3 to run the same race. If the rate of the faster runner is three feet
per second more than the rate of the slower runner, find their rates.
Solution:
Let the measurement of time be in seconds.
Let 𝑥 represent the number of feet per second, as the rate
of the slower runner. Then (𝑥 + 3) represents the number
of feet per second, as the rate of the faster runner. We
have the following table:

Time in Rate in Distance in

seconds feet/sec feet (𝑑 = 𝑟𝑡
Slower runner 210 𝑥 210𝑥
Faster runner 180 𝑥+3 180(𝑥 + 3)

The distance travelled by each of the runners is the

same because each is running in the same race. Therefore,
we have the following equation:
210𝑥 = 180(𝑥 + 3)
210𝑥 = 180𝑥 + 540
210𝑥 − 180𝑥 = 540
30𝑥 = 540

` 𝑥=

𝑥 = 18 ft. / sec., rate of the slower runner

𝑥 + 3 = 21 ft. / sec., rate of the faster runner

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

10. One painter can paint a room in twelve hours and the other painter
in ten hours. How long will it take to pain the room if they work
together?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 represent the number of hours it takes two painters
to paint the room when they are working. The rate of work
of the first painter is 1/12 of the room per hour, and the
rate of work of the second painter is 1/10 of the room per
hour. We use the following table to obtain the equation:

Rate of No. of Fractional

work hours part of work
worked done
First painter 1 𝑥 𝑥
12 12
1 𝑥
Second painter 𝑥
10 10

Because the two painters complete the work

together (they pain the room), the sum of the entries in
the last column of the table is 1, that is the fractional part
of the work done by the first painter plus the fractional
part of the work done by the second painter equals 1.
Now, we have the following equation:
+ =1
Solving the equation, we have
60 + =1
5𝑥 + 6𝑥 = 60
11𝑥 = 60
𝑥=
𝑥= hours
Hence, it takes the painters 5 hours to paint the room together.
Checking the answer:
The fractional part of the work done by the first painter is 5 ÷
12 or and the fractional part of the work done by the second painter is
5 ÷ 10 or

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

11. A man invested part of P 15,000 at 6% and the remainder at 8%. If
his annual income from the two investments is P 1,072, how much
does he have to invest at each rate?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 pesos represent the amount he invested at 6% and
(15,000 − 𝑥) pesos represent the amount he has invested at 8%.
We use the formula
𝐼 =𝑃∙𝑅
and consider the following table:

Amount Rate Amount of

invested (P) (R) interest (I)
6% investment 𝑥 0.06 0.06𝑥
8% investment 15,000 − 𝑥 0.08 0.08(15,000
− 𝑥)

Thus, we have the following equation:

0.06𝑥 + 0.08(15,000 − 𝑥) = 1,027
0.06𝑥 + 1,200 − 0.08𝑥 = 1,072
−0.02𝑥 = 1,072 − 1,200
−128
𝑥=
−0.02
15,000 − 𝑥 = 8,600
Therefore, the man has P6,400 invested at 6% and P8,600
at 8%.
Checking the answers:
The annual interest from the P6,400 invested at 6% is P384 and
from the P8,600 invested at 8% is P688 and P384 + P688 is equal to
P1,072.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

12. How many gallons of a 35% acid solution and how many gallons of a
14% acid solution should be combined to obtain 50 gallons of 20%
acid solution?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 represent the number of gallons of the 35% acid
solution to be used. Then (50 − 𝑥) represents the number of gallons
of the 14% acid solution to be used. To obtain an equation, we use
the following table:

% of acid No. of No. of gallons of

gallons acid
of
solution
35% acid sol’n 35% 𝑥 0.35𝑥
14% acid sol’n
14% 50 − 𝑥 0.14(50 − 𝑥)
mixture 20% 50 10

From the last column in the table we see that the total
number of gallons of acid in the mixture can be
represented by either 10 or [0.35𝑥 + 0.14(50 − 𝑥)].
Thus, we have the following equation:
0.35𝑥 + 0.14(50 − 𝑥) = 10
Multiplying each member of the equation by 100, we obtain
35𝑥 + 14(50 − 𝑥) = 1000
35𝑥 + 700 − 14𝑥 = 1000
21𝑥 = 1000 − 700

𝑥=

𝑥 = 14

5
50 − 𝑥 = 35
7
Therefore, 14 gallons of the 35% acid solution & 35 gallons of
the 14% acid solution should be used.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

13. How many gallons of liquid that is 74% alcohol must be combined
with 5 gallons of one that is 90% alcohol in order to obtain a mixture
that is 84% alcohol?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 represent the number of gallons of the first liquid and
remember that 74% of 𝑥 is 0.74𝑥, then the following table is self-
explanatory.

% of gallons Percentage of No. of gallons

alcohol of alcohol
1st liquid 𝑥 74 0.74𝑥
2nd liquid 5 90 0.90(5) = 4.5
mixture 𝑥+5 84 0.84(𝑥 + 5)

Since (the number of gallons of alcohol in the mixture) is

equal to (the number of gallons in the first liquid) plus (the number
of gallons in the second liquid), we have
0.74𝑥 + 4.5 = 0.84𝑥 + 5
0.74𝑥 + 4.5 = 0.84𝑥 + 4.2
0.74𝑥 − 0.84𝑥 = 4.2 − 4.5
−0.10𝑥 = −0.3
.
𝑥= .

Hence, the required number of gallons of the first liquid is 3.

Checking the answer,
[0.74𝑥(3)] + 4.5 = 0.84[3 + 5]
2.22 + 4.5 = 0.84(8)
6.72 = 6.72

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 1 Verbal Problems Leading to Linear Equations

14. How many cavans of third class rice which sells at P780per cavan
must be mixed with 14 cavans of first class rice which sells at P930
per cavan in order to produce a mixture which sell at P855 per cavan?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 represent the number of cavans of third class rice to be
used. Then (14 + 𝑥) represent the number of cavans in the mixture.
We refer to the following table for the equation.

No. of cavans Price per cavan Price in total

value
3rd class rice 𝑥 780 780𝑥
1st class rice 14 930 13,020
mixture 14 + 𝑥 855 855(14 + 𝑥)

From the last column in the table we see that the price in the total
value of the mixture can be represented by either 855(14 + 𝑥) or
780𝑥 + 13,020 and we get the following equation:
855(14 + 𝑥) = 780𝑥 + 13,020
11,970 + 855𝑥 = 780𝑥 + 13,020
855𝑥 − 780𝑥 = 13,020 − 11,970
75𝑥 = 1,050
,
𝑥=

𝑥 = 14
Therefore, 14 cavans of third class rice should be added.

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TASK 1
Format:
A-4 Size Bond Paper/Graphing Paper
Font Style – Arial Narrow Font Size – 11
Margins – 1” all sides Write Full Name, Date and Section, Task Number
Attach images of the graph neatly. Handwritten is also acceptable.

A. Answer the following verbal problems.

1. One number is 3 greater than another. The sum of the numbers is 39. Find the
numbers.
2. A positive number is three times another number. If the larger number is diminished
by 8, the result is 7 more twice the smaller number. Find the numbers.
3. Separate 58 into two parts so that when the larger is divided by the smaller the
quotient is 5 and the remainder is 4.
4. The denominator of a fraction exceeds its numerator by 3. If the numerator is
decreased by 1 and the denominator is increased by 3, the value of the resulting
fraction is 1/2. Find the fraction.
5. Find three consecutive odd integers whose sum is 69.
6. Betty is twice as old as Jane. Six years ago Betty was four times as old as Jane. How
old is each girl now?
7. A father is now 28 years older than his son. In 12 years, the father will be twice as old
as his son is then. Find their present ages.
8. In 8 years a boy will be three times as old as he was 4 years ago. Find his present age.
9. The width of a rectangle is 18 inches less than its length. The perimeter of the
rectangle is 112 inches. Find the dimensions of the rectangle.
10. The length of a rectangular swimming pool is 72 feet more than twice its width. If the
perimeter is 420 feet, find the dimensions of the rectangle.
11. A carpenter used 30 ft. of molding in three pieces to trim a garage door. If the long
piece was 2 ft. longer than twice the length of each shorter piece, then how long was
each piece?
12. Clint is constructing two adjacent rectangular dog pens. Each pen will be three times
as long as it is wide, and the pens will share a common long side. If Clint has 65 ft. of
fencing, what are the dimensions of each pen?
13. If the circumference of a circular sign is 72𝜋 in., then what is the radius?
14. If the volume of a cylinder is 126𝜋 𝑖𝑛 and the radius is 6 in., then what is the height?
15. Two trains start toward each other at the same time from stations which are 570
miles apart. One is a passenger train that averages 55 miles per hour while the other
is a freight train that averages 40 miles per hour. In how many hours will they meet?
16. Two automobiles starting from the same place and traveling in opposite directions
are 432 miles apart in 6 hours. One rate is 12 miles per hour faster than the other
rate. Find the rate of each.
17. A father and daughter leave home at the same time in separate automobiles. The
father drives to his office a distance of 12 miles, and the daughter drives to school, a
distance of 14 miles. They arrive at their destinations at the same time. Find their

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
average speeds if the daughter’s average speed is 6 miles per hour more than her
father’s speed.
18. Bobby and Rick are in a 10- lap race on a one-mile oval track. Bobby, averaging 90
mph, has completed two laps just as Rick is getting his car onto the track. What speed
does Rick have to average to be even with Bobby at the end of the tenth lap?
19. A farmer can plow a field in 4 days by using a tractor. His hired hand can plow the
same field in 6 days by using a smaller tractor. How many days will be required for
the plowing if they work together?
20. A gasoline-powered pump can drain Betty’s entire swimming pool in 24 hours. An
electric pump can drain the entire pool in 36 hours. After the electric pump was
operating for one hour, the gasoline pump was started and both pumps were used
until the pool was drained. How long did the gasoline pump operate?
21. Robert and Neil working together can finish a piece of work in 6 days. Robert working
alone can finish it in 10 days. How long will it take Neil to do the work alone?
22. With the old harvester, Nica’s entire rice crop can be harvested in 72 hours, but a
new harvester can do the same job in 48 hours. How many hours would it take to
harvest the crop with both harvesters operating?
23. Rita can process a batch of insurance claims in 4 hours working alone. Eduard can
process a batch of insurance claims in 2 hours working alone. How long would it take
them to process a batch of claims if they worked together?
24. Batman can clean up all the crime in a certain city in 8 hours working alone. Rudy can
do the same job alone in 12 hours. If Robin starts crime- fighting at 8 A. M. and
Batman joins him at 10 A. M., then at what time will they have all the crime cleaned
up?
25. If ₱51.30 in interest is earned on a deposit ₱950 in one year, then what is the simple
interest rate?
26. If you borrow ₱100 and pay back ₱105 at the end of the month, then what is the
simple interest rate?
27. A man invested a sum of money at 3% annually, and a sum twice as much at 4%
annually. If the total annual interest from both investments is ₱165, find the amount
invested at each rate.
28. Rey had ₱8, 600 to invest. He invested part at 5% and the rest at 6%. If the income
from both investments was ₱454 how much was invested at each rate?
29. Norman decided to delay starting her catering business for one year and invest her
start-up capital in two banks. The annual percentage rate was 5% at one bank and
6% at the other. After one year she made ₱5880. If the amount that she invested at
6% was ₱10,000 greater than the amount invested at 5%, then what was the amount
of her start-up capital?
30. How many gallons of a solution containing 55% glycerine should be added to 25
gallons of a solution that contains 28% glycerine to give a solution that contains 35%
glycerine?
31. How many pounds of pure salt must be added to 40 pounds of a 5% solution of salt
and water to increase it to a 20% solution?
32. First class rice sells at ₱1,000 a cavan while third class rice sells at ₱800 a cavan. How
many cavans of third class rice should be mixed with 25 cavans of first class rice in
order that the mixture may sell at ₱900 a cavan?

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
33. A chemist has 10 quart of 10% solution of acid. He wishes to add enough water to
reduce it to 4% solution. How many quarts of water must be added?
34. A beverage producer makes two products, Orange Drink, containing 10% orange juice
and Orange Delight containing 50% orange juice. How many gallons of Orange Delight
must be mixed with 300 gallons of Orange Drink to create a new product containing
40% orange juice?
35. Gonzales Construction contracted Loyola High and Memorial Stadium for a total cost
of ₱4.7 million. Because the construction was not completed on time, Gonzales paid
5% of the amount of the high school contract in penalties and 4% of the stadium
contract in penalties. If the total penalty was ₱223, 000, then what was the amount
of each contract?

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3.2 VERBAL PROBLEMS LEADING TO QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Some verbal problems may be solved conveniently by the use of quadratic
equations, as shown in the following examples.

Example 2 Verbal Problems Leading to Quadratic Equations

1. The difference between the square of a positive number and five
times the number is 36. Find the number.
Solution:
Let 𝑥 be the positive number. Then by the condition of the problem,
we form the equation
𝑥 − 5𝑥 = 36
𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 36 = 0
Then factoring the quadratic trinomial above, we get
(𝑥 − 9)(𝑥 + 4) = 0
Now, setting each factor equal to zero,
𝑥−9=0 𝑥+4=0
𝑥=9 𝑥 = −4
Thus, the positive number is equal to 9.
Note: The value 𝑥 = −4 is a root of the equation, but this result is
meaningless in the context of the problem.
Checking the answer,
For 𝑥 = 9, using the equation 𝑥 − 5𝑥 = 36
(9)² − 5(9) = 36
81 − 45 = 36
36 = 36

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Example 2 Verbal Problems Leading to Quadratic Equations

2. The product of a positive even integer and the reciprocal of the next
larger positive even integer equals the reciprocal of the first integer.
Find that integer.
Solution:
Let 𝑥 be the first even integer, then
𝑥 + 2 represents the next larger even integer.

Equation: 𝑥 =

Multiplying both sides of the equation by the LCD 𝑥(𝑥 + 2), the
equation becomes

𝑥 =𝑥+2
𝑥 −𝑥−2=0
Now, factoring the quadratic trinomial above, yields
(𝑥 − 2) + (𝑥 + 1) = 0
and equating each factor to zero we have,
𝑥−2=0 𝑥+1=0
𝑥=2 𝑥 = −1
Thus, the positive even integer is equal to 2.
Note: The value 𝑥 = −1 is a root of the equation, but this
result is meaningless in the context of the problem.
Checking the answer,

For 𝑥 = 2, the equation 𝑥 = becomes

2 =

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Example 2 Verbal Problems Leading to Quadratic Equations

3. Find three (3) consecutive integers such that the sum of the squares
of the second and the third is forty-one more than twice the square
of the first integer.
Solution:
Let 𝑥 be the first integer, then
𝑥 + 1 represent the second integer
𝑥 + 2 represent the third integer
Equation:
(𝑥 + 1)² + (𝑥 + 2)² = 2𝑥 + 41
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4 = 2𝑥 + 41
6𝑥 + 5 = 41
6𝑥 = 41 − 5
6𝑥 = 36

𝑥=

𝑥 = 6, the first integer

𝑥 + 1 = 7, the second integer
𝑥 + 2 = 8, the third integer
Checking the answers,
(7)² + (8)² = 2(6)² + 41
49 + 64 = 2(36) + 41
113 = 72 + 41
113 = 113

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Example 2 Verbal Problems Leading to Quadratic Equations

4. A rectangular picture 24 inches by 32 inches is surrounded by a frame
of uniform width. If the area of the frame is 528 square inches less
than the area of the picture, find the width of the frame.
Solution.
Let 𝑥 be the width of the frame, then
32 + 2𝑥 represent the length of the picture and frame.
24 + 2𝑥 represent the width of the picture and frame.

Equation:
(32 + 2𝑥)(24 + 2𝑥) = 𝐴 + 𝐴 , where
𝐴 is the area of the picture and 𝐴 is the area of the frame.
Note that 𝐴 = (32)(24). Thus,

(32 + 2𝑥)(24 + 2𝑥) − (32)(24) = 𝐴 (Eq. 1)

By the condition of the problem, we form the following equation
𝐴 = 𝐴 − 528

Then, from (Eq. 1), we get

(32 + 2𝑥)(24 + 2𝑥) − (32)(24) = (32)(24) − 528
768 + 112𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 768 = 7688 − 528
4𝑥 + 112𝑥 = 240
4𝑥 + 112𝑥 − 240 = 0
𝑥 + 28𝑥 − 60 = 0
Factoring the quadratic trinomial, we have
(𝑥 + 30)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
𝑥 + 30 = 0 𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑥 = −30 𝑥=2
(𝑅𝑒 𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡) (𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡)
Hence, the width of the frame is 2 inches. The result can
be checked by referring to the original statement of the problem.

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Example 2 Verbal Problems Leading to Quadratic Equations

5. A mechanic’s helper requires 6 hours longer to do a job that it takes
the mechanic. They had worked together for 3 hours. When the
mechanic was called away, it took the helper 7 hours longer to
complete the job. How long does it take each to do a job alone?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 be the number of hours it takes the mechanic to do a job and
𝑥 + 6 represent the number of hours it takes the helper to do the job.

Then let be the fractional part of the job done by the mechanic
in an hour and be the fractional part of the job done by the helper in
an hour.
Since, the mechanic works for 3 hours and the helper works for
10 hours, the fractional part of the job done by the helper is 𝑜𝑟 .
Now, if 𝐽 is the part of the job done by the mechanic and 𝐽 is the part of
the job done by the helper, then we have the following equation:
𝐽 +𝐽 =1 (one job)

+ =1

Multiply each term of the equation by the LCD 𝑥(𝑥 + 6).

3 10
[𝑥(𝑥 + 6)] + [𝑥(𝑥 + 6)] = 1[𝑥(𝑥 + 6)]
𝑥 𝑥+6
3(𝑥 + 6) + 10𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 6)
3𝑥 + 18 + 10𝑥 = 𝑥 + 6𝑥
𝑥 + 6𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 18 + 10𝑥
𝑥 + 6𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 10𝑥 − 18 = 0
𝑥 − 7𝑥 − 18 = 0
Factoring the quadratic trinomial above, we get
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 9) = 0
𝑥+2=0 𝑥−9=0
𝑥 = −2 𝑥=9
(𝑅𝑒 𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡) (𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡)
Hence, it takes the mechanic 9 hours to do the job alone and the
helper 15 hours.
Check the result by referring to the original statement of the
problem.

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TASK 2
Format:
A-4 Size Bond Paper/Graphing Paper
Font Style – Arial Narrow Font Size – 11
Margins – 1” all sides Write Full Name, Date and Section, Task Number
Attach images of the graph neatly. Handwritten is also acceptable.

A. Answer the following verbal problems.

1. Find 2 consecutive positive integers whose product exceeds their sum by 19.
2. Find the 2 numbers that differ by 8 and whose product is 273.

3. The sum of the number and its reciprocal is . Find the number.

4. Find 3 consecutive odd integers such that the product of the second and the third
exceeds the square of the first by 98.
5. Find 4 consecutive even integers such that the product of the second and fourth
shall be greater than the product of the first and third by 36.
6. If the square of a number is diminished by 7 times the number, the result is 60.
7. If 12 is added to 10 times a number, the result is equal to twice the square of the
number. Find the number.

8. The sum of a number and its reciprocal is 2 . Find the number.

9. The length of a rectangular flower garden is 7 feet less than twice its width. If the
area of the garden is 130 square feet, find the dimensions of the garden.
10. The length of a rectangle is 4 meters more than twice its width. Find the
dimensions if the area is 70 square meters.
11. Peter plans to fence off a square feed lot and then cross- fence to divide the feed
lot into four smaller square feed lots. If he uses 480 ft. of fencing, then how much
are will be fenced in?
12. Julia’s soybean field is 3 m. longer than it is wide. To increase her production, she
plans to increase both the length and the width by 2 m. If the new field is 46 sq.
m. larger than the old field, then what are the dimensions of the old field?
13. A mason’s helper requires 4 hours more to pave a concrete work than it takes
the mason. The 2 men work together for 3 hours when the mason is called away.
The helper completes the job in 2 hours. How long does it take each to do the
job working alone?
14. A trip consisted of 50 miles by car and 400 miles by airplane. The airplane
travelled 150 miles per hour faster than the car and that portion of the trip
covered by the plane took one hour longer than that covered by car. Find the
average speed of the car.
15. A rectangular swimming pool, 62 feet by 50 feet is surrounded by a walk of
uniform width. If the area of the walk is 2, 492 square feet less than the area of
the pool, find the width of the walk.

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LESSON
SOLID MENSURATION 3
TOPIC

Topic 1: Plane Figures

Topic 2: Solids for Which V = Bh
Topic 3: Solids for Which V = 1/3 Bh

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. solve the missing elements and properties of plane figures and
solids;
2. evaluate problems related to plane figures and solids; and
3. discuss the behavior and solve engineering problems involving
plane figures and solids.

Solid mensuration deals primarily with the various solids. The formulas developed
in this lesson are used extensively in railway engineering, in road and bridge construction,
in chemical and physical analyses, and in large variety of commercial and engineering
projects. As you study Solid Mensuration, you shall see how necessary it is to have a
thorough knowledge of the mensuration of solids.

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TOPIC 1: PLANE FIGURES

TOPICS

1.1 Mensuration of Plane Figures

1.1 MENSURATION OF PLANE FIGURES

A large part of the work of this topic has to do with the computation of surface
areas and volumes of solids. In this connection, it is frequently necessary to pass a plane
through a solid to form a plane section, find the area of this section, and multiply it by the
length of a line. Thus, it is important for you, student, to be thoroughly familiar with the
mensuration of the standard plane figures. For this reason, you should carefully review
the following list of formulas relating to plane figures.

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Example 1 Mensuration of Plane Figures

1. The section (see figure) of a certain solid is bounded by two concentric
circles whose radii are 6.1 ft and 4.1 ft. Find the area of this section.

Solution:
Let 𝐴 and 𝐴 denote the areas of the larger and smaller circle, respectively.
Using the formula for the area of a circle, we have
𝐴 = 𝜋(6.1)
and
𝐴 = 𝜋(4.1)
Since the difference between these two areas is the area of the section, we
write
𝐴 − 𝐴 = 𝜋(6.1) − 𝜋(4.1) = 𝟔𝟒. 𝟎𝟖𝟗 𝒔𝒒. 𝒇𝒕.

Example 2. The section of a certain solid consists of a semicircle, a rectangle,

and a triangle, as shown. The altitude of the rectangle is three times the
radius of the semicircle, the altitude of the triangle is twice the same radius,
and the area of the triangle is 20 sq. ft. Find the area of the section.

Solution: Let 𝐴 , 𝐴 , and 𝐴 denote the areas of the triangle, rectangle, and
semicircle, respectively. Using the formulas listed above

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Solution 2 (continue…)
1
𝐴 = (2𝑟)(2𝑟) = 2𝑟
2
𝐴 = (2𝑟)(3𝑟) = 6𝑟
1
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟
2
Since the area of the section 𝐴 id the sum of these areas, we have
1 𝑟
𝐴 = 2𝑟 + 6𝑟 + 𝜋𝑟 = (16 + 𝜋)
2 2
Equating the area of the triangle in terms of 𝑟 to its given area, we get
1
20 = (2𝑟)(2𝑟)
2
Solving this equation for 𝑟 , we obtain
𝑟 = 10
Substituting this value of 𝑟 in the equation, we get
𝑟 10
𝐴 = (16 + 𝜋) = (16 + 𝜋) = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟕𝟎𝟖 𝒔𝒒. 𝒇𝒕.
2 2

Example 3. A city block is in the form of a parallelogram whose shorter

diagonal AB is perpendicular to side BC, as shown in the figure. The shorter
sides represent streets and the longer sides represent avenues. If the
distance between the avenues is 400 ft. and the length of each street is 500
ft, find the area of the block.

Solution:
From B, drop the perpendicular BD to line AC. Since BD by construction is
the distance between the avenues,
𝐵𝐷 = 400
Applying the Pythagorean theorem to the right triangle BDC, we obtain
𝐷𝐶 = 500 − 400 = 300
Since the sides of angle DBS are respectively perpendicular to the sides of
angle BAC, angle DBC = angle BAC. Hence right triangles DBC and BAC are
similar. Consequently, we write
𝐴𝐵 400 2000
= ; 𝐴𝐵 =
500 300 3
Considering BC as base and AB as altitude of the parallelogram, we have
2000
(𝐵𝐶)(𝐴𝐵) = 500 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑, 𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝒔𝒒. 𝒇𝒕.
3

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TASK
Format:
A-4 Size Bond Paper/Graphing Paper
Font Style – Arial Narrow Font Size – 11
Margins – 1” all sides Write Full Name, Date and Section, Task Number
Attach images of the graph neatly. Handwritten is also acceptable.

Answer the following problems:

1. A window glass is 4 ft 2 in by 2 ft 10 in. Find its area in square ft.
2. Find the area of the largest circle which can be cut from a square of edge 4 in.
What is the area of the material wasted?
3. A garden plot is to contain 200 sq. ft. If its length is to be twice its width, what
should its dimensions be?
4. Find the length of the diagonal of: (a) a square in terms of its edge 𝑎; (b) a rectangle
in terms of its base 𝑏 and its altitude ℎ.
5. Find the area of an equilateral triangle of side 𝑎.
6. Express the area of a circle in terms of the diameter 𝑑.
7. Write a formula for the circumference of a circle in terms of the diameter 𝑑.
8. The official distance between home plate and second base in a baseball diamond
is 120 ft. Find the area of the official ball diamond and the distances between the
bases. (The official ball diamond is in the form of a square.)
9. A metal washer 1 in. in diameter is pierced by a ½ -in hole. What is the area of one
face of the washer?
10. A certain city block is in the form of a parallelogram. Two of its sides are each 421
ft. long; the other two sides are each 227 ft. in length. If the distance between the
first pair of sides is 126 ft., find the area of the lad in the block, and the length of
the diagonals.
11. The vertical end of a trough has the following dimensions: width at top 4.4 ft.,
width at bottom 3.2 ft., depth 3.5 ft. Find the area of the end of the trough.
12. A sail has a spread of canvas as shown in the following figure. Find the surface area
of one side of the sail.

13. A storage bin of circular base has 324 sq. ft. of floor space. Find the radius of the
floor.
14. The plane area shown in the figure consists of an isosceles trapezoid (non-parallel
sides equal) and a segment of a circle. If the non-parallel sides are tangent to the
segment at points A and B, find the area of the composite figure.

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15. Find the area of the rectilinear figure shown, if it is the difference between two
isosceles trapezoids whose corresponding sides are parallel.

16. The points C and C in the figure lie on level ground in the same vertical plane with
the tip B of the tower AB. IF the tower AB is 300 ft high and measurements give

A1B1 = 5 ft., CA1 = 12 ft., A2B2 = 6 ft., and A2D = 8 ft., find the distance CD.

17. The quarter-mile race track shown in the figure has parallel sides AB and CD, each
315 ft. long. If the ends are semicircles, find the area bounded by the track. If a
race is run from S to D by way of C, find the length of the race in yards, given that
arc SC = (44/47) x arc AC.

18. Each of the four circles shown in the figure is tangent to the other three. (a) If the
radius of each of the smaller circles is 𝑎, find the area of the largest circle in terms
of 𝑎. (b) If 𝑎 = 2.71, what is the area of the largest circle?

19. The base of an isosceles triangle is 16 in. and the altitude is 15 in. Find the radius
of the inscribed circle.
20. In the figure of Problem 14, change the angle from 600 to 410 and then solve the
problem.
21. Show that, for two triangles ABC and AXY (see figure),

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×
22. = ×

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TOPIC 2: SOLIDS FOR WHICH 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉

TOPICS

2.1 Solids – Sections

2.2 Cube
2.3 Rectangular Parallelepiped
2.4 Prism
2.5 Right Circular Cylinder

2.1 SOLIDS – SECTIONS

A solid is any limited portion of space, bounded by surfaces. A section of a solid is
the plane figure cut from the solid passing a plane through it. Thus, in the case of the solid
shown in Figure 2, plane M cuts from the solid the section ABCDE.

Figure 2. Plane M cuts from the solid the section ABCDE

A polyhedron is a solid bounded by planes. The edges of a polyhedron are the

intersections of the bounding planes. The faces are the portions of the bounding planes
included by the edges. The faces are polygons
(see Figure 3).
The vertices are the intersections of
the edges
See Figure 4 for the list of formulas and
properties of solids.

Figure 3. Polyhedrons.

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Figure 4. List of formulas and properties of solids.

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2.2 CUBE
A cube is a polyhedron whose six faces area all squares (see Figure 4).
Properties:
1. The three dimensions of a cube are equal to each other. Therefore, all edges are
equal.
2. All the faces of a cube congruent squares.

Surface analysis:
Each of the six faces of a cube is a square of edge a. Since the area of one face is
𝑎², the total area of the cube is 6𝑎 .

Volume analysis:
The volume of a solid is the number of times it contains a given solid which is
chosen arbitrarily as the unit of volume. A cube whose edge is a linear unit, as one
inch or one foot, will be taken as the unit of volume. We shall assume that the
volume of a cube is the product of its three dimensions. Hence the volume of a
cube of edge 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 .

Example 1. A glass factory has an order for 1000 glass paper weights. Each is to
be in the form of a cube. If this order requires 8000 cu. In. of glass, what is the
surface area of one of the paper weights?
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑉 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛

1000𝑉 = 8000, 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 8 (a)

But in terms of an edge 𝑎
𝑉=𝑎 (b)
Equating the values of V from equations (a) and (b), we obtain
𝑎 = 8, 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 2,
Hence
𝑇 = 6𝑎 = 6(2) = 𝟐𝟒𝒔𝒒. 𝒊𝒏.

Example 2. A cube of edge 𝑎 is cut by a plane containing two diagonally opposite

edges of the cube. Find the area of the section thus formed.

Solution. Through the cube pass a plane containing edges AD and BC, forming
the section ABCDE shown in the figure. Consider AB as base of ABCDE and BC as
altitude. Applying the Pythagorean theorem to right triangle AEB, we have
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 = 𝑎√2.
The area of rectangle ABCDE is
𝐴𝐵 × 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑎√2 (𝑎) = 𝒂𝟐 √𝟐

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PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Find the length of the diagonal of the section ABCD (diagonal of the cube) in Ex. 2.
2. How much material was used in the manufacture of 24,000 celluloid dice, if each die
has an edge of in?
3. Plato (429-348) was one of the first to discover a solution to that famous problem of
antiquity, the duplication of a cube, i.e., the finding of the edge of a cube whose
volume is double that of a given cube. One legend asserts that the Athenians, who
were suffering from a plague of typhoid fever. Consulted the Oracle of Delos as to how
to stop the plague. Apollo replied that the Delians would have to double the size of his
altar, which was in the form of a cube. A new altar was constructed having its edge
twice as long as that of the old one. But the pestilence became worse than before,
where upon the Delians appealed to Plato. Given that the side of the altar was 8 ft.,
find, accurate to five figures, the edge of the required altar.
4. Show that (𝑎) the total surface of a cube is twice the square of its diagonal, (𝑏) the
volume of a cube is √3 times the cube of its diagonal.
5. What is the weight of a block of ice 24 in. by 24 in by 24 in., if ice weighs 92 per cent
as much as water, and water weighs 62.5 lb. per cu. ft.?
6. Find the volume and total area of the largest cube of wood that can be cut from a log
of circular cross section whose radius is 12.7 in.
7. A vegetable bin built in the form of a cube with an edge of 6 ft. is divided by a vertical
partition which passes through two diagonally opposite edges. Find the lateral surface
area of either compartment.
8. Imagine a cube measuring 3 units on an edge, and having each its total surface area
painted blue. Without the aid of a figure, answer the following questions.
(A) How many times must you cut completely through the cube to make cubes which
measure 1 unit on an edge?
(B) How many of the cubes of question (A) will have
a) Three blue faces?
b) Two blue faces?
c) One blue faces?
d) No blue faces?
(C) How many cubes are there in all?
(D) How many times must you cut completely through one of the cubes of (a) to make
cubes which measure unit on an edge?
(E) Answer the questions (B) and (C) with reference to the cubes of (D).
9. The plane section ABCDE shown in the figure is cut from a cube of edge a. Find the area
of this section if D and C are each at the midpoint of an edge.

10. Find the area of a triangle whose vertex is at the midpoint of an upper edge of a cube
of edge a and whose base coincides with the diagonally opposite edge of the cube.
11. If a cube has an edge equal to the diagonal of another cube, find the ratio of their
volumes.
12. One cube has a face equivalent to the total area of another cube. Find the ratio of
their volumes.

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13. Pass a plane through a cube so that the section formed will be a regular hexagon. If
the edge of the cube is 2 units, find the area of this section.
14. In Prob. 9 find the angle which the section ABCD makes with the lower base of the
cube.

2.3 RECTANGULAR PARALLELEPIPED

A rectangular parallelepiped is a polygon whose six faces are all rectangles (refer
to Figure 4.

Properties:
1. The parallel edges of a rectangular parallelepiped are equal.
2. The opposite lateral faces of a rectangular parallelepiped are equal and parallel.
3. Any two opposite faces of a rectangular parallelepiped may be taken as the bases.
4. Every section of a rectangular parallelepiped made by a plane parallel to the base is
equal in area to that of the base.

Formulas: (base on Figure 4)

Surface Analysis:
Since each face of a rectangular parallelepiped is a rectangle whose area is the
products of its edge and since the opposite faces are equal, the total area of the
rectangular parallelepiped with edges 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 2(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎).

Volume Analysis:
Consider the rectangular parallelepiped whose dimensions are respectively 2, 3,
and 4 units. Pass planes are parallel to the faces of the solid, dividing the edges into
segments one unit long as shown. These planes divide the solid into 2 layers of 12
congruent cubes each, making 3 × 4 × 2 = 24 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 cubes in all. Hence the unit of volume
is contained 24 times in the rectangular parallelepiped. This number (24) may be obtained
by multiplying together the three dimensions of the rectangular parallelepiped or by
multiplying its base by its altitude. When this argument is extended to cover rectangular
parallelepipeds of various dimensions, we are led to the following conclusion: The volume
of a rectangular parallelepiped is the product of its three dimensions, or the product of its
base and its altitude.

Example 3. Rectangular Parallelepiped

A storage room has a rectangular floor 76 ft. by 42 ft. The walls are
vertical and 20 ft. high. If there are no windows, find the total area of the
ceiling, walls, and floor. Also find the storage space of the room.

Solution:
(a) Total Surface Area
𝑇 = 2(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐)
Taking 𝑎 = 42, 𝑏 = 76, 𝑐 = 20, and substituting in this formula, we obtain
𝑇 = 2[(42)(76) + (42)(20) + (76)(20)]
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒔𝒒. 𝒇𝒕.
(b) Volume
𝑉 = 𝐵ℎ; 𝐵 = 42(76); ℎ = 20
𝑉 = (42)(76)(20)
𝑽 = 𝟔𝟑, 𝟖𝟒𝟎 𝒄𝒖. 𝒇𝒕.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example 4. Rectangular Parallelepiped
Given a rectangular parallelepiped with base a by b and altitude c. Find the area
of a section which contains two diagonally opposite edges of the parallelepiped.

Solution:

Through the given parallelepiped pass a plane containing the two

diagonally opposite edges GD and BC, forming the section GBCD shown in the
figure. This section is a rectangle of base GB and altitude BC=c. Since GB is the
hypotenuse of right triangle GFB (see figure), we apply the Pythagorean theorem
to this triangle and find the length of GB to be
𝐺𝐵 = √𝑎 + 𝑏 .
The area of rectangle GBCD is
𝐴 = 𝐵𝐶 × 𝐺𝐵.
Substituting 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺𝐵 √𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑨 = √𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 .

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Counting 38 cu. ft. of coal to a ton, how many tons will a coal bin 19 ft. long, 6 ft.
wide, and 9 ft. deep contain, when level full?
2. Compute the cost of the lumber necessary to resurface a foot-bridge 16 ft. wide and
150 ft. long with 2-in. planks, if lumber is $40 per 1000 board feet. Neglect waste.
(One board foot=1 fit. By 1 fit. By 1 in.)
3. Building bricks are closely stacked in a pile 7 ft. high, 36 ft. long, and 12 ft. wide. If the
bricks are 2 in. by 4 in. by 9 in., how many bricks are in the pile?
4. A packing box 2.2 ft. by 4.9 ft. by 5.5 ft. is to be completely covered with tin. How
many square feet of the metal are needed? (Neglect waste for seams, etc.)
5. How many cubic yards of material are needed for the foundation of a barn 40 by 80
ft., if the foundation is 2 ft. thick and 12 ft. high?
6. A tank, open at the top, is made of sheet iron 1 in. thick. The internal dimensions of
the tank are 4 ft. 8 in. long; 3 ft. 6 in. wide; 4 ft. 4 in. deep. Find the weight of the tank
when empty, and find the weight when full of salt water. (Salt water weighs 64 lb.
per cu. ft., and iron is 7.2 times as heavy as salt water.)

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
7. The edges of a trunk are 3 ft., 4 ft., 6 ft. A second trunk is twice as long; the other
edges are 3 ft., 4 ft.,. How do their volumes compare?
8. An electric refrigerator is built in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped. The inside
dimensions are 3 ft. by 2.6 ft. by 1.8 ft. A freezing unit (1.1 ft. by 0.8 ft. by 0.7 ft.)
subtracts from the storage room of the box. Find the capacity of the refrigerator.
9. A solid concrete porch consist of 3 steps and a landing. The steps have a thread of 11
in., a rise of 7 in., and a length of 7 ft; the landing is 6 ft. by 7 ft. How much material
was used in its construction?

10. Find the length of the diagonal of the parallelepiped considered in Ex. 2. Hint. This
diagonal of the section GBCD.
11. In the figure is shown a rectangular parallelepiped whose dimensions are 2, 4, 6.
Points A, B, C, E, F, and L are each of the sections ABEF, ABC, and MNL.

12. The figure represent a rectangular parallelepiped; 𝐴𝐷 = 20𝑖𝑛. , 𝐴𝐵 = 10 𝑖𝑛. , 𝐴𝐸 =

15𝑖𝑛. (a) Find the number of degrees in the angles AFB, BFO, AFO, BOF, AOF, OFC. (b)
Find the area of each of the triangles ABO, BOF, AOF. (c) Find the perpendicular
distance from B to the plane AOF.

2.4 PRISM
A prism is a polyhedron of which to faces are polygons in parallel planes, and the
other faces are parallelograms (refer to Figure 4).

Properties:
1. The bases are the congruent polygons; the lateral area is the sum of the areas of the
remaining faces.
2. The intersections of the lateral faces are called the lateral edges. These lateral edges
are equal and parallel.
3. The sections of a prism made by parallel planes cutting all the lateral edges are
polygons.
4. The altitude of a prism is the perpendicular distance between the planes of its bases.
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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
5. A right section of a prism is a section perpendicular to the lateral edges.
6. A right prism is a prism whose lateral edges are perpendicular to its bases; its lateral
faces are rectangles. Unless otherwise stated, in this module when we use the term
cross section we mean right section.

Formulas; Surface Analysis and Volume Analysis: (refer to Figure 4)

Example 5. Prism
A masonry dam 40 ft. high has a uniform vertical cross section as
shown in the figure. The dam is 80 ft. long and its material weighs 125 lbs. per
cu. ft. Find the weight of the dam.
Solution. The dam is in the form of a prism of altitude 80 ft. with trapezoid
bases. The area of one base is the area of a trapezoid whose bases are 4 ft.
and 16 ft. and whose altitude is 40 ft. Hence its area is
4 + 16
𝐵= (40) = 400 𝑠𝑞. 𝑓𝑡.
2
The volume of the prism is
𝑉 = 𝐵ℎ = (400)(80) = 32,000 𝑐𝑢. 𝑓𝑡.
Since the masonry weighs 125 lb. pe cu. ft., the weight of the dam is
𝑊 = 125𝑉 = (125)(32,000) = 𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Let B denote the area of the base of a prism and S the lateral surface; then write
a formula for the total surface of a prism.
2. Write a formula for (a) the volume, (b) the total area, of a right prism whose
altitude is h and whose base is a square of edge a.
3. A lead pencil whose ends are regular hexagons was cut from a cylindrical piece of
wood, with the least waste. If the original piece was 8 in. long and in. in diameter,
find the volume of the pencil.
4. Show that every section of prism made by a plane parallel to its lateral edges is a
parallelogram.
5. The lateral surface of a concrete octagonal pier of height 10 ft. is to be resurfaced.
If each of the base edges is 1 ft., how many square feet of surfacing will be
required?
6. One part of a quartz crystal is a hexagonal prism with a right section of 1.29 sq. in.,
an edge of 2.31 in., and a base of 1.41 sq. in. Find the altitude of the prism.
7. A trench is 180 ft. and 12 ft. deep, 7 ft. wide at the top and 4 ft. at the bottom.
How many cubic yards of earth have been removed?
8. A through is formed by nailing together, edge to edge, two boards 11 ft. in length,
so that the right section is a right triangle. If 15 gal. od water are poured into the
trough and if the trough is held level so that a right section of the water is an
isosceles right triangle, how deep is the water? (231 𝑐𝑢. 𝑖𝑛. = 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙. )

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

9. A contractor agrees to build a dam, 180 ft. long and 20 ft. high, 12 ft. wide at the
bottom and 8 ft. wide at the top, for $9.75 a cubic yard. Find his profit if his cost
were $10,000.
10. (a) Find the volume of water in swimming pool with vertical ends and sides. The
length measured at the water line is 50 ft. and the breadth is 20 ft. The bottom of
the swimming pool is plane sloping gradually downward so that the depth of the
water at one end is 4 ft. and the other ends is 8 ft.
(b) If the sides, ends, and bottom of the swimming pool are constructed of tile
blocks whose glazed surface dimensions are 3 in. by 6 in., and if the ends and sides
of the pool extend 2 ft. above the water level, find the number of blocks used if
of the surface area is covered by sealing material.
11. A football stand 150 yd. long has 20 tiers of seats; each tier has a rise of 2 ft. and
tread of 3 ft. It is constructed of reinforced concrete with a cross section as shown.
Find the amount of material used in its construction.
12. A railway cut 200 ft. long and 30 ft. wide at the bottom is made with sloping sides,
which are 80 ft. and 60 ft. in length. The 80 ft. side is inclined 45° and the other
side is inclined 30° to the horizontal. Find the cost of removing the earth at $2 per
load, if the trucks have a capacity of 4 cu. yd.
13. The Pennsylvania Railroad found it
necessary, owing to landslides upon the
roadbed, to reduce the angle of inclination
of one bank of a certain railway cut near
Pittsburgh, Pa., from an original angle of
45° to a new angle of 30°. The bank as it
originally stood was 200 ft. long and had a
slant length of 60 ft. Find the amount of the
earth removed, if the top level of the bank
remained unchanged.
14. The trough shown in the figure has
triangular ends which lie parallel planes.
The top of the trough is a horizontal
rectangle 20 in. by 33 in., and the depth of
the trough is 16 in. (a) How many gallons of
water will it hold? (b) How many gallons
does it contain when the depth of the
water is 10 in.? (c) What is the depth of the
water when the trough contains 3 gal.? (d)
Find the wetted surface when the depth of
the water is 9 in. (𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑙. = 231 𝑐𝑢. 𝑖𝑛. )
15. If in a Prob. 13 the angle of inclination of
the bank was reduced from 40° to 25°, find
the amount of earth removed.
16. A dam 100 ft. long has a cross section
which is a trapezoid whose altitude is 16 ft.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
and whose upper base is 5 ft. If the lower base angles of the cross section are 50°
and 65°, find the volume of material the dam contains.
17. Show that in any prism the area of a right section is equal to the product of the
base and the sine of the angle between the lateral edges and the base. (This
relation is used in connection with the reflection of light trough prism.)

2.5 RIGHT CIRCULAR CYLINDER

A right circular cylinder is a circular cylinder whose elements are perpendicular to
its base.

Properties:
1. The axis of a right circular cylinder is the line joining the centers of the bases.
2. A right circular cylinder may be generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one
side as an axis, and is therefore also called a cylinder of revolution.
3. The centers of any section of a right circular cylinder parallel to the bases is on the
axis.
4. Any element of a right circular cylinder is equal to its altitude.
5. Every section of a right circular cylinder made by a plane containing am element is a
rectangle.

Formulas: (refer to Figure 4)

Example 6. Right Circular Cylinder

Express the lateral surface S and the volume V of a right circular
cylinder in terms of the radius of the base r and the altitude h.
Solution:
For the circular base we have
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟.
Therefore
𝑺 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉.
Substituting 𝐵 = 𝜋𝑟 in the formula,
𝑉 = 𝐵ℎ,
we obtain
𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉.
Example 7. Right Circular Cylinder
An iron pipe 10 ft. long has an internal diameter of 1 ft. If the iron is in. thick,
find the volume of metal in the pipe.
Solution: The volume of metal required is the difference between the
volumes of two right circular cylinders of the same altitude. Therefore, if we
have denote the required volume by V, the volume of the larger cylinder by
𝑉℩, and the volume of the smaller cylinder by V₂, we write
𝑉 = 𝑉℩ − 𝑉₂
𝑉 = 𝐵℩ℎ − 𝐵₂ℎ
𝜋𝑑²℩ 𝜋𝑑 𝜋 𝜋
𝑉= ℎ− ℎ = ℎ 𝑑 − 𝑑 = ℎ(𝑑℩ + 𝑑₂)(𝑑℩ − 𝑑₂).
4 4 4 4
But ℎ = 10 𝑓𝑡. , 𝑑℩ = 12 + (2) = 13𝑖𝑛. = 𝑓𝑡. , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑₂ = 1𝑓𝑡.
Substituting these values in equation (a), we have

𝑉 = 10 +1 −1 = 𝟏, 𝟑𝟔𝟑𝟓 𝒄𝒖. 𝒇𝒕

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. The diameter of a well is 6 ft., and the water is 7 ft. deep. How many gallons of water
are there in the well, reckoning 7.48 gal. to the cubic foot?
2. A paint manufacture desires a cylindrical steel drum to hold 50 gal. of roof paint. For
convenience in handling, it is found necessary to limit the inside diameter to 2 ft.
Find the height of the drum desired. (𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑙. = 231 𝑐𝑢. 𝑖𝑛. )
3. Find the waste in making the largest possible cylindrical rod from a bar of iron 3 ft.

long which has a square cross section whose diagonal is 6 in.

4. A cubic foot of water weighs about 64.4 lb. What must be the diameter of a cylindrical
pail 1 ft. high in order for it to hold the water from 25 lb. of ice? How many square
inches of sheet tin are required to make the pan? (Neglect waste in cutting and
lapping.)
5. If a lead pipe in. thick has an inner diameter of 1 in., find the number of cubic
inches of lead in a piece of pipe 10 ft. long.

6. A certain factory manufactures tin cans. It received an order for 10,000 cylindrical tin
cans of height 5 in. and diameter 3 in. How many square feet of tin did this order
requires if 7 sq. in. are allowed for waste and seams in each can?
7. A gas company erected a new gasholder. The gasholder (top and sides) was given
three coats of paint. It took 50 bbl. of paint of 50 gal. each to complete the work. The
height of the tank was 160 ft. and the diameter of the base was 218 ft. If the paint
cost $1 per gallon, what was the cost per square yard of surface?
8. A circular oak table top is 4 ft. in diameter and in. thick. How heavy is it if oak weighs
47 lb. per cu. ft.?
9. A log with a circular cross section is 15 ft. long and 27in. in diameter at the smaller
end. Find the dimensions of the largest piece of timber of length 15 ft. write a uniform
square cross section, that can be cut from the log.
10. A cylindrical standpipe is to contain 343,000 gal. of water. If its heights is to be twice
its diameter , what must be its dimensions?
11. When a body is immersed in water in a right circular cylinder 60 cm. in diameter, the
level of the water rises 40 cm. What is the volume of the body?
12. A right cylindrical solid of altitude 6 in. has the cross section shown in the shaded
portion of the figure. BEDG is a circle whose radius is OG. AFCG is a circle which is

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
tangent to the larger circle at G. 𝐼𝑓 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷 = 5 𝑖𝑛. 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝐸𝐹 = 9𝑖𝑛., find the
volume of the cylinder.

13. A wedge ABCDEF (see figure) is cut from right circular cylindrical block of altitude 10
in. and radius 4 in. The dihedral angle of the wedge is 30°. Calculate its volume and
total surface.
14. Pass a plane through a cube of edge 6 in. so that the section formed will be a regular
hexagon. Find the volume of a right circular cylinder 8 in. long, (a) whose base
circumstances this hexagon, (b) whose base is inscribed in this hexagon.
15. Find the volume of the largest right circular cylinder that can be circumscribed about
a rectangular parallelepiped dimensions 2 ft. by 3 ft.
16. If the angle of the wedge in Prob. 13 is 42°30’, find the volume and total area of the
wedge.

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TASK
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:
Fill-in the details indicated on the cover page of the format provided. All solutions must
be handwritten on clean sheets of bond papers. Take pictures of your answers and attach
to the said format.

Answer only odd numbers:

1. 1. A trench is 200 ft. long and 12 ft. deep, 8 ft. wide at the top and 4 ft. wide at the
bottom. How many cubic yards of the earth have been removed?
2. When an irregular-shaped rock is placed in a cylindrical vessel of water whose radius
is 4.18 in, te water rises 6.85 in. What is the volume of the rock if it is completely
submerged?
3. A dam is 40 ft. long, 12 ft. high, 7 ft. wide at the bottom, and 4 ft. wide at the top.
How many cubic yards of material were used in constructing it?
4. Two rectangular water tanks with tops on the same level are connected by a pipe
through their bottoms. The base of one is 6 in. higher than that of the other. Their
dimensions are 4 by 5 by 2 ft. and 4 by 7 by 3 ft., respectively. How deep is the water
in the larger tank when the water they contain equals half their combined capacity,
if the 2 ft. and 3-ft. edges are vertical?
5. A cylindrical tin can holding 2 gal. has its height equal to the diameter of its base.
Another cylindrical tin with the same capacity has its heights equal to twice the
diameter of its base. Find the ratio of the amount of tin required for making the two
cans with covers.
6. How much wood is wasted in turning out the largest possible cylindrical rod from a
stick whose uniform square cross-sectional area is 10 sq. in. and whose length is 5
ft.?
7. How long a wire 0.1 in. in diameter can be drawn from a block of copper 2 by 4 by 6
in.?
8. A piece of lead pipe is 50 ft. long. Its outer radius is 2 in., and it is in. thick. Into how
many spherical bulllets in. in diameter can it be melted?
9. A corncrib 20 ft. long has a cross section which is represented in the figure. The crib
is entirely filled with corn on the ear. How many bushels of corn does it contain, if 2
bu. Of corn on the ear are equal to 1 bu. Of shelled corn?
(𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 1 𝑏𝑢. = 1 𝑐𝑢. 𝑓𝑡. )

10. How many bricks each 8 in. by 2 in. by 2 in. will be required to build a wall 22 ft. by
3 ft. by 2 ft. (not allowing for mortar)?

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
11. The height of a hot-water boiler attached to a furnace is 5 ft. The circumference of
the boiler is 48 in. If the metal is in. thick, how many gallons will the boiler contain
when full? (𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑙. = 231𝑐𝑢. 𝑖𝑛).
12. A cylindrical tank, diameter 1 ft., length 6 ft., is placed so that its axis is horizontal.
How many pounds of water will be used in filling it to a depth of 9 in., if water weighs
62.4 lb. per cu. ft.?
13. How many washers can be made from a cube of metal 4 in. on side, if the washers
are in. in diameter and in. thick? The hole in the center of the washers is in. in
diameter.
14. What are the dimensions of a gallon can of uniform square cross section whose
height is twice the length of an edge of its base? (One gal. equals 231 cu. in.)
15. A woodman makes a wedge-shaped cut in the trunk of a tree. Assume that the trunk
is a right circular cylinder of radius 4 in., that the lower surface of the cut is a
horizontal plane, and that the upper surface is a planed inclined at an angle of 45° to
the horizontal and intersecting the lower surface of the cut in a diameter. This wedge
is then cut into two equal pieces by a vertical cut. What is the area of this vertical
section? The woodman now wishes to divide one of these pieces by another section
parallel to the first section. If the new section is to have an area equal to one-fourth
that of the original section, where should to cut be made?
16. How deep a cut should be milled off one side of a 2 in. shaft to make a flat (a
rectangular flat area) 1 in. wide?
17. The base of a right cylindrical is shown in the figure. It is formed by describing semi-
circular arcs within the square upon the four sides as diameters. If the altitude of the
cylinder 12 in., find the volume and total area.

18. Using the vertices of a 9-in square as centers, and radii equal to 3 in., four quadrants
are described within the square. If the figure thus formed is the uniform cross section
of a cylinder element 7 in., find the volume and total area of the cylinder.
19. Using the vertices of a 9-in. square as centers, and radii equal to 3 in., fours arcs are
described outside the square. If the figure thus formed is the uniform cross section
of cylinder of element 7 in., find the volume and total area of the cylinder.
20. A right prism of altitude 7 in. and square base 6 in. on an edge is cut by a plane
forming section ABCD as shown. (a) Find the length of the diagonal AC. (b) Find angle
ABCD. (c) Find the area of section ABCD. (d) Find the angle which the plane of the
section ABCD makes with the plane of the base.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
21. In the figure is shown a block of wood in the form of a right prism whose bases are
right triangles. A cylindrical auger hole of diameter 2 in. is bored through the block.
If the elements of the cylindrical hole are perpendicular to face ABEF and if the lateral
surface of the cylindrical hole is tangent to face ABCD, find the volume removed.

22. The figure represents a truncated prism. The base ABCD is a square, and the lateral
edges AE, BF, CG, and DH are perpendicular to the base. 𝐴𝐵 = 10𝑖𝑛. , 𝐴𝐸 =
6𝑖𝑛. , 𝐶𝐺 = 10𝑖𝑛. , 𝐷𝐻 = 6𝑖𝑛. Find (a) the length of each face diagonal; (b) each face
angle; (c) the length of each diagonal of the solid; (d) the lateral area; (e) the total
area; (f)the angle BFH; (g)the volume.

23. The figure shows a right section of a railroad cut in the hillside. If the sides rises 1 unit
vertically to a horizontal distance of 1.5 units, and if the length of the cuts is 1000 ft.,
find the volume of earth removed.
The plumb-line distance from the lowest point of the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa
to the ground is 179 ft. The tower leans so that this plumb line strikes the ground 14
ft. from the nearest point of the base. (a)At what angle is its axis now inclined from
the vertical? (b)At what angle would it axis have to be inclined from the vertical
before it would topple over?

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𝟏
TOPIC 3: SOLIDS FOR WHICH 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉
𝟑

TOPICS

3.1 Pyramid
3.2 Regular Pyramid
3.3 Similar Figures
3.4 Cone
3.5 Right Circular Cone

3.1 PYRAMID
A pyramid is a polygon of which one face, called the base, is a polygon of any
number of sides and the other faces are triangles which have a common vertex. (See
Figure 4)

Properties:
1. The triangular faces are called the lateral faces.
2. The altitude of a pyramid is the length of the perpendicular dropped from the
vertex to the plane of the base.
3. If a pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to the base, the lateral edges and the altitude
are divided proportionally; the section is a polygon similar to the base; and the
areas of two such sections are to each other as the squares of their distances from
the vertex.
4. If two pyramids have equal bases and equal altitudes, we can show that the area
of the section of one pyramid parallel to the base is equal to the area of the
corresponding section of the other. Hence in accordance with Cavalier’s theorem
the two pyramids are equivalent.

Formulas: (refer to Figure 4)

Surface Analysis:
Each of the lateral faces of a pyramid is a triangle. The lateral area is the sum of
the areas of these triangular faces.

Volume Analysis:
1
𝑉= 𝐵ℎ
3

Example 1. Pyramid
The pyramidal slice of earth shown in the figure was removed from a railway
embankment. Find the volume of earth removed.

Figure 5. Accompanying figure for example 1.

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Solution:
If we consider triangular AEC as
base of the slice, DE is the altitude. From
an end view of the base (see figure) we see
that EE’ and E’C are the legs of a 45° right
triangle whose hypotenuse is 60 ft.

Hence
60
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐶 = .
√2

Since A’C and AA’ are the legs of a 30° − 60° right triangle and 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐸𝐸 =
, we have
√

60
𝐴 𝐶 = √3𝐴𝐴 = √3 .
√2
But
𝐴𝐸 = 𝐴 𝐶 = 𝐸𝐹𝐶 = √3 − .
√ √
Considering AE as the base and EF’ as the altitude of triangle AEC, we find its area
to be
1 1 60 60 60
(𝐴𝐸)(𝐸𝐸 ) = √3 − = 658.89 𝑠𝑞. 𝑓𝑡.
2 2 √2 √2 √2

Substituting 𝐵 = 658.89 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 150 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

1
𝑉 = 𝐵ℎ,
3
We find
1
𝑉 = (658.89)(150) = 𝟑𝟐, 𝟗𝟒𝟒 𝒄𝒖. 𝒇𝒕.
3

3.2 REGULAR PYRAMIDS

A regular pyramid is one whose base is a regular polygon whose center coincides
with the foot of the perpendicular dropped from the vertex to the base (refer to Figure 4
and Figure 6)

Figure 6. Regular Pyramid

Properties:
1. The lateral edges of a regular pyramid are equal.
2. The lateral faces of a regular pyramid are congruent isosceles triangles.
3. The altitudes of the lateral faces of a regular pyramid are equal.
4. The slant height of a regular pyramid is the altitude of a lateral face.
5. The altitude of a regular pyramid is equal to the length of the perpendicular
dropped from the vertex to the center of the base.

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6. If a regular pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to its base the pyramid cut off is a
regular pyramid.

Formulas: (refer to Figure 4)

Surface Analysis:
In a regular pyramid , let S be the lateral area, let l be the slant height, and let p be
the perimeter of the base. Since the faces of the pyramid are equal isosceles triangles
with a common altitude l, and since the sum of the bases of these triangles equals p, the
sum of the areas of faces is 𝑆 = 𝑝𝑙.

Example 2. Regular Pyramid

Given a regular tetrahedron (a triangular pyramid all of whose faces are
equilateral triangles) of edge a; find its altitude.

Figure 7. Regular tetrahedron.

Solution:
Through tetrahedron A-BCD pass a plane containing AB and altitude AE, forming
section ABE’ shown in the figure. E is the center of the base BCD. Since the base of a
regular tetrahedron is an equilateral triangle, from plane geometry E is the point of
intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the triangle. These
perpendicular bisectors in the case of an equilateral triangle coincide with the medians.
Applying the Pythagorean theorem to the right triangle BE’D, we get
𝑎
𝐵𝐸 = 𝑎 − .
2

Since from plane geometry the medians of a triangle meet it in a point which to
two thirds of the distance from each vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side, we have
2 2 𝑎
𝐵𝐸 = 𝐵𝐸 = .
3 3 2

In the right triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐸, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐸 = Therefore

𝟐
𝑨𝑬 = 𝒂
𝟑

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. If a pyramid of base B has its vertex at any point in plane parallel to and distance
h from the plane of the base, find its volume.
2. In the corner of a cellar is a pyramidal heap of coal. The base of the heap is an
isosceles right triangle whose hypotenuse is 20 ft., and the altitude of the heap is
7 ft. If there are 35 cu. ft. in a ton of coal, how many tons are there in this heap?
3. A pottery manufacturer has an order to manufacture 5000 hanging vases each to
hold it pt. of water when full. The vases are designed so as to fit into the corner

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
of a room. The faces of each vase are triangular in shape and intersect to form a
pointed bottom. The area of the polygon cut out of the plane of the base by the
lateral faces is 3 sq. in. The height of the vase is 8 in. Compute the weight of
pottery required if pottery weighs 130 lb. per cu. ft.

4. A pyramidal book end made of composition material has a base in the shape of an
irregular polygon whose measurements are shown in the sketch. The faces are
triangles whoso vertices are coincident. The common vertex is in the plane of the
face against which the book rest. This latter face is at right angles to base and has
an altitude of 7 in. and a base of 4 in. Find the amount of material in 1000 pairs
of such books ends.

5. The coal considered in Prob. 2 just fills a rectangular bin whose floor is 7 ft. by 6
ft. Find the depth of the coal.
6. A pyramid 𝑉 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is cut from a cube of edge 12 in., as shown in the figure. The
vertex V is the midpoint of an upper edge of the cube. Compute the lateral surface
of the pyramid.
7. If a plane is passed through the vertices A, B, and C of the cube shown in the figure,
show that the volume of the pyramid cut off is one-sixth that the cube.

8. In the pyramid shown in the figure, 𝐴𝐵 = 9𝑖𝑛. , 𝐵𝐶 = 12𝑖𝑛. , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐷 = 5𝑖𝑛. The
three face angles at B are each 90°. Calculate the face angles at A and the total
surface of the solid.
9. Solve the example of this article by using 20° and 35° instead of 30° and 45°
respectively.
10. If there are 1 cu. ft. in a bushel, what is the capacity (in bushels) of a hopper in
the shape of an inverted pyramid 12 ft. deep and 8 ft. square at the top?

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11. A church spire in the form of a regular hexagonal pyramid whose base edge is 8 ft.
and whose altitude is 75 ft. is to be painted at cost of 22 cents per square yard.
What is the total cost?

The Pyramids on the Nile, Egypt.

12. The regular pyramidal roof of the Washington Monument is 55 ft. high and has a
base which is a square 35 ft. 2 in. on a side. The marble slabs of which it is built
weigh 165 lb. per cu. ft. If the room covered by the roof is a pyramid whose square
base is 34 ft. on a side and 54 ft. high, what is the weight on the roof? (Neglect the
six small windows.)
13. The altitude of the great Pyramid of Cheops in Egypt originally was 480 ft. and its
square base was 764 ft. on an edge. It is said to have cost $10 a cubic yard and $3
more for each square yard of lateral surface (considered as planes). What was its
cost?
14. The roof of a water tower is composed of 6 equal isosceles triangles whose
vertices meet in the center of the roof. If the inclined edges measure 17 ft. and
the height of the roof is 8 ft., find the number of square feet of tar paper necessary
to cover the roof. (Neglect the waste in lapping, cutting, etc.)
15. How may 6 matches be arranged so as to form 4 equal, equilateral triangles having
a match as an edge? In this position these matches may be considered as the
edges of a certain solid. What is it?
16. The illustration shows the monument of Cestius in Rome, which is a square
pyramid 121 ft. high with a base edge measuring 98.4 ft. Find the number of
square feet in the lateral surface of the monument. What is its volume?

The Monument of Cestius in Rome

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17. Find the area of the base of a regular square pyramid whose lateral faces are
equilateral triangles and whose altitude is 8 in.
18. Find the volume of a regular tetrahedron of edge a.
19. Show how a cube can be made up of 6 congruent pyramids whose lateral edges
lie along the diagonals of the cube.
20. A pyramid has its vertex at the center of a cube and its base coincides with a face
of the cube. Find the angle that each lateral face of the pyramid makes with the
base of the pyramid.
3.3 SIMILAR FIGURES
Similar polyhedrons are polyhedrons that have the same number of faces,
respectively similar and similarly placed, and have their corresponding polyhedral angles
equal. Corresponding lines of similar figures are proportional.

Figure 8. Similar figures.

Analysis
The areas of similar plane figures or similar surfaces (𝑠, 𝑆) have the same ratio as
the squares of any two corresponding lines (𝑥, 𝑋).
𝒔 𝒙𝟐
𝑺
= 𝑿𝟐 .
The volumes of similar solids (𝑣, 𝑉) have the same ratio as the cubes of any two
corresponding lines (𝑥, 𝑋).
𝒗 𝒙𝟑
= .
𝑽 𝑿𝟑
In similar figures of any kind, pairs of corresponding line segments such as
𝑥, 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦, 𝑌 have the same ratio.
𝒙 𝒚
= .
𝑿 𝒀
Consider the two similar rectangular parallelepipeds whose dimensions are 𝑎 ×
𝑏 × 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟 × 𝑏𝑟 × 𝑐𝑟, respectively. Denote the volume of the former 𝑉₁ and the
volume of the latter by 𝑉₂. From $10, we have

𝑉₁ = (𝑎)(𝑏)(𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 (1)

and
𝑉₂ = (𝑎𝑟)(𝑏𝑟)(𝑐𝑟) = 𝑎𝑏𝑐(𝑟³). (2)

Dividing equation (1) by equation (2), member by member, we have

= ( )
= . (3)

Multiplying both numerator and denominator of the right-hand member of (3)

first by 𝑎 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑏 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑐 , we obtain
𝑉₁ 𝑎³ 𝑉₁ 𝑏³ 𝑉₁ 𝑐³
= , = , = .
𝑉₂ (𝑎𝑟)³ 𝑉₂ (𝑏𝑟)³ 𝑉₂ (𝑐𝑟)

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By using an extension of this argument, together with the theory of limits, it can
be shown that the volumes of similar solids have the same ratio as the cubes of any two
corresponding line segments.
Similarly we can show that the areas of similar plane figures or similar surfaces
have the same ratio as the squares of any two corresponding line segments.

Example 3. Similar Figures

A pyramid of altitude h and base B is divided into three parts by two planes passed
parallel to the bas. If these planes are distant h/3 and 2h/3, respectively, from the vertex,
find the ratio of the volume of the largest part.

Figure 9. Accompanying figure for example 3.

Solution:
The sections of the pyramid formed by the planes are denoted by B₁ and B₂ in the
figure. Consider the three pyramid 𝑂 − 𝐵 , 𝑂 − 𝐵 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂 − 𝐵. Denote their volumes by
𝑉₁, 𝑉₂, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉₃, respectively. From the constructions and considerations of this article we
observe that these pyramids are similar. Therefore in the formula
𝑣 𝑥
=
𝑉 𝑋

we substitute 𝑣 = 𝑉 , 𝑉 = 𝑉 , 𝑥 = ℎ/3, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋 = to get

𝒉 𝟑

= 𝟑
𝟐𝒉 𝟑
= (a)
𝟑

And substitute 𝑣 = 𝑉 , 𝑉 = 𝑉 , 𝑥 = ℎ/3, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋 = ℎ to get

= = (b)

In terms of the symbols denoting the volumes of the three pyramids, the required
ratio is
₂ ₁
= . (c)

From equation (a) and (b) we obtain

𝑉 = 8𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉₃ = 27𝑉₁.

Substituting these values of V₂ and V₃ in (c), we get

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 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
8𝑉₁ − 𝑉₁ 7𝑉 𝟕
= =
27𝑉 − 8𝑉 19𝑉 𝟏𝟗

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. A globe 1 ft. in diameter is how many times as a large as a marble 1 in. in diameter?
2. The diameter of the earth is 7920 miles, and that of the moon is 2160 miles.
Compare their volumes.
3. Two cylindrical boilers are similar, and the diameter of one is twice the diameter
of the other. What is the ratio of their lateral surface and of the areas of their cross
sections?
4. A cube of ice is 2 ft. by 2 ft. by 2 ft. The ice melts until it becomes a cube which is
one-half as heavy as the original. Find the dimensions of the new cube.
5. The inside dimensions of a box are 2 by 3 by 4 ft. Find the dimensions of a packing
box of the same shape which will hold 8 times as much.
6. A tank in the form of a right circular cone is 3 ft. high and its base is 2 ft. in radius.
It is desired to build a similar tank whose volume is twice as great. What should
be the dimensions of the larger tank?
7. A manufacturer receives an order for 2000 souvenirs which are to be miniature
models of the Washington Monument. Each must be exactly similar to the original
monument and must be 4 in. high. If the models are solid, find the amount of
material necessary to fill the order. (Take 1,038,800 cu. ft. as volume of
Washington Monument, 555 ft. as height.)
8. Which is the more heavily built, a man 5 ft. tall who weighs 160 lb. or one 6 ft.
tall who weighs 200 lb.?
9. If a child 2 ft. in height weighs 30 lb., what would be the weight of a man 5 ft. tall
of the same proportions?
10. The pyramidal tank shown in the figure has a square base 11.6 ft. on a side and an
altitude of 14.8 ft. How many gallons of water are in it when the depth of the
water is 5.725 ft.?

11. What fraction of the volume of a pyramid must be cut off by a plane parallel to
the base if the pyramid thus form ha a lateral area equal to one-half of the lateral
area of the original pyramid?
12. A pyramid whose altitude is 4 ft. weighs 600 lb. At what distance from its vertex
must it be cut by a plane parallel to its base so that two solids of equal weight will
be formed?
13. The volume of a certain solid is 1200 cu. in. and its surface is 800 sq. in. What will
be the surface of a similar solid whose volume is 2400 cu. in.?

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14. A steamship 790 ft. long has a tonnage of 32,500, and another 882 ft. has a
tonnage of 45,000. Can these vessels be similar in shape? If not, which has the
greater tonnage in proportion to its length?
15. In a laboratory experiment a heavy iron ball is suspended by a steel wire. In
suspending another ball of twice the diameter a wire of twice the radius of the
first is used. Is this perfectly safe if it is known that the first wire will just safety
carry the ball suspended from it?

3.4 CONE
A conical surface is a surface generated by a moving straight line (generator) which
always intersects a fixed plane curve (directrix) and which always passes through a fixed
point (vertex) not in the plane of the curve.
A cone is the solid bounded by a conical surface (lateral surface) whose directrix
is a closed curve, and a plane (base) which cuts all the elements.

Figure 10. Cone.

Properties
1. The altitude of a cone is the perpendicular distance from the vertex to the plane
of the base.
2. Every section of a cone made by a plane passing through its vertex and containing
two points of the base is a triangle.
3. The axis of a cone is the straight line joining the vertex with the center of the base
(if the base has a center).
4. A right section of a cone is a section perpendicular to its axis and cutting all the
elements.
5. A circular cone is a cone whose right section is a circle.

Formula: (refer to Figure 4)

3.5 RIGHT CIRCULAR CONE

A right circular cone is a circular con whose axis is perpendicular to its base.

Figure 11. Right circular cone.

Properties:
1. The slant height of a right circular cone is the length of an element.
2. The altitude of a right circular cone is the distance between the vertex and the
center of the circle which forms its base.

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3. A right circular cone is a solid generated by rotating a right triangle about one of
its legs as an axis; the surface generated by the hypotenuse of the triangle is the
lateral area of the cone, and the area of the base of the cone is the surface
generated by the leg which is not the axis of rotation.
4. All the elements of right circular cone are parallel.
5. A section of a right circular cone parallel to the base is a circle whose center is on
the axis of the cone.
6. A section of a right circular cone which contains the vertex and two points of the
base is an isosceles triangle.

Formulas: (refer to Figure 4)

Example 4. Write formula for the volume V of a right circular cone is terms of the radius
of the base r and the altitude h.

Figure 12. Accompanying figure for example 4.

Solution:
Since the base of the circular cone is a circle of radius r, its area is 𝐵 = 𝜋𝑟 .
Substituting this value of B in the formula
1
𝑉 = 𝐵ℎ,
3
We get
𝟏 𝟐
𝑽= 𝝅𝒓 𝒉
𝟑
Example 2. The liquid content of a glass is in the form of a cone of base diameter 3 in. If
the glass contains 10 fluid oz., and 1 fluid oz.=1.805 cu. in., what is the greatest depth of
the liquid?

Figure 13. Accompanying figure for example 2.

Solution:
The base of the cone formed by the liquid is the area of a circle diameter 3 in. (see
figure). Therefore we have
𝜋3² 9𝜋
𝐵= = .
4 4
The greatest depth of the liquid is the altitude of the cone.

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Substituting 𝑉 = (10)(1.805)𝑐𝑢. 𝑖𝑛. 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = in the formula
1
𝑉 = 𝐵ℎ,
3
We obtain
1 9𝜋
(10)(1.805) =
3 4
Solving this equation for h, we find
𝒉 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟔 𝒊𝒏.

Example 3. What is the volume of the right circular cone that can be formed by using as
its lateral surface the semi-circular area shown in the figure?

Figure 14. Accompanying figure for example 3.

Solution:
When the given area is rolled into the lateral surface of the right circular cone, the
point A becomes the vertex and each radius of the area becomes an element of the cone as
shown in the figure. Let the altitude of the cone be h and the radius of the base be r. Since
the semi-circular arc of the given area forms the circumference of the base of the cone, we
have
𝜋𝑅 = 2𝜋𝑟
Or
𝑅
𝑟= .
2
Therefore each axial section the cone is an equilateral triangle, such as triangle
ABC, of altitude h and base 2𝜋. This triangle is divided into the two equal 30°-60° right
triangles ABO and ACO by the axis AO. Therefore
1
ℎ= √3𝑅.
2
To find the volume of the cone we substitute

𝑅 𝑅² √3
𝐵 = 𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 𝑅
2 4 2

in the formula
1
𝑉 = 𝐵ℎ.
3
And obtain
1 𝜋𝑅 √3 √𝟑𝝅𝑹²
𝑉= 𝑅 =
3 4 2 𝟐𝟒

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Example 4. The upper portion of a sherbet glass is in the form of a right circular cone with
a base of radius 2 in. and a slant height of 4 in. (inner dimensions). Find the volume of
liquid it contains (a) when full, (b) when filled to a depth of 3 in.

Figure 15. Accompanying figure for example 4.

Solution:
(a) First consider the cone occupied by the liquid when the glass is full. Pass a plane
through the axis OB of the cone, forming the section ABC shown in the figure. Let 𝐿𝑒𝑡 ℎ =
𝑂𝐵 be the altitude of the cone. Applying the Pythagorean theorem to right
Triangle AOB, we have
ℎ = 4 − 2 = 2√3.
Denoting the volume of the cone by V₂ and substituting 𝐵 = 𝜋(2) 4𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ =
2√3. in the formula
1
𝑉 = 𝐵ℎ.
3
We get
1 8𝜋√3
𝑉 = (4𝜋) 2√3 = = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟓𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒖. 𝒊𝒏.
3 3

(b) Now consider the cone occupied by the water when the glass filled to a depth of
3 in. Since this cone is similar to the cone in pa (a), we write
𝑉₁ ℎ₁³
= ,
𝑉₂ ℎ₂³
Where V₁, V₂ and h₁, h₂ are the volumes and altitudes of the two cone respectively.
√
Substituting 𝑉 = , ℎ = 3, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ₂ = 2√3𝑖 this equation, we get
𝑉₁ 3³
=
8𝜋√3 (2√3)³
3
Or
𝑉 = 𝟑𝝅 = 𝟗. 𝟒𝟐𝟒𝟖 𝒄𝒖. 𝒊𝒏.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. The crater of a volcano is approximately in the shape of a cone of base 3.1416 sq.
mi. The crater’s depth is 1500 ft. How many cubic yards of earth would be required
to fill this cavity?
2. A stalactite which may be seen hanging in the Endless Caverns in Virginia is
approximately in the form of a cone 4 ft. long with a base 18 in. in diameter. The
calcium carbonate of which it is formed weighs 131 lb. per cu. ft. Find the weight
of the stalactite.

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3. A conical pile of sand 6 ft. in height has a volume of 27 cu. ft. If the bottom of the
pile is on level ground, how much ground does it over?
4. The vertex of the cone shown in the figure is at the midpoint of an upper edge of
the cube; the base of the cone is a circle inscribed in the lower base of the cube.
If the edge of the cubes is 12 in., find the volume of the cone.

5. In the triangular pyramid shown in the figure each face angle at 0 is 90°. Find the
volume of a cone whose vertex is at V and whose base is a circle inscribed in the
base ABO of the pyramid.
6. At what distance from the vertex of a cone of altitude h must a plane parallel to
the base be passed, so as to bisect the lateral surface? At what distance must it be
passed so as to bisect the solid?
7. Show that every section of a cone made by a plane passing through its vertex and
containing two points of the base is a triangle.
8. Find the face angles at V of the pyramid of Prob. 5.
9. A pile of sand is in the form of a right circular cone of altitude 7 ft. and slant height
25 ft. What is the weight of the sand, if the weighs 107.5 lb. per cu. ft.?
10. How many square yards of canvas will be required to make a conical tent 15 ft.
high and 18 ft. in diameter, if 10 per cent of the material is wasted?
11. A cylindrical tower 30 ft. in diameter ha a conical roof the length of whose eaves
is 2 ft. An element of the roof is inclined 45 ° to the horizontal. Find the weather
surface (see figure).
12. Two vertical conical tanks (both inverted) have their vertices connected by a short
horizontal pipe. One tank, initially full of water, has an altitude of 6 ft. The other
tank, initially empty, has an altitude of 9 ft. and a diameter of base 8 ft. If the water
is allowed to flow through the connecting pipe, find the level to which the water
will ultimately rise in the empty tank. (Neglect the water in the pipe).

13. A circular piece of filter paper R inches in the radius is folded twice: first on a
diameter and then on the radius perpendicular to the crease. It was then opened
up so as to form a right circular cone. Find in terms of R the volume of liquid it will
hold.
14. The solid shown consist of a right circular cylinder of diameter d and altitude h,
surmounted by a cone of diameter of base d and altitude h/2. (a)Write a formula
for the volume. (b)Find the volume, given 𝑑 = 4.42 𝑖𝑛. and ℎ = 5.17 𝑖𝑛.

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15. A piece of lead pipe of inner diameter 2 in., outer diameter 2 in., and length 16
ft., has been melted in an open conical pot of radius 10i n. and altitude 15 in. Find
the depth of the molten metal.
16. A right circular cone of slant height 10 in. has a radius of 4 in. Find the angle of the
sector of a circle of radius 10 in. whose area is equal to the lateral area of cone.
17. A piece of paper in the form of a sector of a circle of radius 12 in. is rolled into a
cone. Calculate the volume of the cone if the angle of the sector is
(𝑎)60°, (𝑏)90°, (𝑐)180°, (𝑑)270°, (𝑒)265°.
18. Find the vertical angle of each of the cones of Prob. 12.

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TASK
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:
Fill-in the details indicated on the cover page of the format provided. All solutions must
be handwritten on clean sheets of bond papers. Take pictures of your answers and attach
to the said format.

Answer only odd numbers:

1. The lateral edge of a pyramid church spires is 61 ft. Each side of its octagonal base
is 22 ft. What will be the cost of painting the spire at 2 cents a square foot?
2. Each element of a circular conical pile of sand 6 ft. high is inclined 45° to the
horizontal. How many cubic feet of sand does the pile contain?
3. The inside dimensions of a trunk are 4 ft., 3 ft., 2 ft. Find the dimensions of a trunk
similar in shape that will hold 4 times as much.
4. How many square feet of canvas are required for a conical tent 18 ft. high and 10
ft. in diameter if 10 per cent of the material is wasted?
5. A model steamboat is 2 ft. 3 in. long and it displaces 1.5 lb. of water. The ship of
which the model is made is 720 ft. long. What is its displacement in tons?
6. Among the interesting applications of similarity is the case of a shadow, as here
shown, where the light is the center of similitude. If a man’s profile is 12 in. in
height and the similar shadow is 16 in. in height, find the ratio of the area of the
profile to the area of the shadow.

7. How far from the top must you cut a conical tent in order to cut the cloth in half?
8. A well 40 ft. deep and 6.5 ft. in diameter is lined with stone 1.5ft. thick so that the
inner diameter of the well becomes 3.5 ft. Find the number of cubic feet of stone
required.
9. A pyramidal roof 16 ft. in height, standing on a square base 24 ft. on a side, is
covered with sheet lead in. thick. (a)Find the weight of the lead if 1 cu. in. of
lead weighs 7 oz. (b)If the lead is stripped off and cast into bullets, each of which
is in the form of a cylinder in. long and in. in diameter, surmounted by a cone
of the same diameter and in. high, find how many bullets there will be.
10. The monument erected in Babylon by Queen Semiramis at her husband Ninus’s
tomb is said to have been one block of solid marble in the form of a square
pyramid, the sides of whose base were 20 ft. and the height of the monument 150
ft. If the marble weighed 185 lb. per cu. ft., find the weight of the monument.
11. Find the volume of the largest pyramid which can be cut from a rectangular
parallelepiped whose edges are 2 in. by 3 in. by 4 in. Discuss fully.
12. Find the least waste in cutting two conical blocks from a block of wood in the form
of a right circular cylinder of radius 4 in. and altitude 7 in.

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13. A mound of earth in the form of the solid shown in the figure has a rectangular
base 17 yd. long and 8.61 yd. wide. Its perpendicular height is 5 yd., and the length
on the top is 8.56 yd. Find the number of cubic yards of earth in the mound.

14. A vessel is in the form of an inverted regular square pyramid of altitude 9.87 in.
and base edge 6.27 in. The depth of the water it contains is 6 in. (a)How much will
the surface rise when 1 pt. of water is added? (One gal.=231 cu. in.) (b)Find the
wetted surface when the depth of the water is 9.23 in.
15. Find the volume of the largest cone having its circular base circumscribed about a
face of a rectangular parallelepiped of dimensions 2 ft. by 3 ft. by 4 ft. and its
vertex lying in the opposite face.
16. An ink bottle is in the form of right circular cylinder with a large conical opening
as shown in the figure. When its filled level with the bottom of the opening, it can
just be turned upside down without any link spilling. Prove that the depth of the
cone is three-fifths the depth of the bottle.

17. Three of the edges of a rectangular parallelepiped that meet in a point are also
the lateral edges of a pyramid. What fraction of the parallelepiped is this pyramid?
18. Pass a plane containing a vertex of a rectangular parallelepiped and a diagonal of
a face not containing that vertex to cut a pyramid from the parallelepiped. What
fraction of the volume of the parallelepiped is the volume of the pyramid thus cut
off?
19. A pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to the base and bisecting the altitude. What
fraction of the entire pyramid id the smaller pyramid cut away by this plane?
20. A wooden cone of altitude h is to be sawed into three parts of equal weights. How
far from the vertex must be cuts (parallel to the base) be made?
21. A right circular cylinder in inscribed in a right circular cone of altitude h and radius
of base x, as shown in the figure. Find the radius of the cylinder if its lateral area
is equal to the lateral area of the small cone which surmounts the cylinder.

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22. Solve Prob. 21 if the lateral area of the small cone is equal to the area of the ring
bounded by the circumferences of the base of the large cone and the lower base
of the cylinder.
23. Upon the faces of a cubes as bases congruent regular pyramids are constructed
exterior of the cube. If an edge of the cube is 6 in. and if the distances between
the vertices of the two opposites pyramids is 10 in., find the surface of the
resulting solid.
24. The cube shown in the figure is cut by two planes, one passing through vertex A
and containing edge ED, the other passing through the same vertex A and
containing edge EB. Find the volume and total area of the pyramid whose base is
BCDE and whose vertex is A if AC=a.

25. Pass a plane through a cube of edge 8 in. so that the section formed will be regular
hexagon. Through each side of the hexagon pass two planes, one plane containing
one of the two vertices of the cube which are farthest away from the plane of the
hexagon, the other plane containing the diagonally opposite vertex of the cube.
Find the volume of the solid bounded by these planes.
26. A and B are diametrically opposites points on the base of a cone of semi-vertical
angle 35°, slant height 6 in. Find the difference between the distance of B and A
measured around the rim of the base and the distance of B from A measured along
the shortest part across the curved surface of the cone.
Hint. Unroll the curved surface.

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REFERENCES

BOOKS:

Adam, J. A. (2003). Mathematics in nature: Modeling patterns in the natural world.

Princeton University Press.

Alexander, D. C., & Koebertein, G. M. (2015). Elementary geometry for college students.
6th edition. Cengage Learning.

Apellado, A. A., Nocete, M. T., Tan, L. J.,& Yebron, F. A. N. (2009). Handbook in

mathematics 11 (College algebra). CMU- Instructional Materials Development
Center.

Aufmann, R. N., Lockwood, J., Nation, R. D., & Clegg, D. K. (2013). Mathematical
excursions, enhanced edition. 3rd Edition. Cengage Learning.

Eide, A. R., Jenison, R. D. Northrup, L. L., & Mickelson, S. K. (2012).Engineering

fundamentals and problem solving. 6th Edition. McGraw –Hill.

Kern, W. P., & bland, J. R. (1967). Solid mensuration. 2nd edition. John Wiley and Sons Inc.

INTERNET SITES:

Frietag, M. (2014). Golden ratio. Retrieved on (August 25, 2019), from

http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/emt669/Student.Folders/Frietag.Mark/H
omepage/Goldenratio/goldenratio.html.

Khandelwal, R., & Sahni, S. (n.d.). Patterns in nature. Retrieved (August 15, 2019), from
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Freitag-M-The-Golden-Ratio-PhiThat-
Golden-Number-Web-26-Oct-2014_fig3_301754519.

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