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Seeing Space
Dedicated to Joanna Crone-Ravestein,
my guardian angel in later years
Seeing Space
Robert A. Crone
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Applied for

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
Copyright # 2003 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse,The Netherlands

All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
written prior permission from the publishers.

Although all care is taken to ensure the integrity and quality of this publication and
the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author
for any damage to property or persons as a result of operation or use of this
publication and/or the information contained herein.
Published by: Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers
www.szp.swets.nl
ISBN 0-203-97104-3 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 90 265 1955 9 (Print Edition)

Contents

Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiii

Part I 1
1. A Short History of Space 3
Space in ancient times 3
Space theory in the Middle Ages 4
Space in the Renaissance 5
Newton’s space 5
The geometry of space 6
How empty is space? 6
The principle of special relativity 6
The principle of general relativity 7
The quantum theory 7
Objective space 9

2. Perceptual Space 11
Historical notes 11
Locke: Primary and secondary features 11
Berkeley 12
Kant 12
Biological aspects of spatial localisation 14
Psychological aspects of spatial localisation 14
Animals and psychology 14
Psychological description of the human being 15
Real space as proof station for phenomenal space 15
The place of biology and psychology in a pluralistic world 16
The area between perception and action 17

3. Non-Visual Spatial Perception 19

Introduction 19
The organ of equilibrium 19
Kinaesthesis and touch 20
Touch and vision in historical perspective 20
Nativism and empirism 22

vii
Part II: The Visual Perception of Space 25
4. Some Basic Facts about the Visual System 27
The eye and the ocular muscles 27
The optics of the eye 27
The eye muscles and eye movements 28
The retina 29
The visual pathways 34
A short history of neural localisation 38

5. The Evolution of the Eye and the Movements of the Eye 43

The evolution of the eye 43
The evolution of the eye movements 46
Compensatory movements and binocular optomotor reflexes 46
Monocular eye movements 47
The fovea and the visual fixation of prey 48
Binocular vision and convergence in the chameleon and in fish 49
Depth vision and disparity 51
Binocular vision in birds 51
Depth perception and the semidecussation of the optic nerves in
mammals: corresponding binocular points 52
Semidecussation and conjugate movements 54

6. Directional Vision 55
Introduction 55
Directional vision and eye movements 55
Retinal local signs 56
The influence of compensatory eye movements on directional vision 56
Influence of gaze movements 58
Directional vision with two eyes 59
The range of directional vision 59
The visual field 60
The charting of the visual field in the brain 61
Charting the visual field in the area striata 62
Precision of directional vision 65
The precision of the motor system 65
The subjective precision of directional vision 67
Visual acuity, optics and contrast 68
The optical quality 70
Contrast 71
Visual systems analysis 71
The neurophysiology of the visual acuity 74
The retina 75
The lateral geniculate body 77
The visual cortex 77
Visual systems analysis and neurophysiology 78
The pathology of directional vision 79

viii Contents
7. Stereoscopic Perception of Depth 83
A model of binocular vision 83
The history of binocular depth perception 86
Some psycho-physiological aspects of stereopsis 93
Physiological double vision: the range of the oblique connections 93
The horopter 95
The limits of depth perception 96
Estimation of absolute stereoscopic depth 96
Estimation of relative stereoscopic depth 97
Fusion: vision below the threshold of stereoscopic vision 98
Range of fusion 99
The fusion curve and the motor role of disparity 99
Rivalry, suppression and dominance 101
Dominance 102
The psychophysics of stereograms 102
Julesz’ random dots pattern 104
Stereoscopy and vergence 108
The neurophysiology of binocular vision 109
The neurophysiology of disjunctive movements 111

8. The Pathology of Binocular Depth Perception:

Squint and Amblyopia 113
Squint (Strabismus) 113
A short history of squint 113
Abnormal binocular vision 117
The cause of squint 119
The ontogeny of binocular vision 120
Amblyopia 121
Neurophysiology of amblyopia 122

9. The Perception of Movement 125

Introduction 125
Three forms of movement perception 125
Movement perception with a stationary eye 125
Movement perception with the following eye 127
Following movements and parafoveal fixation 127
Apparent movement 128
Wandering stars 128
Induced movement 129
The waterfall illusion 129
The film 130
The neurophysiology of movement perception 130
The pathology of movement perception 130

10. Theories of the visual perception of space 133

Introduction 133

Contents ix
The psychological theory of spatial vision in historical perspective 133
Johannes Kepler and the projection theory 134
The sensorimotor theory of spatial vision in historical perspective 137
Descartes 137
Lotze 138
Roelofs and the principle of equivalence 140
Stability and plasticity of visual orientation 140
The future of a sensorimotor theory of spatial localisation 143

Part III: Identification of Objects in Space 145

11. Contours and Surfaces 147
Introduction 147
Contours, contrasts and the primary sketch 150
The perception of surfaces 152

12. Seeing Objects in Depth 157

Perspective 157
Other pictorial depth effects 160
Necker’s cube 160
Depth perception through movement 161
The objective form of objects 162

13. The Perception of Size 167

Introduction 167
Emmert’s law 167
The sizes of the sun and the moon: a historical digression 168

14. The Neurophysiology and Neuropathology of the

Perception of Objects 171
Introduction 171
Unsolved problems 172

References 175

Index 181

x Contents
Preface

Space, like light and colour, is a fundamental aspect ofvision. A number of publica-
tions on spatial vision have been made. Most of them are concerned with details
which are hardly accessible because of their high degree of specialisation in the
areas of neurophysiology, systems theory, philosophy or psychology. This book
aims at a brief non-specialised survey of the whole subject. I have tried to explain
difficult things in a simple way, to keep the style light and to offer the reader relaxa-
tion every now and then with a historical digression. I have not given detailed infor-
mation about differing points of view, but have given preference to the insights I
have acquired myself as an ophthalmologist during many decennia of clinical and
theoretical work. Seeing Space has been written for eye specialists, ophthalmic
opticians, psychologists and other practitioners of visual science, and also for any-
one possessing some knowledge of science who is interested in spatial vision.
The book contains three parts. Part I describes general aspects of space and spa-
tial perception. Part II begins with a short, elementary survey of the visual system
(Chapter 4). As eye movements are of crucial importance for spatial vision, the evo-
lution of the eye and the eye movements is elaborated in Chapter 5. The specific
characteristics of spatial vision, the recognition of direction, depth and movement,
are treated in the other chapters of Part II. Part III describes the spatial identifica-
tion of visual objects.

xi
Acknowledgements

I am indebted toWim van de Grind, former professor of comparative physiology in

Utrecht and to Huib Simonsz, professor of ophthalmology in Rotterdam for their
valuable comments. I also thank the translator Kathleen Boet-Herbert for translat-
ing my Dutch. My publisher, Swets and Zeitlinger, has helped me greatly with the
editing of the manuscript.
This book is an adaptation of the chapter ‘Localisation’ in Diplopia (1973, 1993)
and the chapters on spatial vision in Licht^Kleur^Ruimte (1992, in Dutch). Most of
the illustrations have been reproduced with permission from these two sources.The
author would like to acknowledge the permission to reproduce the figures which
were not included in earlier work. In all cases the origin of the figure has been indi-
cated in the legend to the figure.

xiii
Part I
 1. A Short History of Space1

‘Space’ is a word that we use every day, but if anyone were to ask us what space is, it
becomes apparent that it is a mystery. Space has something to do with the position
of things, but exactly what the relationship is is difficult to say. We don’t always
mean the same thing when we say ‘space.’ When a billiard player says that there is
space between two billiard balls which are lying close together, he obviously means
what is lying between things.When a cancer surgeon speaks of a ‘space-occupying
lesion,’ he means something quite different: the measurements of the thing itself,
which is growing and threatening life. And finally, when one speaks of space travel,
one thinks of space as an infinite ocean in which Gagarin and Armstrong have
dipped their toes.

SPACE IN ANCIENT TIMES

The pre-Socratic Greek philosophers (600^400 BC) already discovered how diffi-
cult it is to say what space is. Is space the void between things which really exist? But
if the void is non-existent, isn’t the spatial separation only an illusion? This was the
point reached by Parmenides of Elea (500 BC), who only recognized fullness, the
plenum, as reality, and considered ultimate reality to be found in the form of a sphere
(a sort of neutron star, as we should say now).
To the atomist Democritus of Abdera (400 BC) empty space was as real as mat-
ter. Reality consisted of an infinite number of atoms floating between infinite empti-
ness. How could space possibly be finite? Lucretius, the Latin poet of atomism
(75 BC), put it like this: If someone stands near the end of space and throws a
spear, the spear does not suddenly stop at the boundary of space. Therefore, space
must be infinite. There is a striking resemblance between the atomists’ ideas and
those of classical physics (which owes a lot to the rehabilitation of atomism in the
Renaissance). But space was something different to the ancient atomists than
to Newton: it was not the surroundings in which the atoms existed, but the gaps
(diastema) between the atoms.
Aristotle (350 BC) rejects atomism on account of his own view of the world.
For Aristotle the universe is finite, with the earth at the centre. Around it are

1
Jammer, 1954.

3
concentric spheres: the spheres of the moon, the sun, the planets and the fixed
stars. Space has an internal structure, which causes heavy objects in the sublunary
sphere to fall downwards, in the direction of their ‘natural place,’ the centre of the
universe, and light objects, such as fire, to move in the opposite direction. In the
spheres of the planets and the fixed stars, the natural direction of movement is
circular. In the heavens, where other laws apply than in the sublunary sphere,
there must be a different substance (not fire, water, air or earth), a fifth element, a
quinta essentia.
Aristotle avoids the abstract idea of space and concentrates on the psychologi-
cally more accessible idea of place. He tries to define the place where a material
object is. Naturally that isn’t the object itself; the place is only incidental, an acci-
dens, which really exists, but has no independent existence like a substantial body. It
is the enveloping boundary of the body. A moving object frees itself from its old
place, and takes over a new place in space. The outer sphere of the universe has no
enveloping boundary, thus no place and no limit.
Aristotle is convinced that a vacuum is an impossibility and is profuse in argu-
ments to disprove the existence of a void. An example: if material objects were in a
void, nothing would be able to make them move, and if they were moving, nothing
would be able to stop them; for that matter: bodies of different weights would all fall
in a void at the same high speed, an assumption which was in disagreement with
Aristotle’s physical ideas (which did not include inertia and gravity).
Contrary to Aristotle, the Stoa, a later philosophical school, believed that
an empty space did exist outside the universe. The universe did not spread into this
void because it has an inner cohesion, its own tension (tonos). Posidonius (100 BC)
discovered that the tides were caused by the moon, a strong argument for the exist-
ence of this tension. But the ‘extracosmic’ void could not be missed, because the
world was subjected to cycles of thermic expansion and contraction. We are
reminded of modern hypotheses about the ‘Big Bang’ and the ‘Big Crunch,’ but
also of ideas about Perpetual Return, as found in Oriental religions, and also in
Nietzsche.

SPACE THEORY IN THE MIDDLE AGES

In the Middle Ages, Judaeo-Christian theology took over space. This led to
extremely difficult problems and sharply conflicting views.The Jewish philosopher
Philo (25 AD) considered that space existed before the Creation as the omnipre-
sence of God, but Augustine (400 AD) thought that God was within Himself (in
seipso) before the first day of creation: space only existed after God had created hea-
ven and earth. But what sort of space was it? Aristotle’s finite intracosmic plenum
didn’t appear to offer any room for God’s omnipresence. The infinite extracosmic
space assumed by the Stoa, did not seem suitable either: if God is infinite and
omnipresent, he can hardly create infinite space and stay out of it himself. Realiza-
tion of this leads inevitably to the idea that God himself is the infinite space. This
final idea led, in point of fact, to the divinisation of space. As long as no features,
such as dimensionality, structure or content, were ascribed to God’s Immensity,
no theological objections to this divinisation arose.

4 Seeing Space
 SPACE IN THE RENAISSANCE2
When, in the Renaissance, Aristotle’s authority began to wane, people began to
wonder if nature really abhorred a vacuum. It was difficult to explain how water
could be sucked upwards in a straw against its natural direction. Is the water not
only obedient to its own nature (natura particularis) but also to a heavenly power
(virtus celestis)? In the middle of the seventeenth centuryTorricelli and Pascal radic-
ally disposed of the theory of horror vacui.
Acquaintance with the antique atomic theory also helped to make people less
afraid of a vacuum, and they began to assume that extracosmic and intracosmic
space were one. This had important consequences. It was already agreed that the
space in the world had a three-dimensional structure, but now the assumption was
made that this was also true for infinite space. Gassendi, (1564^1642) whose opin-
ions resembled those of Democritus and Epicurus, described space as non-
created, infinite, immovable, three-dimensional, empty and objectively existing. He
was one of the most important precursors of Newtonian science; although he was
a priest, he refused to identify God with space.The English theologian Henry More
(1642^1727), on the other hand, did not abandon the medieval divinisation of space
and reached the radical conclusion that God is a three-dimensional being. This
point of view was unacceptable for most people, almost as unacceptable as
Spinoza’s idea that God and nature are one (una substantia sive deus sive natura).
Even so, Newton has been influenced by More. He says that we, human beings,
only have images of things ‘in our little sensoriums’ but that God exercises his will
‘in his boundless uniform sensorium,’ the still divinised absolute space.

NEWTON’S SPACE3
We leave theology for the moment and consider how Newton arrived at the idea of
infinite, homogeneous, three-dimensional, immovable and absolute space. The
death-blow had, in fact, already been delivered to the Aristotelean system of the
world by Copernicus’ heliocentric system (1543). Kepler discovered the elliptic
path of the planets (1609) and Newton discovered that the same force that causes
heavy objects to fall downwards on earth is responsible for the paths of the moon
and the planets (1687). This undermined Aristotle’s theory that different laws of
movement applied in the sublunar world than outside it. But that did not prove
that space was
as Gassendi thought
absolute, immovable and infinite. Galileo
had even stated that movement and immobility were relative terms. If an object was
dropped from a tower it landed at the foot of the tower and if the same object was
dropped from the crow’s nest of a sailing ship it landed at the foot of the mast. But
Newton declared that this relativity principle only applied in the kinematic sense:
for spatial systems which were moving in a linear, uniform manner in relation to
each other. When reference systems revolve in relation to each other, different
dynamic laws apply. If the water in a revolving bucket is made to revolve, the water
rises against the inside wall of the bucket. In this case one of the systems revolves

2
Grant, 1981.
3
Westfall, 1980.

A Short History of Space 5

and centrifugal forces are produced, while the other, absolute space, remains sta-
tionary and is therefore not subjected to any forces. In addition to absolute space,
Newton also believed in absolute time.
Newton had influential critics, among them Leibnitz. Leibnitz declared, in a
famous correspondence with Newton’s representative Clarke, that space was only
something relative, an order of coexistence of things, just as time was relative, an
order of successive events. The tenor of the correspondence between Leibnitz and
Clarke was mainly theological. Leibnitz opposed the theory that space was God or
one of his attributes. But Leibnitz had no answer to Newton’s dynamic argument.
In this way theology retreated from the field of space and Newton was victorious
on physical grounds, a victory which for centuries would not be contested. But then
two important new insights into physical space arose, which were to sound the knell
of Newton’s absolute space. The first insight was mathematical: the geometry of
space; the secondwasphysical: problems concerning the etherandthefields offorce.

THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

Newton saw his space, in agreement with Gassendi and his supporters, as infinite,
boundless, immovable, homogeneous and three-dimensional. In this empty space
particles of a given mass were moving according to the laws of mechanics, which
were subject to Euclidean geometry. For Newton Euclidean geometry was literally
the geometry of the earth, and as such a branch of mechanics.
Later, the perception grew that Euclidean geometry reflected the real world, but
that other forms of geometry were conceivable, which might not be applicable to
the real world, but to other
possible, hypothetical
worlds in which there are
more than three dimensions or where space is curved and perhaps not even infinite.
I mention only the German mathematician Riemann (1854), who demonstrated
that so-called elliptic space could be finite, boundless and homogeneous at the
same time.

HOW EMPTY IS SPACE?

Even in antiquity the ether was recognized, the quinta essentia which fills the space
between the planets and between the fixed stars. Newton also fell back on this mys-
terious substance here and there in his Opticks (1704), and when Thomas Young
demonstrated that light consisted of vibrations (1802), it had to be accepted that
space was filled with ether which formed the medium for the vibrations of light.
On another plane also, space was found to be less empty than had been assumed.
Faraday (1791^1867) sprinkled iron filings on a sheet of paper and held a magnet
under it. The iron filings arranged themselves into lines of force. Apparently space
was not only a void filled with material objects, but it was also a field of forces. Space
had structure. The Scottish physicist Maxwell, who combined electricity and mag-
netism into one system, attempted to define this structure (1873).

THE PRINCIPLE OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY

The study of asymmetries between electricity and magnetism led Einstein to the
conclusion that physical laws always have the same validity independent of the

6 Seeing Space
reference system in which the researcher is making his measurements (1905; see
Einstein, 1917).With this conclusion he finally laid to rest Newton’s absolute space
and the ether. There were two conditions: the reference systems had to move with
constant velocity and in a rectilinear direction (as in Galileo’s relativity principle),
and the speed of light, which necessarily influences the measurements, had to be
taken into consideration. In this way, time became included in every physical calcu-
lation. Relativistic physics doesn’t think any more in terms of three-dimensional
space but in a four-dimensional space-time continuum. In relation to spatial vision,
the subject of this book, this relativity principle is not important.The speed of light
is so great that it makes no difference whether one looks out of the window of a mov-
ing car or of one that is standing still. If the speed of light were 30 km per hour
instead of 300,000 km per second4, the relativity principle would have a great influ-
ence on how we see the world. A moving cyclist would appear much thinner than a
stationary one and, at the same time, the cyclist would see the people on the pave-
ment suddenly become much thinner as he rode away (Fig. 1.1).

THE PRINCIPLE OF GENERAL RELATIVITY

In Einstein’s general theory of relativity, gravity, which is nothing more than a uni-
form acceleration, is included in the equivalence of physical reference systems
(1915; see Einstein,1917).This mathematical operation demanded that the structure
of space should be positively curved in Riemann’s sense, and thereby finite,
although unbounded. In addition, distortions of space in the vicinity of celestial
bodies had to be assumed. With the theory of general relativity, therefore, Newto-
nian space lost both its claim to infinity and its homogeneity. It soon became appar-
ent that stellar systems are moving away from each other at great speed. Space is
expanding, and had evidently been formed by a sort of explosion, the Big Bang.
The theory of general relativity is indispensable to astronomy, but makes no differ-
ence to the world as we see it.

THE QUANTUM THEORY

Just as the theory of relativity is too big for human vision, microphysics, quantum
mechanics, is too small. It is not important for our macroscopic behaviour in space,
that energy is subdivided into units (quanta) and multiples of these (Planck, 1900).
Even though there is tremendous unrest in the world of small things, and the fluc-
tuations become greater as the area examined becomes smaller, we are completely
unaware of it, because all the unrest is statistically levelled out in the world which
lies open to our senses.
The theory of large things and the theory of small things are difficult to recon-
cile with each other.The wild fluctuations on the ultramicroscopic scale, as implied
by the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics, are irreconcilable with the
sleek geometry of time-space which is the central principle of general relativity.
The string theory is an attempt to solve this paradox5. In this book it is only

4
Gamov, 1940.
5
Greene, 1999.

A Short History of Space 7

Fig. 1.1. If the speed of light were 30 Km/h the cyclist would look very thin from the pave-
ment and the houses would appear very narrow to the cyclist (after Gamov, 1940).

8 Seeing Space
important to know that the string theory operates in a world with ten or more
dimensions. For the reader’s peace of mind it may be said that even the string theory
allots no more than three dimensions to macroscopic space; the other dimensions
are, so to speak, the curled-up dimensions of a microworld. Even so, from Newton’s
absolute, homogeneous, infinite and three-dimensional world, the last attribute,
the three-dimensionality, is now being called into question.

OBJECTIVE SPACE
The space, of which the history is sketched above, is distinguished as real space from
geometrical spaces which are only a possibility, and also from any space which owes
its existence solely to one or more
necessarily subjective
sensory qualities. Real
space can also be called physical space, because it is not filled with visible, audible
or tangible things, but with measurable objects. Because measurements can be veri-
fied or disproved by anybody, real space is also called objective space.
Classical physics has cut the connection between objective reality and the
senses.That has led to enormous successes, to astonishing but completelydehuman-
ised (without sensory information) knowledge. The separation of objective reality
and the observer has, however, not been completely successful. Quantum mecha-
nics is based once more on two corner-stones: the reality and the observer. In this
case it is not the painting of reality in the colours of the human senses, but the altera-
tion of reality by the action of a human measuring instrument.

A Short History of Space 9

 2. Perceptual Space

HISTORICAL NOTES
In the previous chapter the objective features of space have been characterized; the
question now arises how the spatial characteristics of things are perceived. To
acquaint the reader with divergent theories, I introduce three founders of episte-
mology: Locke, Berkeley and Kant.

LOCKE: PRIMARYAND SECONDARY FEATURES

The explosive growth of physics during the scientific revolution is due to exclusive
attention for the spatial, quantitative aspects of nature, associated with neglect of
the sensory information. Galileo said that the book of nature was written in math-
ematical language. Scents, sounds and tastes were solely human experiences. Des-
cartes, one of the most prominent theorists of mechanistic physics, made a rigid
distinction between spatial magnitude, the extensio, and the cogitatio, thinking
and feeling, including the special senses.
With his mechanics of the heavens, expounded in the Principia, Newton was
able to give the final touch to the mechanistic vision of the world. In his other
book, the Opticks (1704), however, he could not avoid to discuss the mental sensa-
tion of colour. In his research into the prismatic colour spectrum he managed to
keep physics and psychology strictly separate. He was intensely interested in the
refraction of light, but also in the phenomenology of sensations of colour. Rays of
light, he stated, are distinguishable by their physical properties, such as the size of
the light particles, but have no colour of their own. It is only when they stimulate the
retina that colour arises in the psyche.
Locke, the English philosopher, shared his friend Newton’s opinion.The differ-
ence between the spatial and the sensory has, thanks to Locke, become defined as
the difference between primary and secondary qualities. The primary qualities
included, according to Locke, spatial extent and form, number, movement and
impenetrability. He called colour, scent, palpability and sound secondary qualities.
In his book on the theory of knowledge, his Essay Concerning Human Understand-
ing (1690), he stated that our knowledge of the primary qualities corresponds with
the things themselves, whereas our understanding of the secondary qualities of
things has no resemblance to their objective characteristics.

11
BERKELEY
The theory of primary and secondary qualities did not remain unchallenged.There
are two alternatives: either colour is as objective as space, or space is as subjective
as colour. The first alternative is called ‘naı̈ve realism,’ the second ‘idealism.’ The
English philosopher Berkeley was an idealist. He said in his Principles of Human
Knowledge (1710) that form and colour have the same status: that of sensory phe-
nomena. The form in which an object is observed is dependent on the observer. A
horse in the distance is small and a horse nearby is big; a wheel is seen as circular or
elliptical according to the position of the observer. Our sense of space is the sense of
space of the genus Mankind, and as such is subjective: a mite, according to Berkeley,
would not be able to exist if it did not have a completely different sense of space,
adjusted to shorter distances and different spatial information. Berkeley found
objective space absurd. Space is phenomenal, defined by the spatial impressions
which we receive; he denied the objective existence of matter. Esse est percipi: all
that exists is what is perceived. Berkeley is a consistent spiritualist. God’s creation
consists of nothing more than perceiving spirits and perceived sensations (ideas).
Berkeley didn’t go so far as to say that the world disappeared when one closed
one’s eyes: the world always remained in God’s sensorium. God’s spirit is the all-
embracing spirit. Because all knowledge is built up from sensory impressions,
and abstract ideas like the concept of substance are rejected, Berkeley is also a
consistent empiricist. His revolutionary theory of knowledge was inspired by his
antirevolutionary Christian conviction, unsympathetic to materialists, atheists and
free-thinkers.
Berkeley’s theory later became popular in secularised form, particularly among
psychologists and philosophers, as phenomenalism. Phenomenalism forms a poor
basis for the natural sciences. Theoretical chemistry cannot be built on scents and
colours, and without abstractions one cannot get far with Newton’s gravitation law.

KANT
Even so, it was a Newtonian who made the ‘subjectivity’ (or rather: the non-
objectivity) of space in his Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1781) a corner-stone of his
philosophical system. Kant asked himself the question, what is the reason for the
irrefutable validity of Euclid’s axioms and Newton’s mechanistic laws? His answer:
space is an ‘a-priori intuition,’ a classification scheme for the human intellect into
which knowledge must organize itself. Space (and time also) does not form, for
Kant, part of the objective reality but is a product of ‘pure’ (aprioristic) human rea-
son. Kant does not elaborate on what remains of nature if all the contributions of
human reason are removed.The‘thing-in-itself’ is the source of all experience but is
not directly accessible to knowledge.
One might suppose that Kant, with his theory, had eliminated the distinction
between primary and secondary qualities, but that is far from being the case. The
sensory, such as colour, is in Kant’s view immeasurable and, on account of its indi-
vidual subjectivity, fortuitous. On the other hand, the ideality of space is ‘transcen-
dental,’ a supra-individual requirement of human knowledge. Kantian space,
although ‘de-objectified’ in the epistemological sense, remained in practice the

12 Seeing Space
‘objective’space of the physicists and not the phenomenal space of the psychologists
and their great leader, Berkeley. Kant called his own idealism ‘critical,’ in order to
distinguish it from the (in his opinion) ‘sentimental’ idealism of Berkeley.
The ideas of the Enlightenment culminated in the philosophy of Kant. His
influence was unprecedented. Together with the classical writers in Weimar, he
made a deep impression on German spiritual life. Preachers’sons and theology stu-
dents, already disturbed by the Enlightenment, adopted Kant’s doctrine.They were
more familiar with Plato, Goethe and the Gospels than with empirical natural
science. The first thing they did was throw the ‘thing-in-itself’ overboard.Without
the ballast of experience, thought could rise to speculative heights where ‘thinking
thinks itself.’
The rapid advance of the natural sciences put an end to this sort of idealism.
Materialism won the sympathy of many. As, however, materialism did not form a
sufficient basis for the sensory sciences with their mental phenomena, others
returned to Locke’s and Kant’s original theories. Hermann von Helmholtz, great
practitioner of the sensory sciences and also mathematician and physicist, had in
his theory of colour vision (based on ThomasYoung) stated that it depends on the
properties of the eye which‘signals’ we use to interpret reality. As the retina has three
sorts of receptors, our collection of colours is threefold. The retina is the ‘creator of
colour.’ Some philosophers and investigators of the special senses tried to demon-
strate that the senses which register space were, in the same way,‘creators of space.’
They hoped in this way to lay a scientific basis for Kant’s subjectivism, against
Kant’s intentions, who had specifically stated that space is not an empirical term.
All these attempts stranded. Some neo-Kantians tried to interpret space
through feelings experienced in muscles and joints, by means of which we learn
the difference between above and below, before and behind and left and right. The
physiologist Cyon used the directional feelings produced by the three semicircular
canals of the organ of equilibrium. His article (1901) had the characteristic titleThe
physiological basis of Euclid’s geometry. A solution of the space problem. Unhappily
the semicircular canals were already expressed in spatial terms. The argument was
thus begging the question, it was a petitio principii.
We have now heard three philosophers who, in spite of all their brain-racking,
were not able to formulate an idea of space which is acceptable to us.
Locke represented the position of the new natural science from Galileo to
Newton. He made two mistakes. In the first place, we don’t observe space ‘as it is.’
Our observation is, as far as the visual observation is concerned, dependent on our
own viewpoint and the properties of the eye. In the second place, it is a scientistic
error to think that sounds (mental sensatione which can be scientifically reduced to
vibrations in the air), are less real than vibrations in the air.
Berkeley rejected the scientism of his time and argued that all our knowledge
was sensory. He was an ‘immaterialist,’ who denied the objective existence of
things. It was an extreme position which could not last. It was irreconcilable with
the natural science which was rapidly developing, and was also contrary to the daily
experience of ordinary people.
Kant tried to explain the strict validity of natural laws by the statement that
‘space’ was a fundamental category of the human spirit. This standpoint was not

Perceptual Space 13
tenable either. As explained in Chapter 1, an objective physical space exists which is
certainly not the product of the human spirit. In addition, Kant’s theory was highly
anthropocentric and no reference was made to what spatial behaviour means in the
animal world.
It seems important to us, modern people, to define space in such a way that the
definition applies for physics (Chapter 1), for biology and for the human spirit.

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SPATIAL LOCALISATION

Organisms have special senses that collect information which is of importance for
their lives, and pass it on to their motor apparatus, so that the organism can react
adequately to the information.
This takes place in even the most primitive animals. Unicellular organisms can
have a‘receptor’ in their cell wall which registers a gradient in the concentration of a
given fluid in their environment, and which sends this stimulus on to another part of
the cell wall, where there is a whiplash which moves the cell in the direction of the
chemical substance or in the other direction, as required.
In higher animals the ‘receptors’ are highly specialized cells which react sensi-
tively to physical or chemical changes in their environment and pass on their stimu-
lated condition via a nerve fibre. Examples of such receptors are the rods and cones
in the retina and the hair-cells in the labyrinth. The receptors are the essential part
of the sensory organs, in this case of the eye and the organ of equilibrium.We can
speak of a sensory system when the spatial information is obtained from many scat-
tered receptors. Thus mechanoreceptors in the skin, muscles and joints form a
complicated system that we call ‘proprioceptive,’ in so far as it registers stimuli
that lead to correction of the position of the body, and more broadly speaking
‘sense of touch,’ when objects in the outside world are the cause of the stimulation.
When sensory stimuli contain spatial information, movement usually occurs, a
sensorimotor reaction.Thus a falling cat positions itself while falling with the help of
stimuli from its organ of equilibrium. A deer turns its head when it hears something
rustle in the wood. A fly flies away when it sees an approaching hand. These are all
sensorimotor processes that can be described in biological terms. The spatial
localization of animals often differs greatly from that of humans.While we follow a
trail with the help of visible footprints, a dog follows the same trail with his nose.
Snakes possess an organ which is sensitive to warmth, by means of which they loca-
lise their prey. Bats transmit ultrasonic vibrations reflected by insects; the bat’s ears
localise the insect.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SPATIAL LOCALISATION

ANIMALS AND PSYCHOLOGY
Is there any point in asking how it feels to be a bat?1 For practical reasons we must
answer this question in the negative. It is almost impossible to enter into the inner
world of another human being, let alone of a bat. The question is, whether such a
query is theoretically justified: has a bat an inner world of feelings or not? There
1
Nagel, 1974.

14 Seeing Space
are two extreme opinions on this question, both associated with illustrious names.
Descartes considered animals to be ‘automatons’ without feelings. He only allowed
feelings and thought to human beings. A pregnant dog was kicked out of the room
by Malebranche, a younger follower of Descartes2.When the animal began to yelp
pitifully, he said to his guests: ‘it’s only a machine.’
Leibnitz, who was opposed to Descartes’ materialism, thought that even the
humblest animals had a soul and petites perceptions. Most modern people take a
middle course. If a cat screams when someone steps on his tail, that is thought to
be an expression of pain, and when he butts you with his head, that is taken to be
an expression of affection. But the expressive movements of a fly? If they exist, we
cannot recognize them.Which doesn’t mean to say that flies are‘machines,’ but only
that we allow animals an inner life on the grounds of recognizable behaviour.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HUMAN BEING

For human beings it is possible to give, in addition to a biological description of spa-
tial behaviour, a psychological description.The space we experience exists thanks to
our senses. Phenomenal, perceptual space is a mental space with the perceiving self
in the centre, a space that exists in our consciousness and is therefore the domain of
psychology. Motor action also takes place in the phenomenal space.The self directs
its eyes towards an object, turns its head, grasps with its hands. These movements
often have a quality that does not appear in biological descriptions: they are purpo-
seful, intentional.
But the world that is perceptible through the senses does not only belong to our
private internal domain; we see a cyclist riding on the other side of the street and we
don’t think for a moment that the cyclist is only part of our internal life. The world
we experience with our senses is subjectively conditioned, but not subjective. Never-
theless, it is good to realize that we see the cyclist in our personal (although
‘re-objectivated’), mentally constructed
and coloured
world, not just as a scien-
tific object, localized in the coordinates of physical space, reflecting light rays of a
given wavelength.
Perceptual space is thus built on two foundations: objective space on the one
hand and the mental perception and action of the observer on the other.The mental
component consists of heterogeneous information, deriving from our eyes and ears,
our organs of equilibrium and of touch, and our motor receptors. All these data
from the senses are not automatically correlated with each other. If we look at a rail-
way line we see the rails in the distance getting steadily closer to each other, but if we
feel the distance between the rails with our arms it appears that it is the same every-
where. This is just one example, but there are innumerable situations in which the
spatial particulars supplied by the various senses are not in agreement.

REAL SPACE AS PROOF STATION FOR PHENOMENAL SPACE

The objective space described in Chapter 1, is the space of physics. It is also the real
space which forms the indispensable proof station in which all sensory information

2
van Hoorn, 1972.

Perceptual Space 15
Fig. 2.1. An optical illusion: the vertical lines appear to be bent, but they are straight.

is assessed and checked as to its verity. The mensuration of physical space gives the
final answer, as in the optical illusion in Figure 2.1, where the ruler proves that the
left and right vertical lines are not curved, although our visual perception makes us
believe that they are.

THE PLACE OF BIOLOGYAND PSYCHOLOGY IN

A PLURALISTIC WORLD
The biological and the psychological approaches are complementary.We have, as
already stated, absolutely no reason to deny animals a psyche, but, for the analysis
of their sensations and intentions, we have to rely on the objective study of their
behaviour.With human beings, we can enquire into the content of their spatial sen-
sations and intentions. These are sometimes so subtle that they cannot be recog-
nized in the spatial behaviour of the subject but, on the other hand, a lot of spatial
information does not penetrate into consciousness, so that objective study of spatial
behaviour has a function in humans also.
There is unmistakably a pluralistic hierarchy3 in our real world: the basis is
matter, which is the subject of physics. Above matter comes life, which has different
laws from ‘dead’ matter. Nevertheless, the material, world is the foundation of life.
Biologists occupy themselves with life. Above life comes the mind, the domain of
psychologists. With the arrival of the mental, the subjective, something quite new
appears on the world stage, with quite different laws from those of life. The laws of
the mind still have their foundation in the laws of biology, but not all laws which

3
Hartmann, 1947.

16 Seeing Space
apply to the material and the biological world are still applicable to the mental
domain. Thus feelings are not susceptible to the exact measurements that exist in
the area of physics. Furthermore, the mind
although dependent on the existence
of the individual
can transcend his material and biological limits. I have already
stated that subjective visual space is a mental space. The same is true for subjective
acoustic space.The fourth element in the structure of our real world is culture. Cul-
ture is founded on the individual minds, but obeys its own laws. It is striking that the
most typical feature of the individual mind, the subjectivity, has been lost in the
culture.
Many attempts to simplify the plurality of this image of the world have been
made. A first step is ‘dualism,’ the sharp distinction between matter and soul
which goes back to René Descartes. In this theory the independent existence of life
is thrown overboard and culture is degraded to psychologism. A still further simpli-
fication is ‘monism,’ the reduction of existence to one domain. Berkeley was the
representative of psychic monism. The present triumphal march of the natural
sciences has caused materialistic monism to have the most adherents.
In this study on spatial vision the cultural element is not taken into considera-
tion. But the relationship between biology and psychology will continually demand
our attention. As biology is ontologically more fundamental than psychology, the
biological approach to the special senses has in theory precedence. But psychology
produces such a wealth of subjective information that it has an important place in
this book.

THE AREA BETWEEN PERCEPTION AND ACTION

Between the perception of phenomenal space and possible resulting action (both
subjects of psychological investigation) there is a broad area which is not available
to psychology, but on physical examination reveals a large number of important
facts. This is the domain of anatomy and physiology. These sciences begin with
the structure and function of the receptor organs and end with the structure and
function of the effector systems (the eye muscles, mechanism of hand and foot
movements, etc.). The largest place in objective sensory science is occupied by neu-
rophysiology, a discipline which has recently produced remarkable insights but
which is still in its infancy.

Perceptual Space 17
 3. Non-Visual Spatial Perception

INTRODUCTION
THE ORGAN OF EQUILIBRIUM
The organs of equilibrium (labyrinth, vestibule), situated in mammals in the pet-
rous bone, are extremely important for non-visual spatial perception.The labyrinth
is a double organ, in the first place consisting of the utriculus and the sacculus.
These contain lumps of calcium carbonate, the so-called otoliths, which by their
weight can exert pressure on receptor cells. The organs register the direction of
gravity and other linear accelerations. In the second place, the three semicircular
canals, which are at right angles to each other (Fig. 3.1) and are filled with fluid,
the endolymph.When the head is turned a flow originates in the endolymph, giving
rise to stimulation of the receptors in the dilated end of each canal, the so-called
ampulla. In this way the canals register the turning of the head in the three

Fig. 3.1. Diagram of the position of the semicircular canals and their ampullae in the skull
(Cogan, 1948).

19
dimensions of objective space. In the central nervous system the nerve fibres arising
from the labyrinth enter the vestibular nuclei, which are closely connected with the
centres from which movements are controlled: the motor centres in the spinal cord,
the cerebrum and the cerebellum.There is a particularly close relationship between
the organ of equilibrium and the motor centres for eye movements.This will be con-
sidered in Chapter 5.

KINAESTHESIS AND TOUCH

The non-visual perception of movement and of the direction of gravity is called
‘proprioception.’ Not only the labyrinths are responsible for this sense, but also
the ‘kinaesthetic’ mechanoreceptors in the skin, muscles and joints.When an aero-
plane accelerates for the take-off, we feel the pressure of the seat against our backs.
When we slip we feel changes in the tension and position ofour bodies, resulting in a
movement which restores our balance.
Touch, in the wider conception of kinaesthesia, is, after vision, the most import-
ant aid to the exploration of space. A touch sensation does not only arise from
stimulation of pressure-sensitive receptors in the skin. Information from position-
sensitive receptors in the joints and tension-sensitive receptors in the muscles are
also indispensable for good tactile perception.
The space which we perceive with the senses of touch (and balance) has much in
common with objective space, although it is naturally very restricted. There are
three equal dimensions at right angles to each other: the vertical, lateral and
antero-posterior co-ordinates. In view of the biological importance of gravity and
the bilateral symmetry of our bodies, these are the most natural co-ordinates.

TOUCH AND VISION IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE1

In anticipation of the following chapters, we may already say that visual space
corresponds much less well with objective space than tactile space. The depth
co-ordinate in visual space has a distinctive characteristic: parallel lines appear to
converge at a distance and circles may resemble ellipses. Spatial vision is clearly
more susceptible to illusions than touch. Since time immemorial it has been known
that the eyes can easily be deceived. If you want to be sure if a long-lost friend is
suddenly standing in front ofyou in the flesh, you only have to stretch out your arms:
touch is the guarantee for reality!
No one can deny that the visual experience of space is infinitely richer than the
tactile experience. But it is still possible that the visual experience is too uncertain
and deceptive to be adequate without touch. This is the main problem which con-
fronted sensory psychology in its early days (Fig. 3.2). The discussion received a
strong impulse when William Molyneux, a leading Irish lawyer, politician and
practitioner of optics, asked Locke a famous question: ‘Suppose a man born blind,
and now adult, and taught by his touch to distinguish between a cube and a sphere.
Suppose then the blind man to be made to see: quaere, whether by his sight, before he
touched them, he could now distinguish and tell which is the globe, which the cube?’

1
Pastore, 1971; Degenaar, 1996.

20 Seeing Space
Fig. 3.2. Touch and vision. From Jamnizer, Perspectiva corporum regularium (1568).

To which the acute and judicious proposer answers:‘Not. For though he has obtained
the experience of how a globe, how a cube affects his touch, yet he has not yet obtained
the experience that what affects his touch so or so must affect his sight so or so.’ Locke
continues: ‘I agree with this thinking gentleman, whom I am proud to call my friend.’
Locke, already mentioned in connection with primary and secondary qualities,
was also the philosopher of empirism, the theory that all knowledge arises from
experience and that inborn knowledge does not exist. It is understandable that the
empirist Locke agrees with Molyneux: the visual impressions of the sphere and
the cube fall on a tabula rasa, a blank tablet. Before the cube and the sphere can be
recognized and named, an association must be made by experience between
the tactile and the visual impressions. There are no ‘innate ideas’ which equate the
terminologies of touch and vision.
Thirty years later Molyneux’s empiristic ideas seemed to be confirmed. In 1728
the famous ophthalmologist William Cheselden wrote in the PhilosophicalTrans-
actions: An Accountofsome Observations made by a young Gentleman, who was born
blind, or lost his Sight so early, that he had no Remembrance of ever having seen, and
was couch’d between13 and 14 Years of Age. The result of the cataract stab seemed at
first to be disappointing: ‘When he first saw, he was so far from making any Judge-
ments about Distances, that he thought all Objects whatever touch’d his Eyes (as he
express’d it) as what he felt, did his skin. He knew not the Shape of anything, nor any
oneThing from another, howeverdifferent in Shape, or in Magnitude: buton being told

Non-Visual Spatial Perception 21

what Things were, whose Form he before knew from feeling, he would carefully observe,
that he might know them again.’ Later he began to discover shapes, also in pictures,
but he was amazed to find that painted shapes felt flat. Apparently he derived
experiences of depth from tactile memories and not from the visual image itself.
But all’s well that ends well:‘A Year after first seeing, being carried on Epsom Downs,
and observing a large Prospect, he was exceedingly delighted with it, and call’d it a new
Kind of Seeing.’
The empirists considered this case history to be decisive proof of their own the-
ory.Voltaire described the case in his much read Ele´mens de la philosophie deNewton
(1738) and the encyclopedist Diderot gave an extensive analysis of Cheselden’s
report in his Lettre surles aveugles, a¤ l’usage de ceux qui voient (1751). Another ency-
clopedist, the naturalist Buffon (1707^1788), was also convinced of the precedence
of tactile sensations over our experience of space. He called the sense of touch the
‘sens géométrique.’ From the point ofview of physics, that was an attractive idea. It is
not surprising that geometry uses measures associated with touch, such as foot and
ell. In comparison, the visual world is geometrically very primitive and, in Buffon’s
view, only two-dimensional! Vision can learn a lot from touch. In Buffon’s own
words: ‘Before touch teaches children the true position of things and their own
bodies, they see everything upside down. A second defect in their vision at this
stage is that they see things double, because each eye forms its own image. Only
the experience of touch can correct this fault, and it does this so well that we finally
believe that we see things single and right side up. We ascribe this impression to
vision, but in fact it derives from touch.’

NATIVISM AND EMPIRISM

Viewed from the perspective of our present knowledge, no proof at all can be based
on a case like Cheselden’s. The renowned patient (and every similar one in later
centuries) had missed the chance, because of his lengthy spell of blindness, to learn
to see at the right time and therefore needed much time to catch up on his visual
retardation. This is merely a medico-physiological question, with no possible con-
sequences for the epistemology. I shall return to this in more detail in the chapter on
squint.
In the meantime the pendulum which had swung too far to the side of empirism
had begun to return to the centre. Kant reinstated the a priori and declared that the
intuition of space preceded every other experience. A sharp blow was dealt to
empirism when Wheatstone discovered the stereoscopic perception of depth in
1838. This robbed the empiricists of their principal argument: that in-depth vision
was dependent on the sense of touch. Other scientific observations were also
brought into alignment against empirism. For instance, examination of babies
showed that indications of spatial vision were present before significant tactile
experience had been gained. These observations refuted empirism and supported
the opposite point of view,‘nativism.’
The controversy between empirists and nativists continued for a long time in the
field of the special senses, as a grim battle between rival sects. The German
physiologist Hering (1834^1894) was a convinced nativist, on the grounds of his

22 Seeing Space
study of binocular vision. Helmholtz (1821^1894), who worked largely in the same
field, remained an empiricist.The last chapter of his famous Handbook is a plea for
the concept that spatial vision is dependent on experience and associations.
Now we no longer need to take sides in this struggle which lasted well into the
twentieth century. The chapter on squint and amblyopia will make it clear that
inborn ability and experience go hand in hand.The sense of sight has much to learn
in the course of the development of the young organism, but in this process it is
dominant and an autodidact, and does not need the sense of touch as teacher.
Man is an optical animal. The optic nerves contain more nerve fibres than those
reaching the cerebral cortex from all other sensory systems together.The visual sys-
tem also occupies more space in the cerebral cortex than any other sensory system.
We can therefore have an easy conscience when we direct our attention in Part II
of this book to the study of spatial vision, as a separate entity, without initially con-
sidering its relationship with the sense of touch.

Non-Visual Spatial Perception 23

Part II: The Visual Perception of Space
 4. Some Basic Facts about
the Visual System

THE EYE AND THE OCULAR MUSCLES

THE OPTICS OF THE EYE
A horizontal section through the eyeball is shown in Figure 4.1. Few of the details
need to be considered in this book.The eye is an optical system with two lenses.The
front of the cornea is the surface with the greatest refractive power. The lens itself
has less refractive power, but this is variable because the thickness of the lens can
change. Parallel rays falling straight into the eye are focussed onto the centre of the
fovea, the centre of the retina.When the lens is made thicker (accommodation, Fig.
4.2), a sharp image of near objects is obtained.With age the ability to accommodate

Iris

Cornea
Fovea

Lens
Visual axis

Optic
nerve
Retina

Fig. 4.1. Cross-sectional diagram of the human eye (Cornsweet, 1970).

27
 F N

s
s
a
a

b a
b
b
a
b

Fig. 4.2. Accommodation. Contraction of a circular muscle round the lens makes the lens
thicker (Helmholtz, 1866).

Fig. 4.3. Presbyopia (Van Dalen & Van Rens, 1981).

decreases (presbyopia), so that a sharp image of a near object is only possible with
the help of reading glasses (Fig. 4.3).

THE EYE MUSCLES AND EYE MOVEMENTS

Each eye has six external eye muscles, four straight and two oblique (Fig. 4.4). The
inner and outer muscles turn the eye round a vertical axis. The other muscles all
turn the eye in both a vertical, a horizontal and a torsional direction. This compli-
cated situation need not worry us (unless one of the muscles becomes paralysed). In
normal life the muscles work together in such a way that two sorts of movements are
possible: simple horizontal and vertical movements (and combinations of these)
and pure torsional movements (round the antero-posterior ‘sagittal’axis).
The control of these eye movements takes place in the brain stem and the
cerebellum. The machinery is there which, in numerous nuclei and nerve fibre

28 Seeing Space
Fig. 4.4. Origins and insertions of the extraocular muscles (Cogan, 1948).

connections, is responsible for the simultaneous rapid jerks and slower following
movements of the two eyes, and also for the slow movements in opposite directions.
Much is known about the subcortical structures and their functions.The details are
beyond the scope of this book, but a few principles will be considered in the follow-
ing chapters.
Some knowledge of the nomenclature of the eye movements is necessary for the
reader of this book. I shall restrict myself to the horizontal and torsional move-
ments.When only one eye is being considered, one speaks of ductions. Movements
of the two eyes in the same direction (conjugated movements) are called versions,
movements in opposite directions (disjunctive movements) are vergences. Thus,
apart from vertical movements, we speak of:
1. Adduction (inwards), abduction (outwards); incycloduction, excycloduction
(upper pole of the cornea moves inwards/outwards);
2. Dextroversion, sinistroversion; dextrocycloversion, sinistrocycloversion;
3. Convergence, divergence; incyclovergence, excyclovergence.

THE RETINA
From Greek antiquity to the Renaissance people always thought that the organ of
vision was the lens. The retina was known to exist as a thin membrane in which (on
account of the course of the blood vessels) a fishing-net could be seen, but there was
no reason to pay further attention to it.
Interest was awakened when the Basle anatomist Felix Platter (1536^1614) was
persuaded that the lens was an optic element of the eye and localised the light sens-
ibility at the back of the eye.The same idea had also been entertained byVesalius. He
thought that the place where the optic nerve leaves the eye was the light-sensitive
spot. But Platter went further. He called the retina the ‘retiform nerve’and declared
that this was the light-sensitive structure. He saw the lens as a sort of internal

Some Basic Facts about theVisual System 29

spectacle glass through which the eye looked at the outside world. He did not under-
stand the passage of light rays in the eye, but the idea that the retina consisted of
light-sensitive nervous tissue was new and extremely important.
Johannes Kepler (1571^1630) was the first to understand the path of light rays
in the eye. In about 1600 he discovered that the image of the outside world was
projected upside down on the retina. People would not believe this at first, but by
dissecting the back of a cow’s eye down to the transparent retina, people were able
to see the inverted image with their own eyes. Descartes made a nice illustration of
this experiment (Fig. 4.5).

Fig. 4.5. The inverted image made visible. The posterior layers of the eye have been partly
removed (Descartes, Dioptrique, [1637]).

30 Seeing Space
 The structure of this thin membrane was a problem for a long time. Since
Schulze’s study in 1863 (Fig. 4.6), nine layers have been distinguished in the retina.
Thanks to the electron microscope many details have now become visible (Fig. 4.7).
Two sorts of receptors, the rods and the cones, are found in the posterior layers,7^9,
of the retina. The cones are responsible for colour vision and the rods for vision in
poor light.The fovea centralis, which consists of closely packed cones only, is a loca-
lized thinning of the retina.This has been produced by pushing the many other ele-
ments which lie between the cones and the nerves to one side (Fig. 4.8). Each foveal
cone has its own connection with the central nervous system; this explains the high
resolving power of the fovea centralis. In horizontal section (Fig. 4.9) the retina
contains light-sensitive receptors up to 70 degrees on the temporal side and up to
more than 90 degrees on the nasal side. The visual field therefore extends further
on the temporal side than on the nasal side.The upper and lower limits of the visual
field are a little closer to the centre.
Between the receptors and the nerve fibres of the optic nerve (Fig. 4.7) there lies,
in layers 6 to 3, a complicated network of nerve fibres and nerve cells. On the inner

10

Fig. 4.6. Section of the retina (Schulze, 1863). Layer 2 (on the inside) contains the nerve
fibres of the optic nerve, layer 9 the receptors.

Some Basic Facts about theVisual System 31

Fig. 4.7. Neural connections in the retina (Dowling, 1987). Cones (C) and rods (R) are
connected directly and via horizontal cells (H). Some bipolars (MB) connect one cone with
one ganglion cell (MG); others (FB, RB) transmit impulses from more than one receptor to
larger ganglion cells (DG).The amacrine cells (A) make horizontal connections on the inner
side of the outer plexiform layer.

Fig. 4.8. Section of the fovea centralis (Polyak, 1948). The cones are elongated. Only at the
extreme periphery of the preparation a few rods can be seen.

side of the retina the cell bodies (ganglion cells) are found, whose extensions form
the fibres of the optic nerve.These fibres leave the eye at the optic disc and run for a
short distance through the orbit and under the base of the brain, and then enter into
the cerebrum.

32 Seeing Space
Fig. 4.9. Distribution of rods and cones in the retina. Counted in the horizontal meridian
by sterberg (1935).

Fig. 4.10. Diagram of a nerve cell (after Bargmann, 1977). The outside of the cell body is
seen on the left, a section on the right. (A) Axon; (D) dendrite; (N) nucleus; (S) synapse; (T)
terminal arborisation. Extensions of other cells form synapses with dendrites and the cell
body. In the centre of the diagram an enlarged synapse is shown. (1) Mitochondria; (2)
synaptic cleft; (3) vesicles containing a substance which brings about the chemical transmis-
sion of the stimulus.

Figure 4.10 shows the basic structure of a nerve cell. This consists of a cell body,
a dendrite and an axon. The dendrite consists of tree-like branches with which
stimuli from adjacent cells are received. The axon, which may be extremely long,
has branches at the end with which stimuli are passed to the other nerve cells, mus-
cles and other organs. Nerve cells have many points of contact, the so-called
synapses. The stimulated condition of a nerve cell is accompanied by electrical
activity, but the stimuli are passed from one cell to another by chemical means.

Some Basic Facts about theVisual System 33

 THE VISUAL PATHWAYS1
When the fibres from the retina enter the brain they form synapses with numerous
groups of cells (‘nuclei’), which transport the information along various pathways
and process it. Summary knowledge of the anatomy of the brain is necessary for the
basic understanding of these visual pathways. Figure 4.11 shows a (half)lateral view
of the brain.The brain stem can be seen with, above it, the cerebellum, which coord-
inates motor activity but is not considered in this book. Above this, the convoluted
cerebral cortex is seen.The cortex consists of two hemispheres, which are each sub-
divided into four lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital. A small part of the
occipital lobe is taken up by the striate area, the primary visual centre. Figure 4.12
shows schematically a horizontal section through the eyes and the fibre system leav-
ing the retina and entering the brain at the point CGL (lateral geniculate body).
A section of the brain stem is seen in the middle. In the section of the occipital lobe
the visual fibres can be seen, running to the striate area (AS).
The optic nerves (NO) transport stimuli from the receptors to the brain.There are
many millions of receptors in the retina, but the optic nerve contains not more than
a million fibres. In the periphery of the retina many receptors (especially rods) are
connected to the optic nerve by one fibre.

Parietal
Frontal lobe lobe

Occipital
lobe

Striate
cortex

Cerebellum

Temporal lobe
Brain
stem
Sprinal cord

Fig. 4.11. Half-lateral view of the human brain, with the frontal, temporal, parietal and
occipital lobes. The area striata, cerebellum, brainstem and spinal cord are also shown
(after Hubel, 1988).

1
Hubel, 1988; Fischer and Boch, 1991; Zeki, 1993.

34 Seeing Space
 In the optic chiasma the optic nerves cross each other in an X-shaped structure.
Only the fibres from the nasal halves of the retinas cross, the fibres from the tem-
poral halves go straight on (semidecussation, Fig. 4.12).
The optic tracts are the continuation of the optic nerves into the base of the brain
at the level of the lateral geniculate bodies. But various branches leave the tract
before this point and go to other nuclei at the base of the brain. The branch which
goes to the superior colliculi (CS) is important for spatial vision; from there
branches pass to the centres for eye movements, but also to the peristriate areas,
passing the striate area on the way (Fig. 4.16 below).
The lateral geniculate body (Fig. 4.13, lateral geniculate nucleus, LGN) is an
accumulation of nerve cells the size of a peanut and consists of six layers, two ‘mag-
nocellular,’ composed of large cells and four ‘parvocellular’ of small cells. As this
organ lies beyond the chiasma, the left LGN represents the right half of the visual
field and the right LGN the left half. The function of the LGN is still uncertain;
neither the degree of binocular interaction nor the function of the magnocelluar
and parvocellular systems has been fully elucidated. I shall return to that later.
The optic radiation (RO, Fig. 4.12, radiatio optica) contains the greatest number
of optic fibres and is therefore indicated by a large arrow in Figure 4.16 below. The
optic radiation is so called because the optic fibres fan out before they reach their
following goal: the cerebral cortex of the occipital lobe of the brain.
The striate area is an area in which a white stripe, discovered by Gennari, can be
seen with the naked eye. The visual cortex, about 3 mm thick, is divided into six
layers (Fig. 4.14). The fibres of the optic radiation end in the fourth layer, on
Gennari’s line. The striate area is called the ‘primary visual area’ (areaV1). It is the
point of origin of fibres that run to other visual areas in the cerebral cortex.

Fig. 4.12. From eye to area striata (Polyak, 1957). (R) Retina; (NO) optic nerve; (CH)
chiasma; (CGL) lateral geniculate body; (RO) optic radiation; (AS) area striata; (CS) supe-
rior colliculi.

Some Basic Facts about theVisual System 35

Other documents randomly have
different content
Jacob journeyed to Egypt, to see the prosperity of that son from
whom they had been separated for so many years. You know how
tenderly he fulfilled towards them every filial duty, how anxiously he
watched over them, and how carefully he supplied their necessities.
And when he had closed their eyes, and had given directions
concerning their remains, you well remember how he addressed to
you the affecting declaration, “I am now loosened from every earthly
tie, and have no other care but you. Henceforth you, the members
of this church, shall be my brother and my sister, my father and my
mother.”
Having given you this brief detail, we now proceed to consider,
III. The remembrance of his work which it now behoves you to cherish.

Your own minister’s anxiety and endeavour during his life, like that
of the apostle’s, was, that after his decease, you might have these
things always in your remembrance. Still, it is not merely an
intellectual remembrance of these things which it becomes you to
cherish. You may remember every text from which he preached,
and every sermon he has delivered, and yet neither be sanctified nor
saved by their influence. Nor can you be saved by keeping in
memory the things which you have heard, unless you remember
them with faith, and experience, and practice; “for if ye know these
things happy are ye if ye do them.” Permit me, therefore, earnestly
and affectionately to address to you the following exhortations.
In the first place, you should cherish the remembrance of these
things by BELIEVING the gospel which he preached. There are some
of you, my beloved friends, whose minds I fear still need to be
stirred up to the remembrance of the things that belong to your
peace. The endeavours of your departed minister, diligent, and
impressive, and persevering, as they were, have failed to awaken in
your hearts the feelings of penitence and faith. Some of you have,
perhaps, for many years, sat under the sound of that gospel which
during every year has been to you “the savour of death unto death.”
Throughout the whole course of his ministry you are the persons
who occasioned his keenest anxieties and his bitterest
disappointments; for so far as you were concerned he seemed to
labour in vain, and to spend his strength for nought. Yet he warned,
and exhorted, and admonished you to the last; and it should be to
you, day and night, an awful and awakening remembrance, that the
very last text from which he preached, [21] was the subject of a
sermon emphatically addressed to you; for its language was,
“Notwithstanding I have spoken unto you, rising early and speaking, yet ye
would not hearken unto me.” And these words, the last which he
addressed to you on earth, were, perhaps, the first which he
repeated concerning you at the bar of God. Ah! my brethren, were
it possible for any thought to disturb his peaceful breast in heaven, it
would be the recollection of the state of guilt and impenitence in
which he has left you on earth—it would be the thought that now
perhaps you and he are separated for ever. And shall this be the
case? Can any of you—can you, my dear young friends, bear the
thought that you may have bidden an eternal farewell to your
faithful and paternal minister? Will you, who have procrastinated till
his death, not have these things in your remembrance now, after his
decease? When there is joy in heaven over one sinner that
repenteth, shall he never be told that angels are rejoicing over you?
And will you not from this time, and from the grave of your
deceased instructor cry unto God, “My Father, thou art the guide of
my youth?” My dear brethren, whether you be young or old,
“behold now is the accepted time, behold now is the day of
salvation.” To-morrow may be too late for ever; and if you delay, the
remembrance of these things may be stirred up in your minds by the
worm that dieth not, and by the fire that never shall be quenched.
But if you wish to have these things in your remembrance now, go,
by faith and prayer, to that Redeemer, whose gospel and whose
minister you have hitherto neglected. Go to him with all the guilt
and condemnation which that neglect has contracted. Go, as the
prodigal went, with the feeling of penitence in your heart, and the
confession of penitence on your lip—and whilst you are yet afar off,
he will behold you with compassion, and run, and fall on your neck,
and embrace you, and exclaim, “This my son was dead and is alive
again, he was lost and is found!”
Secondly, You should cherish the remembrance of these things by
ADHERING to the gospel which he preached. For as it respects you
who have, through grace, believed the gospel which he preached,
his endeavour was that, after his decease, you might have these
things ALWAYS in remembrance—and the Lord grant that his joy
concerning you may be fulfilled. There are, I doubt not, many
persons, once blessed with the ministry of our beloved friend on
earth, who are now his companions in the skies; and of whom he
has said already, “Behold here am I, and the children thou hast
given me.” And there are, I trust, many now present who will be
“his hope, and his joy, and his crown of rejoicing in the presence of
our Lord Jesus Christ at his coming.” You, my dear brethren in the
Lord, can no longer enjoy the living instructions of your revered
pastor, but it becomes you, as members of his church, to have the
things which he once taught you always in remembrance. Adhere
steadfastly and perseveringly to the doctrines, and to the spirit, and
to the practice of the gospel of Jesus Christ, “by pureness, by
knowledge, by long-suffering, by kindness, by the Holy Ghost, by
love unfeigned.” Imitate your deceased minister’s excellencies, and
avoid his imperfections. Endeavour to equal him—endeavour to
surpass him in all that is holy, and just, and good. Above all, let the
same mind be in you which was in Christ Jesus; and repose, with
unshaken confidence, on that grace which is sufficient for you, and
on that strength which is made perfect in your weakness. You are
now in circumstances such as require all the sympathy and
consolation that the gospel can supply. Your minister is a corpse—
the house of God in which he has been accustomed to meet you is
become his sepulchre—and all your future meetings will be held
around his grave. May the God of mercy be your comforter. May all
the grace and tenderness which fills and flows from HIS heart who
wept at the grave of Lazarus, flow into your own. And when you
begin to look out for a successor to your deceased pastor, may you
be directed to one who shall appear among you clothed with his
mantle, and blessed with a double portion of his spirit. In all your
future intercourse with each other, and in all your social meetings for
devotion or for the business of the church, I beseech you, by the
mercies of God, to adhere always to the gospel of Christ. Never lose
the praise which you have in other churches of the saints, by
destroying peace among yourselves. Let brotherly love continue. Let
each individual among you determine, for the sake of Christ and of
his people, to cherish it in his own heart and to exhibit it in his own
conduct, and then its fragrance will perfume and bless the church.
“It will be like the precious ointment on the head of Aaron, which
went down to the skirts of his garments; and like the dew which
descended on the mountains of Zion, where the Lord commanded
the blessing, even life for evermore.” “Jehovah bless you and keep
you. Jehovah cause his face to shine upon you, and be gracious
unto you. Jehovah lift upon you the light of his countenance, and
give you peace.”
Finally, You should cherish the remembrance of these things by
CIRCULATING the gospel which he preached. This also, my brethren,
was one of the things which your minister endeavoured that you
should have in your remembrance after his decease—for the ready
and efficient assistance which he gave to many of the religious
institutions in this city—the efforts which he made to extend the
gospel in the county—and the laborious zeal with which he
endeavoured to promote the interests of the Baptist Missionary
Society—all shew how desirous he was to advance the kingdom of
Christ in the world. Go you, my brethren, and do likewise. Never
become weary of labouring in the cause of Christ. And remember,
for your encouragement, that though the priests are not suffered to
continue by reason of death, though ministers of the gospel are as
mortal as their hearers, and though all flesh is grass, there is,
nevertheless, one thing stable and eternal in the midst of this
moving and this dying world—and this one thing is, “the word of the
Lord, that endureth for ever.” The church lives, though the pastor
dies. The church must increase, though he has decreased. One
generation shall pass away and another generation shall succeed,
“till time and nature dies.” But during all this mortality and change,
“Jesus Christ is the same yesterday, to-day, and for ever,” and his
word shall have free course and be glorified, till it cover and crown
the world, and till the kingdoms of this world shall become the
kingdoms of our God and of his Christ, and he shall reign for ever
and ever. “Then cometh the end, when he shall deliver up the
kingdom to God, even the Father; when he shall have put down all
rule, and authority, and power. For he must reign till he has put all
enemies under his feet. The last enemy that shall be destroyed is
death. Thanks be to God who giveth us the victory through our Lord
Jesus Christ! Therefore, my beloved brethren, be ye steadfast, unmoveable,
always abounding in the work of the lord, forasmuch as ye know that your
labour is not in vain in the lord.”

THE END.

Preparing for the Press, by the same Author,

A COURSE OF

SHORT SERMONS FOR FAMILIES,

TO BE PUBLISHED IN

WEEKLY NUMBERS, AT A PENNY EACH.

PRINTED BY WILKIN AND FLETCHER, UPPER HAYMARKET, NORWICH.

October 5th, 1832.
 FOOTNOTES.

[9] See “Two Sermons addressed principally to the students of the

two Baptist Academies at Stepney and Bristol,” entitled “Advice and
Encouragement to young Ministers;” and “The substance of a
Sermon preached at Bradford,” entitled, “Practical Cautions to
Students and young Ministers.” All of which are well worthy the
attentive perusal of students and of young ministers of every
denomination.
[21] Jeremiah, xxxv, 14.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A FUNERAL
SERMON FOR THE REV. JOSEPH KINGHORN ***

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