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 Programming Languages - Principles and Practice
3rd Edition
by Kenneth C Louden and Kenneth A. Lambert
Cengage 2011

Answers to Selected Exercises

© Copyright Kenneth C. Louden and Kenneth A. Lambert 2011

Chapter 6

6.2. A sample test in C (or Java) would insert a comment in the middle of a reserved word, such as in

in/*comment*/t x;

This will in fact produce an error, transforming int into two tokens in and t (usually interpreted as
identifiers by a compiler). In Ada and FORTRAN, such a comment cannot be written. In Ada, all
comments begin with two adjacent hyphens and extend up to the next newline. Thus, Ada comments by
design can only occur as part of white space (a newline). In FORTRAN comments can only be entire
lines, so a similar remark holds.

6.5
(a) These are numbers with an optional exponential part: they consist of one or more digits, possibly
followed by an "e" or an "E" and an optional + or −, followed by one or more digits. Some examples are
42, 42e2, 42E−02, and 0e+111.

(b) [a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z0-9_]*

6.6. (a) The problem is that allowing signed integer constants creates an ambiguity in recognizing tokens that
a scanner cannot resolve. For example, the string 2-3 should have three tokens: a NUMBER, a MINUS, and
a NUMBER, and the string 2--3 should also have the same three tokens (assuming signed constants are
legal). This ambiguity can only be resolved by the parser, thus creating a serious problem in writing an
independent scanner.

(b) There are several possible solutions. Perhaps the most common is to have the scanner always
recognize a minus sign as a separate token, and then extend the grammar to allow the parser to recognize
leading minus signs whenever a constant is expected. This means that, while in theory constants can
include leading minus signs, in practice they are constructed by the parser by applying a unary minus
operation at compile-time to an unsigned constant. An alternative to this strategy is to simply build the
above solution into the language definition itself: disallow signed constants and extend the grammar to
allow leading unary minuses wherever constants can appear.

6.8 There are 32 legal sentences generated by the grammar. This is because any legal sentence can be
generated from the string

article noun verb article noun .

and there are two choices for each of the five nonterminals, for a total of 25 = 32 choices.
Lambert and Louden Programming Languages – Principles and Practice 3rd Ed. Answers - 2

6.11. We use - for subtraction and / for division. We add these operations to the BNF and EBNF, leaving the
modification of the syntax diagrams of Figure 6.11 to the reader.

BNF:
expr → expr + term | expr - term | term
term → term * factor | term / factor | factor
factor→ ( expr ) | number
number → number digit | digit
digit → 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9

EBNF:
expr → term { (+ | -) term }
term → factor { (* | /) factor }
factor→ ( expr ) | number
number → digit { digit }
digit → 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9

Note: In the EBNF we have used parentheses to group operations within pairs of brackets in the first two
rules. This makes parentheses into new metasymbols. An alternative is to write

expr → term { addop term }

term → factor { mulop factor }
addop → + | -
mulop → * | /

Note that writing the first rule in the following form is incorrect (why?):

expr → term { + term } | term { - term }

6.12
(a) expr → expr + term | term
term → term * power | term % power | power
power → factor ^ power | factor
factor → ( expr ) | number
number → number digit | digit
digit → 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9

(b) expr → term { + term }

term → power { * power | % power }
power → factor [ ^ power ]
factor → ( expr ) | number
number → digit { digit }
digit → 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9

6.13 (a)
BNF:
expr → expr + term | - term | term
term → term * factor | term / factor | factor
factor→ ( expr ) | number

© Copyright Kenneth A. Lambert and Kenneth C. Louden 2011

Lambert and Louden Programming Languages – Principles and Practice 3rd Ed. Answers - 3

number → number digit | digit

digit → 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9
EBNF:
expr → [-] term { + term }
term → factor { * factor }
factor→ ( expr ) | number
number → digit { digit }
digit → 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9

(b) BNF: factor → factor1 | - factor1

factor1 → ( expr ) | number
(all other rules as before)

EBNF: factor → [-] factor1

factor1 → ( expr ) | number
(all other rules as before)

(c) BNF: factor → ( expr ) | number | - factor

(all other rules as before)

EBNF: same as BNF, or:

factor → {-} ( expr ) | {-} number

6.14
(b) The parse tree is
expr

expr + term

expr + term term * factor

term term * factor factor number

factor factor number number digit

digit 7
number number digit
6
digit digit 5

3 4

The abstract syntax tree is

+

+ *

3 * 6 7

4 5

(c) The parse tree is

© Copyright Kenneth A. Lambert and Kenneth C. Louden 2011

Lambert and Louden Programming Languages – Principles and Practice 3rd Ed. Answers - 4

expr

expr + term

expr + term factor

term term * factor number

term * factor factor number digit

factor number number digit 7

number digit digit 6

digit 4 5

The abstract syntax tree is

+

+ 7

* *

3 4 5 6

(d) The parse tree is

© Copyright Kenneth A. Lambert and Kenneth C. Louden 2011

Lambert and Louden Programming Languages – Principles and Practice 3rd Ed. Answers - 5

expr

term

term * factor

term * factor ( expr )

factor ( expr ) expr + term

number expr + term term factor

digit term factor factor number

3 factor number number digit

number digit digit 7

digit 5 6

4
The abstract syntax tree is
*

* +

3 + 6 7

4 5

(e) The parse tree is

© Copyright Kenneth A. Lambert and Kenneth C. Louden 2011

Lambert and Louden Programming Languages – Principles and Practice 3rd Ed. Answers - 6

expr

term

factor

( expr )

expr + term

term factor

factor ( expr )

number
expr + term
digit
term factor
2
factor
( expr )

number
expr + term
digit
term factor
3
factor number

number digit

digit 5

The abstract syntax tree is

+

2 +

3 +

4 5

6.19 (a) The changes needed occur only in expr() and term(), which now should appear as follows:

int expr()
/* expr -> term { '+' term | '-' term } */
{ int result = term();
while (token == '+' || token == '-')
{ char temp = token;
match(token);
if (temp == '+') result += term();
else result -= term();
}
return result;
}

© Copyright Kenneth A. Lambert and Kenneth C. Louden 2011

Lambert and Louden Programming Languages – Principles and Practice 3rd Ed. Answers - 7

int term()
/* term -> factor { '*' factor | '/' factor } */
{ int result = factor();
while (token == '*' || token == '/')
{ char temp = token;
match(token);
if (temp == '*') result *= factor();
else result /= factor();
}
return result;
}

6.20 (c) A new precedence level and corresponding procedure needs to be added for the power operation,
which we call power() in the following. Changes also need to be made to factor() to incorporate the
calls to power(), as well as to add the new remainder operation. These two procedures now should appear
as follows:

int term()
/* term -> power { '*' power | '/' power | '%' power } */
{ int result = power();
while (token == '*' || token == '/' || token == '%')
{ char temp = token;
match(token);
if (temp == '*') result *= power();
else if (temp == '/') result /= power();
else result %= power();
}
return result;
}

int power()
/* power -> factor [ '^' power ] */
{ int result = factor();
if (token == '^')
{ int pow, temp;
match(token);
pow = power();
temp = 1;
while (pow-- > 0) /* works only for positive powers */
temp *= result;
result = temp;
}
return result;
}

6.21 All grammar rule procedures and temporary results, except for number() and digit(), need to be
changed to double, and the output in command() needs its format changed from %d to %g or %f. Also, the
following code needs to be added (with changes indicated for the factor() code):

double factor()
/* factor -> '(' expr ')' | decimal_number */
{ double result;
if (token == '(')
{ match('(');
result = expr();
match(')');
}

© Copyright Kenneth A. Lambert and Kenneth C. Louden 2011

Lambert and Louden Programming Languages – Principles and Practice 3rd Ed. Answers - 8

else
result = decimal_number();
return result;
}

double decimal_number()
/* decimal_number -> number [ '.' frac_number ] */
{ double result = number();
if (token == '.')
{ match(token);
result += frac_number();
}
return result;
}

double frac_number()
/* frac_number -> digit [ frac_number ]
(right recursive because it computes a fractional result
more easily) */
{ double result = digit() / 10.0;
if (isdigit(token))
result += frac_number() / 10.0;
return result;
}

6.22. Writing the rule as expr → term + term allows only one + operation per expression, so that, for example,
3 + 4 + 5 would become illegal. This is not fatal to writing more than one + operation in an expression,
since parentheses can be used: the expression (3 + 4) + 5 remains legal. But it does remove the
ambiguity by changing the language recognized rather than by changing the grammar but not the
language.

6.24. (a) The changes are to the rules for expr and term only:

expr : expr '+' term { $$ = $1 + $3; }

| expr '-' term { $$ = $1 - $3; }
| term { $$ = $1; }
;

term : term '*' factor { $$ = $1 * $3; }

| term '/' factor { $$ = $1 / $3; }
| factor { $$ = $1; }
;

6.29 The following grammar is one possible solution:

sentence → cap-noun-phrase verb-phrase .

cap-noun-phrase → cap-article noun
cap-article → A | The
noun → girl | dog
verb-phrase → verb noun-phrase
verb → sees | pets
noun-phrase → article noun
article → a | the

© Copyright Kenneth A. Lambert and Kenneth C. Louden 2011

Lambert and Louden Programming Languages – Principles and Practice 3rd Ed. Answers - 9

6.30. Suppose a declaration has the form var _;, where _ stands for any string usable as a variable
identifier. Suppose further that only two letters, say, a and b, are usable as variable identifiers. Then the
possible declarations without redeclaration are {var a;, var b;, var a; var b;, var b; var a}.
These could be generated by EBNF rules

declaration →  | var a; [var b;] | var b; [var a;]

Now suppose that c is also a legal identifier. Then instead of six legal declaration sequences there are
fifteen, and EBNF rules look as follows:

declaration →  | var a; no-a | var b; no-b | var c; no-c

no-a →  | var b; [var c;] | var c; [var b;]
no-b →  | var a; [var c;] | var c; [var a;]
no-c →  | var a; [var b;] | var b; [var a;]

There are now four grammar rules instead of one. The grammar is growing exponentially with the
number of variables. Thus, even in a language where variables can be only two characters long, there are
nearly a thousand possible variables, and perhaps millions of grammar rules. Writing a parser for such a
grammar would be a waste of time.

6.31 A scanner can't recognize all expressions, even though an expression is a repetition of terms and plus
operators, for the following reason: a term may recursively contain expressions inside parentheses, and a
scanner cannot recognize structures that can have the same structure as a substructure.

6.32. We give here the BNF and EBNF rules. Translating the EBNF into syntax diagrams is left to the reader.
If a statement sequence must have at least one statement, the grammar rule is easily stated as the
following.

BNF: statement-sequence → statement-sequence ; statement | statement

EBNF: statement-sequence → statement {; statement }

However, statement sequences usually are allowed to be empty, which complicates the problem. One
answer is to use the previous solution and a helper rule, as follows.

BNF:
statement-sequence →  | statement-sequence1
statement-sequence1 → statement-sequence1 ; statement | statement

(Similarly for EBNF.)

6.33 We give here the BNF and EBNF rules. If a statement sequence can be empty, we have the following
rules:

BNF: statement-sequence → statement-sequence statement ; | 

EBNF: statement-sequence → { statement ; }

If a statement sequence must contain at least one statement, we must write the rules as follows:

BNF: statement-sequence → statement-sequence statement ; | statement ;

EBNF: statement-sequence → statement ; { statement ; }

6.36. (a) Here are the number of reserved words in each language:

© Copyright Kenneth A. Lambert and Kenneth C. Louden 2011

Lambert and Louden Programming Languages – Principles and Practice 3rd Ed. Answers - 10

C: 32
C++: 74
Ada: 69
Java: 47

(b) In Pascal predefined identifiers not only include the standard data types, such as integer, that
correspond to reserved words in C, but also include functions such as sin, cos, abs, chr, ord, and so
on. These correspond to standard library functions in C, C++, Ada, and Java. The problem with Pascal is
compounded by the fact that Pascal has no separate compilation or standard libraries, while C has a
small set of standard libraries, and Ada, C++ and Java (particularly Java) have very large standard
libraries. Of course, to be at all useful even C must have libraries comparable to C++ or Java or Ada –
it's just that these libraries are all non-standard (such as the Windows C API, for example). Thus just
adding library identifiers alone is still misleading. Perhaps one should add all predefined identifiers and
standard library identifiers to have a fair comparison, but in the modern world of large standard libraries
these numbers are very large (in the thousands). If one wishes to get an idea only of the complexity of a
language parser, rather than the language as a whole, then counting reserved words does do that.

6.38. Indeed, FORTRAN is a language without reserved words, so it is certainly possible for a language to
have no reserved words. The problem is that all language constructs become essentially context
dependent, and a parser cannot decide which construct is applicable without help from the symbol table
and semantic analyzer. This enormously complicates the parsing process, and context-free grammar
techniques cannot be used. For this reason, the trend has been toward greater use of reserved words and
less use of predefined identifiers in the definition of the basic syntax of a language.

6.40. The difference is immaterial in terms of recognizing numbers. The parse tree becomes significant only
if the tree itself is used for further translation or computation. In the case of a number, the main "further
translation" that is needed is to compute its value. If we try to compute its value recursively, based on the
structure of the tree, we notice a difference in complexity between the two tree structures. Consider, for
example, the number 234. It has the two possible parse trees

number number

number digit digit number

number digit 4 2 digit number

digit 3 3 digit

2 4

In the left-hand tree, at a number node with two children, its value can be computed by multiplying the
value of its left child by 10 (in base 10) and adding the value of its right child. In the right-hand tree, a
more complex computation is required, namely, the number of digits in each value must also be
computed. For example, to compute the value of the root of the right-hand tree, the value of its left child
(2) must be multiplied by 100 = 102 (the exponent 2 = the number of digits of its right child), and then
added to the value of its right child (34). Thus the left-hand tree, which resulted from the left-recursive
rule, is to be preferred. This is an example of the principle of syntax-directed semantics.

6.42
(a) EBNF rules are

expr → ( list ) | a

© Copyright Kenneth A. Lambert and Kenneth C. Louden 2011

Lambert and Louden Programming Languages – Principles and Practice 3rd Ed. Answers - 11

list → expr { , expr }

Syntax diagrams are

( list )

expr

list
expr

(b)
expr

( list )

list , expr

list , expr ( list )

expr a expr

( list ) a

list , expr

expr a

(c) In C-like pseudocode, a recursive-descent recognizer is as follows (using a global variable token, a
global match procedure, and global procedure error that prints an error message and exits) :

void expr()
{ if (token == 'a') match('a');
else if (token == '(')
{ match('(');
list();
match(')');
}
else error();
}

© Copyright Kenneth A. Lambert and Kenneth C. Louden 2011

Lambert and Louden Programming Languages – Principles and Practice 3rd Ed. Answers - 12

void list()
{ expr();
while (token == ',')
{ match(',');
expr();
}
}
6.43. (a) There are no precedences or associativities in abstract syntax because the structure of the syntax
expression (or syntax tree) itself will provide the order in which the operations to be applied.
(b) There are no parentheses because parentheses are useful only to change associativity and precedence,
and by (a) these are non-issues in abstract syntax.
(c) There is no inherent tree structure in numbers: they are just sequences of digits. Thus, a sequential
representation as in EBNF is appropriate. This is, of course, not true for expr, since there are two
subexpressions possible, and this can lead to many distinct tree structures (corresponding to associativity
and precedence rules).

6.49. (a) The first condition of predictive parsing is satisfied by the grammar, since the first grammar rule is
the only one with an alternative, and

First( ( list ) )  First(a) = { ( }  { a } = 

To show that the second condition for predictive parsing is satisfied, we must show that First( list ) 
Follow( list ) = , since list is optional in the second grammar rule. We first compute First( list ). By the
second grammar rule, First( list ) contains First( expr ). Since this is the only contribution to First( list ),
we have First( list ) = First( expr ), and from the first grammar rule we have First( expr ) = { ( , a }, so
First( list ) = { ( , a }. To compute Follow( list ), we note that the first grammar rule shows that ) can
follow a list. The second grammar rule gives us no additional information (it tells us only that Follow(
list ) contains Follow( list )), so Follow( list ) = { ) }. Then

First( list )  Follow( list ) = { ( , a }  { ) } = 

so the second condition for predictive parsing is satisfied.

(b) C code for expr and list recognizers are as follows (using the same conventions as Figure 6.24):

void expr()
{ if (token = '(')
{ match('(');
list();
if (token == ')') match(')', ") expected");
else error();
}
else if (token == 'a') match('a', "a expected");
else error("illegal expression");
}

void list()
{ expr();
if (token == '(' || token == 'a') list();
}

Note that in the code for list we used First( list ) to decide whether to make the optional recursive call
to list. We could just as well have used the Follow set (which will, however, give a slightly different
behavior in the presence of errors):

© Copyright Kenneth A. Lambert and Kenneth C. Louden 2011

Lambert and Louden Programming Languages – Principles and Practice 3rd Ed. Answers - 13

void list()
{ expr();
if (token != ')') list();
}

© Copyright Kenneth A. Lambert and Kenneth C. Louden 2011

Other documents randomly have
different content
Flatheads, the Umatillas, the Walla Wallas, the Nez Percés, and
others, taking red women cheerfully in marriage and as cheerfully
deserting them when occasion called. In this remote frontier, beyond
the utmost reach of ethics or law, in a region with a cloud upon its
national title, the pioneers fulfilled their semi-savage destiny. Nelson
Durham, a writer of Spokane, has patriotically designated the
Spokane Plains as the site of the annual horse-racing and saturnalia
of these skin-clad trappers and traders, but they left no landmarks
and the noise of their revelry had long since died away when the
first Anglo-Saxon, lured by the roar of the falls, came to harness
those tumultuous waters to his wheel.
THE
COUNT
Y
COURT
HOUSE
,
SPOKA
NE.

There is a tradition that the Spokane Indians shunned this now

famed succession of wild cascades, for in the foaming maelstrom at
the foot of the falls dwelt a malign goddess, her long hair streaming
in the cataract, her shimmering figure half revealed in the
enveloping mists of spray. While the waters danced about her she
sang merrily and the sound of her singing was like the warbling of a
thousand birds. With her outstretched arms she lured Indian
fishermen and devoured them. Her flowing hair was a trammel that
enmeshed her victims. None had ever returned. Shaman after
shaman, under his totem pole, had unavailingly invoked his
tomañowash incantations to destroy her power. Then Speelyai or
Coyote, the great Indian god, transforming himself into a feather,
floated over the falls and was speedily engulfed by the evil goddess.
Assuming the form of a strong warrior he began his campaign.
Around him were the wrecks of skin and bark canoes, the forms of
unnumbered members of his tribes, and a bedraggled eagle which
proved to be Whaiama, god of the upper air. With a stone axe
Speelyai hewed his way through the monster's side and Whaiama
bore the resurrected company to the high banks of the Spokane
River. Now Speelyai pronounced a curse upon his groaning enemy.
Her career as a destroyer was at an end. Henceforth she might
entice some helpless wanderers from distant tribes, but the chosen
ones she should destroy no more. And the god prophesied in
conclusion that a better race would come some day, a strange
people, whom she could not conquer, and who would bind and
enslave her forever.
These falls, whose total volume equals the power of forty thousand
horses, turn the wheels of factories the value of whose exports to
China, Japan, and other lands is expressed in millions. The
waterpower speeds electric street-cars over ninety miles of track,
and conducts electricity through two hundred and fifty miles of arc
mains. All the elevators and printing-presses of the city are operated
by power from the falls, and to this all-supplying current are
attached many sewing-machines, typewriters, phonographs,
graphophones, churns, electric fans, music boxes, door-bells, burglar
alarms, clocks, and hundreds of other contrivances calling for
constant or occasional motive power. Spokane is credited with being
the most modern and best-equipped city in the world, and this is
due, first, to the falls whose power brings many utilities, considered
luxuries in other communities, within reach of the lowliest consumer;
and secondly, to the singular fact that the city is newer than the
telephone, the electric light, and other latter-day inventions and
discoveries. There were no ancient institutions and prejudices to
supplant. To children reared in Spokane, other cities seem archaic,
their streets sloven, and their homes grotesquely behind the times.
A girl from Spokane visiting in New York is known to have written
home about the bizarre appearance of "electric cars drawn by
horses."
London gropes by night through dismal glimmerings of gas and it
would require millions of reluctant pounds sterling to substitute more
modern light. In the new city of Spokane it was the most natural
procedure to install the latest conveniences of modern life. When the
little settlement was but a cluster of ambitious cabins every abode
had its telephone and its electric lights. The Spokane workman does
not stumble up the steps of a dim tenement. Lumber is cheap and in
variety, and even Spokane granite is within his means. He dwells in a
good home. A click of a button at the door floods the dwelling with
light. Sputtering wicks have no place in his economy. He can afford,
too, to order his groceries by telephone or use the same medium to
discuss politics with a friend in a distant part of the city. All members
of polite society in Spokane have telephones. A lady planning an
impromptu tea or lawn party gets out her calling list, reaches for the
telephone, and issues her amiable summons. A great amount of
local business is transacted over the wires in the city. The power of
the falls likewise enables the telephones of Spokane to talk and
trade with a thousand towns, the distant city of San Francisco
coming within the Spokane circuit.
Thus, in the employment of waterpower to serve the city in
manifold ways, the Indians say, has been fulfilled the prophecy of
Speelyai that a race would come which should yoke the goddess of
the cataract in perpetual servitude.
THE
LAST
CHIEF
TO
INTIMI
DATE
THE
INHABI
TANTS
OF
SPOKA
NE.

In further fulfilment of the prediction that the demoniacal siren of

the falls should no longer have dominion over his people, the
Spokanes and kindred tribes shunned the river, and from a race of
fishers, paddling bent and kneeling in their crude canoes, they
became an intrepid race of horsemen. On horseback they rode to
war or hunted the moose and antelope, and horses became the sign
of wealth and the medium of exchange. For their obedience in
carrying out the details of his malediction upon the water demon,
Speelyai prospered them. Their wealth increased and their numbers
multiplied. Their tepees were warm with many furs and picturesque
with the trophies of battle and the chase. Their larders abounded
with dried meat, meal, wapatoo, and camas root. They became the
most valiant warriors between the Bitter Root Mountains and the
sea. The power of the allied tribes of Eastern Washington became so
formidable that the American Government was compelled to send its
most skilful military leaders to effect their pacification, and it was not
until Phil Sheridan eclipsed them in daring and General Miles forced
Chief Joseph to capitulation that the scattered settlers in the
Spokane country ceased to tremble at the impending descent of
mounted savages.
By repeated violation of treaty stipulations, by burnings and
massacres and thefts, they had asserted their dominion. In 1858 the
Spokanes gave tragic demonstration of their determination to
enforce the native declaration that the armies of the whites should
never traverse their domain. In that year Colonel Steptoe, seeking to
lead a detachment to garrison the post of the Hudson Bay Company
at Colville, near the British border, was defeated with great slaughter
by the Spokanes. With an unscalped remnant of his force he crawled
at night from the scene of his disaster and, abandoning his guns,
rushed in confusion back to Walla Walla. The god of Indian battles
still reigned and the Government at Washington was alarmed. Then
Colonel George Wright was chosen to command, a man whose
merciless determination and sanguinary triumphs gave to his notable
campaign a distinction not paralleled until the Sirdar of Egypt just
forty years later led his expedition to Khartoum, silenced the
dervishes near Omdurman, and hurled the severed head of the
Khalifa into the Nile. The Spokanes did not attribute their defeat to
the superior strategy of their pale-faced foe. Their fatal mistake,
they said, was in making their last stand on the Spokane Plains,
within sound of the exultant shrieking and sinister roaring of their
ancient enemy, the evil spirit of the Spokane cataract, and it was
she, not their white conqueror, who herded and stampeded them
into terrified surrender. They had fought with abandoned daring, and
had employed all their arts of strategy, but were forced back toward
the abode of the water monster until her roaring mockery thundered
in their ears. Now they set the tall prairie grass afire, and over the
site of the coming city there blazed on that parched day of
September 5, 1858, a conflagration no less formidable than war. It
enveloped, but could not stay the pursuing column. Destiny was
striding through flame and blood that day to open a way for civilized
occupation of the Pacific Northwest. Hundreds of painted warriors,
including the leader of the Palouses, a chief of the Pend d'Oreilles,
one of the chiefs of the Cœur d'Alenes, and two brothers of Spokane
Gary, the commander of the savage army, lay dead.
THE
CITY
HALL,
SPOKA
NE.

As if by a miracle, not one of Colonel Wright's soldiers fell, a further

proof to the Indians that their evil goddess had presided over the
conflict. In token of their subjection they brought their wives,
children, horses, and all portable belongings and made complete
offering at the feet of their conqueror. Thus the site of the present
city of Spokane became the scene of one of the most striking and
significant triumphs of civilized man over the aborigines of the
American continent. What William Henry Harrison did at Tippecanoe
for the old Northwest in scattering the allied natives under
Tecumseh, Colonel Wright accomplished at Spokane Plains for the
Northwest in demolishing the league of tribes under the Spokanes. It
is true that Chief Joseph later, emulating the ambitions of Black
Hawk, sought to reunite the tribes in rebellion against the whites,
but though he succeeded in stirring the Federal Government to
vigilant campaigns, he failed in his great object, just as did the
successor of Tecumseh. Wright's sway was undisputed. Indians
convicted of crimes he ordered hanged. Superfluous horses were
shot. He spread terror as he moved, and peace followed in his
footsteps.
But the Civil War and financial panic delayed the Western
movement. In 1863 there were but ninety registered citizens in the
Spokane country. And when the first sawmill came, in 1873, its
wheels revolved slowly, for the failure of Jay Cooke delayed the
transcontinental railway, that was to connect the city with the East.
Eight years later, just twenty years ago, the first locomotive rumbled
into the new settlement. Now there was to be a city. On September
1st of that year came the first lawyer, J. Kennedy Stout, and it is
characteristic of the spirit that has ever continued to quicken the
activities of the community that four days after his arrival he had
drafted a charter for the city, taken the necessary legal steps toward
its incorporation, and had been chosen its attorney.
In 1885, the city, numbering two thousand
people, was an alert and distributing centre.
Grain was pouring in from the fertile acres
of the Palouse to be ground into flour, and
the time was at hand when a remarkable
discovery in the neighboring mountains of
Idaho was to turn the tide of travel toward
Spokane, and in less than a decade develop
it into the greatest railroad centre west of
J. KENNEDY STOUT.
Chicago. It was in that year that three men
and an ass, in the Cœur d'Alenes, a few
miles from Spokane, camped toward night
in a desolate cañon. Their provisions were nearly exhausted. They
held forlorn council, and decided to abandon their search for mines
in those gloomy and precipitous solitudes. Toward sundown the
animal strayed from its tether. They found it gazing across the ravine
at a reflected gleam of the setting sun. A marvellous series of ore
seams had mirrored the light. The dumb beast had discovered the
greatest deposits of galena on the globe. The whole mountain was a
mine.
Within an hour after the arrival of the sensational news at Spokane,
that city's unparalleled boom began. Prospectors, engineers, and
capitalists from the four corners of the Republic hurried to the new
city. A railway magnate rode out on horseback to view the mountain,
and within four months from the day of his visit ore was being
shipped by rail to Spokane. North and south, for three hundred
miles, mines were found on every mountainside, and every
additional discovery hastened Spokane's growth and quickened the
fever of its speculation. As a local historian said, "Men went to sleep
at night on straw mattresses, and woke to find themselves on velvet
couches stuffed with greenbacks." Wealth waited for men at every
corner. The delirium of speculation whirled the sanest minds. Of the
many clergymen, for example, who arrived to advocate the
perfecting of titles to homes not made with hands, eleven abdicated
the pulpit and, indifferent to the menace of moth and rust, laid up
substantial treasure.
Five years from the discovery of the mines in the Cœur d'Alenes the
city numbered twenty thousand inhabitants. Fire swept over it and
laid twenty-two solid squares in ashes. Before the ruins cooled, the
city was being rebuilt, this time in steel and brick and stone. The
Spokesman-Review, which began its editorial career in a small,
discarded chapel, soon moved into a ten-story structure, and that
evolution was, in epitome, the story of the city. Architects of some
renown designed palaces and châteaux for the wealthy. Every citizen
hoped to outdazzle his neighbor in the beauty of his home, and this
has resulted in giving Spokane unique distinction in architectural
impressiveness.
THE
"SPOKE
SMAN-
REVIE
W"
 BUILDI
NG.

Though Spokane has had abundant share of that rampant Western

virility, the story of whose unrestraint would constitute a daring
contribution to profane history, the city from the start displayed a
dominating purpose that made for civic righteousness. It is true that
during its earlier years there were many murders in Spokane, for
citizens, in the midst of its hurrying events, were impatient of prolix
complaints and the tardy judgments of the law. Nor did this reckless
code much concern the hangman, for the legal execution of a citizen
in Spokane would have been regarded much as the world would now
look upon the shuddering crime of burning a Christian at the stake;
yet in its blood-shedding there was little, if any, of the wanton
element of anarchy, and upon few occasions in the history of the
Northwest has crime stooped to assassinate from ambush.
Outwardly calm, but with desperation in his mood, the insulted
approached the object of his wrath and warned him to "heel"
himself. Inevitable shooting marked their next meeting, and their
funerals were not infrequently held simultaneously.
The bad man of melodrama is an execrable creation of fiction,
whose counterpart was not long tolerated in Spokane's career, and
who does not seem to have made his presence felt in other sections
of the West. A desperado of the early days sent word from a
neighboring town that, because of some dispute, he would kill a
certain Spokane citizen on sight. The community could not afford to
lose an influential pioneer, and the city fathers met to consider the
outlaw's menace. They decided that, inasmuch as they would be
called upon to execute him ultimately, they would better hang him
before he had opportunity to pull his criminal trigger, and to this
programme they pledged their official honor and forwarded notice of
their grim deliberation to the desperado, who thereupon deemed it
expedient to strike the Lolo trail that led to less discriminating
frontiers. Spokane has outlived its lawless days. For several years it
enjoyed the police protection of a noted bandit-catcher, whose nerve
was unfailing and whose aim was sure. The ensuing hegira of
criminal classes was a spectacle for other cities to contemplate with
awe. During his stern régime, a riotous stranger, mistaking the
temper of the community, flourished weapons and for a few
agonizing moments made pedestrians his targets. The clamor
brought the cool chief of police. "Did you subdue the stranger?" he
was afterward asked. "We buried him the next day," was the reply.
In the few years that have ensued since the country's occupation
by the whites, the once masterful Spokane tribe has degenerated,
the Indians around Spokane to-day shambling about under the
generic epithet of "siwash"; and a writer visiting this region in recent
days came to the etymological conclusion that the first syllable in
their unhappy title stood for "never."
Though Spokane is famous, its precise locality is not generally
known. When it became ambitious and first held expositions, it
ordered lithographic posters from Chicago. They came representing
steamboats plying placidly in a river whose falls are as deadly as
Niagara's. Spokane is twenty-four hours' ride from the cities of Puget
Sound. It is three days' journey from San Francisco, and to go from
Spokane to Helena or Butte is like travelling from Chicago to Denver.
Its future must be great. It has no rival. Eight railroads, three of
them transcontinental, assert its supremacy. Southward stretches
the most prolific grain empire in the world. Almost boundless forests
of valuable timber cover surrounding mountains to the north and
east, whose mineral wealth is beyond compute.
MIDDL
E
FALLS,
SPOKA
NE.

A typical Westerner, in an interesting autobiography, states that the

ass that discovered the mines of the Cœur d'Alene, and thus caused
a stampede of civilization to Spokane, was buried with the
ceremonial honors due a potentate. It takes conspicuous place in
distinguished company. On the heights of Peor an altar was reared
to canonize the ass that saw the Light the prophet Balaam all but
passed. An ass by its braying wrought the salvation of Vesta, and the
animal's coronation was an event in the festival of that goddess. For
ages the Procession of the Ass was a solemn rite in religious
observances. In Spokane, a favorite canvas pictures the Cœur
d'Alene immortal gazing enraptured across a mountain chasm at
shining ledges of galena. When explaining the various causes of the
matchless development of Spokane and its tributary region, the
resident, in merry mood, does not forget to pilot the visitor to this
quaint memorial. Afterward there was litigation over the mineral
wealth now valued at $4,000,000 located by this animal, the
outcome of which was the following decision handed down by Judge
Norman Buck of the District Court of Idaho:
MIDDL
E
FALLS,
ECHO
FLOUR
MILLS,
AND
OLD
POWER
HOUSE
.

"From the evidence of the witnesses, this Court is of the

opinion that the Bunker Hill mine was discovered by the
jackass, Phil O'Rourke, and N.S. Kellogg; and as the jackass is
the property of the plaintiffs, Cooper & Peck, they are entitled
to a half interest in the Bunker Hill, and a quarter interest in
the Sullivan claims."

Spokane has a rare climate of cloudless days. The Indians say that
once it shared the fogs and copious rains of the seacoast, but that
their tutelary god, ascending to the heavens, slew the Thunderer,
and that thenceforth they dwelt under radiant skies, and were called
Spokanes, or Sons of the Sun.
 A college of artists could not have devised a more beautiful location
for a city. It is set in a gigantic amphitheatre two thousand feet
above sea level. High walls of basalt, picturesque with spruce and
cedar and pine, form the city's rim. Against this background have
been built mansions that would adorn Fifth Avenue or the Circles of
the national capital. Forming the city's southern border winds an
abysmal gorge, and along its brink has been built one of the city's
fashionable boulevards. The cataracts of the Spokane some day
must inspire poets. In some parts of the city, affording adornments
for numberless gardens, are volcanic, pyramidal rocks. The Indians
say that these columns are the petrified forms of amazons who,
issuing from the woods, were about to plunge into the river for a
bath, ignorant of the water demon, when Speelyai to save them
turned them into stone.
It is significant of the lure of Spokane that men who have
accumulated millions and sold their mines still make it their place of
permanent residence. Though the city as it is to-day has been built
in the dozen years that have elapsed since its great fire, there is no
hint of hasty development within its boundaries. Singular fertility in
its soil has so fostered its shade trees and its gardens that a sense is
conveyed of years of affluent ease and attention to æsthetic detail.
Spokane is in many respects the most consummate embodiment on
the continent of that typical American genius that has redeemed the
wilderness of the frontier.
 PORTLAND

THE METROPOLIS OF THE PACIFIC

NORTHWEST

"Where rolls the Oregon."—Bryant.

By THOMAS L. COLE

O NE autumn evening in 1843, A.M. Overton and A.L. Lovejoy,

two residents of Oregon City, on their way home from
Vancouver, landed from their canoe and pitched their tent for
the night under the pine trees upon the west bank of the Willamette
River. Before they resumed their journey, the next day, they had
projected a town upon the site of their encampment. Within a few
months, a clearing was made and a log cabin built. From this
beginning grew the present city of Portland.
But our story must go back of this beginning, for the historical
significance of Portland lies not so much in the fact that it is to-day
the great metropolis of that vast territory, once all called Oregon,
and now divided into the States of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and
parts of Wyoming and Montana, not to mention British Columbia;
but its significance is rather to be sought in the consideration that in
Portland culminated and found final form the metropolitan life of
Oregon Territory, which, in its earlier and richer historical period,
found expression successively in Astoria, Vancouver, and Oregon
City. Thus, for the essential beginning of the history of the
metropolis of the Pacific Northwest, we must go back to the embryo
metropolis established by Astor at the mouth of the Columbia River.
This point of departure, while relatively remote, yet carries us back
over less than a century of time.
Nearly two hundred years had passed
after Henry Hudson sailed the Half-Moon up
the North River before the waters of the
mighty Oregon were disturbed by any craft
save the Indian's canoe. Beyond suspicions
and reports of Indians, the great "River of
the West" was unknown, and that vast
territory beyond the Rocky Mountains which
it drains was undiscovered until April 29,
1792, when Captain Gray, commanding the
Columbia Rediviva, from Boston, crossed its
bar and landed upon its bank, to the JOHN JACOB ASTOR.
consternation of the Indians, who now saw
a white face for the first time. Gray named the river after his vessel,
the Columbia, and took possession of the country in the name of the
United States. A few months later, Broughton, a lieutenant of the
explorer Vancouver, to whose incredulous ears Gray had
communicated his discovery, entered the Columbia, and in turn
claimed everything in the name of King George. These conflicting
claims furnish a key to the critical period in the history of the
Columbia River territory. For a long time neither America nor Great
Britain forced a determination of its claim, and a succession of
treaties gave to the citizens of both countries equal rights in the
territory. Each government, however, encouraged its citizens to make
good the national claim by actual possession. The first attraction to
Oregon Territory was that which led Captain Gray, with other
expeditions, to the coast, viz., the abundance of fur-bearing animals.
The first British occupation was that of the Northwest Fur Company
of Canada, which pushed some posts across the Rockies to the far
north. The way for American occupation was opened when the
successful explorations of the Lewis and Clark expedition, which
camped over the winter of 1805 at the mouth of the Columbia,
demonstrated the practicability of an overland route to Oregon. Into
this opening John Jacob Astor promptly entered. As the "American
Fur Company," Astor had successfully checked the aggressions of the
powerful Canadian companies in the northern United States. He now
projected a scheme, under the name of the "Pacific Fur Company,"
whereby to check the movements of these same companies beyond
the Rocky Mountains, and to possess the new country for the United
States. The heart of his plan and purpose was a settlement at the
mouth of the Columbia River. Says Washington Irving, to whose
fascinating book, Astoria, the reader must go for the story of this
magnificent, if ill-starred, enterprise:

"He considered his projected establishment at the mouth of

the Columbia as the emporium to an immense commerce, as
a colony that would form the germ of a wide civilization, that
would, in fact, carry the American population across the
Rocky Mountains and spread it along the shores of the
Pacific."

Jefferson, who had sent out the Lewis and Clark expedition, heartily
endorsed this project, as did also his Cabinet. In prosecution of
Astor's purpose, on April 12, 1811, the Tonquin, the precursor of an
intended "annual vessel," bringing partners, clerks, voyageurs, and
artisans, as well as material and merchandise, crossed the bar of the
Columbia and cast anchor. Point George, as it had been named by
Broughton, was selected as a site for the embryo metropolis, and
was renamed Astoria, after the great commoner whose enterprise it
represented. Here, after the Tonquin had sailed away to its tragic
fate, the little colony proceeded to establish itself. A fort, a stone
mansion, and other buildings were erected, and a schooner, the
Dolly, was constructed and launched. The colonists did some trading
with the neighboring Indians but delayed to reach out into the
surrounding country until the arrival of Wilson Price Hunt, who was
bringing an expedition overland and was to establish suitable trading
posts en route. Hunt, who was an American and the chief partner
under Mr. Astor, was to be in charge at Astoria. While engaged in
their work of construction, the colonists were disturbed by rumors
that their rivals, the Northwest Company, had entered their territory
and established a post on the Spokane River. This rumor was
confirmed when a canoe came down the Columbia flying the British
standard, and a gentleman, stepping ashore, introduced himself as
David Thompson, an astronomer and a partner of the Northwest
Company. McDougal, who was temporarily in charge, was, like
several of Astor's partners, a Scotchman, and a former Northwest
employé. This visitor, therefore, was treated as an honored guest
instead of as a spy, which he really was. However, it was determined
that David Stuart should at once take a small party and set up a post
as a check to the one on the Spokane, which he did at Oakinagen.
ASTORI
A IN
1811.
BASED
ON A
PRINT
IN
GRAY'S
"HISTO
RY OF
OREGO
N."

Another interruption was occasioned by the shocking news of the

massacre of the Tonquin's crew by Indians and the destruction of
the vessel. To grief at the loss of their friends was added fear of the
Indians, who they now suspected were plotting against them.
However, McDougal's wit served and saved them. He threatened to
uncork the smallpox, which he professed to hold confined in a bottle,
and so gained the fear of the Indians, and the title, "The great
smallpox chief."
After a gloomy winter, Astoria was cheered in the spring by the
arrival of Hunt and his party. These, after a journey the account of
which reads like a romance, through sufferings of all kinds and over
difficulties all but insurmountable, reached their destination, haggard
and in rags.
 The arrival, soon after, of the annual vessel, the Beaver, with
reinforcements and supplies, cheered them all and made possible
the establishment of interior posts. The Beaver proceeded to Alaska,
in compliance with an agreement between Astor and the Russian Fur
Company, which had been made with the consent of both
governments; and Hunt went with her. The absence of Hunt, which
was prolonged by untoward events, proved fatal to the Astoria
enterprise. Just as the partners from the several posts were bringing
to the rendezvous the first-fruits of what promised an abundant
harvest in the future, McTavish, another Northwest partner, surprised
Astoria's people with the alarming news that war had been declared
between the two countries, and that he was expecting a British
armed vessel to set up a Northwest establishment at the mouth of
the river. Without waiting for the appearance of this vessel, without
any attempt to send their treasure inland, and although the Astor
Company was in a stronger trading position than its rival, McDougal,
chief factor in Hunt's absence, sold out to McTavish all Astor's
property for one third its value. Opposition was offered by some of
the partners and the American clerks were furious, but Hunt's
ominous absence dampened opposition and cleared McDougal's way.
It is significant that McDougal soon after received a valuable share in
the Northwest Company. Had Astor been there he would have
"defied them all." "Had our place and our property been fairly
captured I should have preferred it," wrote Mr. Astor to Hunt, who
doubtless shared the spirit of his chief. Shortly after the sale, a
British officer took formal possession of the country in the name of
his Britannic Majesty, and Astoria became Fort George. Although the
treaty of Ghent restored the status ante bellum, Oregon remained
for many years in the actual possession of England, through the
occupation of its chartered companies. Mr. Astor's desire to reoccupy
Astoria received no backing by the government and so no American
settlement was even attempted until Captain Wyeth's venture at Fort
William in 1832, which proved futile.
FORT
VANCO
 UVER,
1833.

This change from American to British possession was marked by a

transfer of the metropolis from Fort George to Fort Vancouver. When
Dr. John McLoughlin, upon the absorption of the Northwestern by
the Hudson Bay Company, in 1821, was sent out as "Chief Factor of
the Columbia River Territory," he declared that the chief post should
be as central as possible to the trade; that after leaving the mouth
of the river there is no disadvantage in going to the head of
navigation; and that a permanent settlement must be surrounded by
an agricultural country. These considerations which took McLoughlin
to Vancouver are those which to-day determine the commercial
strength of Portland, across the river from Vancouver. Thus Fort
George sunk to a subordinate position. After the boundary was
determined a new American town sprung up under the old name
Astoria, where there are large salmon canneries.
Vancouver, with the outlying posts scattered throughout the
territory, was the centre of a semi-feudal organization, and its life
was picturesque and full of charm.
Within the palisades was the residence of the Chief Factor
("Governor" by courtesy), surrounded by those of the other
gentlemen servants of the Company; together with the stores,
offices, and all other important buildings. Between the fort and the
river lay a clean, neat, and decorous village of about forty log
houses, occupied by the inferior servants of the Company, who
were, for the most part, French Canadians. Nearly every man, from
the "Governor" down, had an Indian wife; for no white woman had
as yet set foot in Oregon. One of these servants writes: "They all
had Indian women, never more than one; old Dr. McLoughlin would
hang them if they had." The farm, blacksmith's shop, and other
productive activities at Vancouver not only furnished the subordinate
posts of the Company, but provisions were sent to Alaska, exports
were made to the Hawaiian Islands, and the American settlers were
dependent upon this post for many of their supplies. Not only was
Vancouver the trading centre, it was also the "heart and brains of
Oregon Territory." The post hospital offered relief to American
settlers as well as to the subordinate posts. Here was established
the first school in the territory. The services of the English Church
were regularly maintained, and opportunity was offered to
missionaries of all denominations to hold service. An annual dispatch
kept open communication with the outside world and brought books
and papers from the centres of civilization.
The central figure and inspiring genius of Vancouver was Dr.
McLoughlin, who was a striking and remarkable character. The
remoteness of his post, combined with a self-reliant nature, made
him practically independent of his superior officers in Montreal or
London. He was indeed, absolute monarch of all the territory west of
the Rocky Mountains. But the "good doctor," though firm in
character, was a benevolent and a beneficent despot. "Standing over
six feet, six inches, in height, he was of commanding presence, with
courtly, yet affable manners." Red man and white man alike revered
and loved him, for to each alike he was kind, and at the same time
just. He was the soul of hospitality and every traveller found at
Vancouver a ready welcome to a seat at the rich but temperate
board in the common dining-hall, and a bed in the doctor's house.
Library, horses, and boats were all at the visitor's command. This
spirit of hospitality, joined to a freedom from national prejudice,
characterized the attitude of McLoughlin towards the missionaries
and other American immigrants who ultimately began to come into
the territory. There was scarcely a party which was not indebted to
him for material assistance in getting started, as well as for a
courteous welcome at the fort. Some indeed owed their lives to him
and the other officers at Vancouver, and once at least their prompt
help was in marked contrast to the indifference of the American
settlement. To this service the missionary records bear constant
testimony, and Lieutenant Frémont, "the pathfinder," says in his
report: "I found many American Emigrants at the Fort. Others had
already crossed the river to their land of promise—the Willamette
valley."
 We must now follow these American immigrants, for with them the
political dominance is to pass from Great Britain to the United
States, and the metropolis to move from Vancouver to the Falls of
the Willamette. Curiously enough, McLoughlin in his own course will
typify this transition.
The very first settlers in the Willamette Valley were servants of the
Hudson Bay Company, who settled there by the advice and with the
assistance of McLoughlin, who from the first had properly estimated
the value of this river and valley. He himself took possession of the
falls, with the adjacent land, and held them as a personal claim,
"until such time as there should be established a government which
could give him title." The town which he developed on this site he
called Oregon City.
The first American settlers on the Willamette were the Methodist
missionary party, under Jason Lee, which crossed the plains in 1834.
To these McLoughlin gave material aid. Of the Canadians, Lee's
nephew writes: "They gave us a very polite and generous welcome
to the best they could set before us."
Lee's mission was to the Indians, but meeting with great
discouragement in this direction, he turned his attention to the more
interesting task of forming a political state, which should be
American and also Methodist. The missionary work was not
abandoned, but only subordinated. In furtherance of his political
plans, Lee secured both money and immigrants from the eastern
States and invoked the protection of the United States Government.
Since 1820 there had been a party in Congress, representing a
sentiment in the country outside, which desired to abrogate our
treaty with England and establish our government over the whole of
Oregon Territory. But notwithstanding an "Oregon fever," developed
by Lee and others, the United States was not yet ready for any
action with regard to the new territory. In the meantime
immigrations from the western States had brought to the Willamette
Valley a number of people differing in spirit from the missionaries
and not at all in harmony with them. These after a while
outnumbered the adherents of the Mission. Hence arose three
parties in the Valley of the Willamette, two American and one British.
The new American party was in favor of forming a provisional
government, which should maintain order until the boundary
question now burning between England and America should be
decided. The missionary party accepted this as an evil less than the
rule of the Hudson Bay Company, which was the only established
authority. The Canadians wanted only quiet. As a result, in 1845 was
completed the organization of an independent commonwealth, which
recognized the sovereignty of neither America nor Great Britain, but
which allowed every man to retain his individual citizenship under
either government until the territorial question should be settled.
Against the wish of most of the missionary party, but upon the
insistence of the more liberal Americans, the plan was extended so
as to include the country north of the Columbia River, and
McLoughlin was invited to unite in this organization. The Chief Factor
thought it wise to put the property of his Company under the
protection of a government which would probably be formed
whether or no, and therefore he entered the organization.
The seat of the new government was called by the legislature,
"Willamette Falls," but the place was afterwards incorporated under
the name of Oregon City given it by McLoughlin, its founder.
There had long been disaffection in England over McLoughlin's
liberal attitude towards the Americans. A climax was reached when
Lieutenants Warre and Vasouver, who came to the Columbia River
shortly after the formation of the provisional government, reported
McLoughlin to be a disloyal subject, if not an unfaithful servant. The
Chief Factor's defence was complete and he was not without friends,
both in the Council of the Company and in the House of Commons.
However, moved by a combination of considerations, he resigned his
office, retired to Oregon City, and, after the settlement of the
boundary question, became a citizen of the United States. For this
much-vexed boundary question was settled by treaty in 1846. Polk
was elected upon the platform, "Fifty-four forty, or fight." But more
moderate counsels prevailed, and a compromise was made upon the
forty-ninth parallel of latitude. This determination of the boundary
line had as a result the extinguishing of the Hudson Bay trade on the
Columbia River, and Vancouver was purchased by the United States
for an army post, which is still maintained. A town has also grown up
outside the reservation.
Seldom has fate been more ironical than in its treatment of Dr.
McLoughlin. Driven from Vancouver for his kindness to the
missionaries, he was now defrauded of his claim at Oregon City by
the missionary party, and to accomplish this iniquity anti-British
prejudice was appealed to, in concealment of the fact that the
doctor had applied for American citizenship. After his death,
restitution was made to his children. Some of his descendants now
live in Portland.
In presenting a portrait of Dr. McLoughlin to the Oregon Pioneers,
in 1887, on behalf of the city of Portland, Judge Deady said: "He
stands out to-day in bold relief as the first man in the history of this
country—the pioneer of pioneers."
With the passing of Vancouver, Oregon City became the metropolis.
And when Oregon was erected into a Territory of the United States,
in 1848, Portland was as yet only "a place twelve miles from Oregon
City."
Shortly after the incidents mentioned at the opening of this chapter,
Overton sold his interest to F.W. Pettygrove. A year later Lovejoy and
Pettygrove erected a business building, known as the "shingle store,"
on what is now the corner of Front and Washington streets. Hitherto
known as "the village" or "Stumptown," the little settlement was now
dignified with the name of Portland. Lovejoy, who was a native of
Boston, wanted to call the town after his birthplace, but Pettygrove,
who was equally loyal to Maine, preferred Portland, and the tossing
of a coin gave the choice to Pettygrove. What a pity they could not
have compromised on the Indian Multnomah! Lovejoy, who was a
man of education and had been prominent in the provisional
government, sold his interest in the future city to Benjamin Stark
and eventually died a poor man. Other transfers of interest made
Daniel Lounsbury, Stephen Coffin, and W.W. Chapman partners with
Stark in the ownership of the town site, and under these four men
began the active development of the town. This development,
however, soon met with a decided check from two events which in
turn led to the subsequent upbuilding and supremacy of Portland.
CITY
HALL,
PORTL
AND.

The massacre of Whitman and his companions at Walla Walla by

the Cayuse Indians led to a war of vengeance, which drew almost
every man who could bear arms away from normal pursuits.
Portland contributed a company of infantry. The movements of the
troops, which rendezvoused at Portland during this war,
demonstrated its superiority over the city at the falls as a point of
arrival and departure with regard to the Columbia River. This
discovery was to influence the future location of the metropolis.
The other event mentioned was the discovery of gold in California.
The immediate effect of this discovery was a stampede from Oregon.
Portland contained at one time, it is said, but three adults. Soon,
however, the demand for provisions in California opened up a
lucrative trade in the products of the fertile Willamette Valley and
drew men back to the soil. This California trade afforded an
opportunity to develop Portland's advantages which the Cayuse war
had emphasized, and which Lovejoy suspected when he said, "I
observed the masts and booms of vessels which had been left there
and it occurred to me that this was the place for a town."
PORTL
AND IN
1850.

Up to 1848, the annual arrivals in the Columbia had ranged from

three to eight vessels. In 1849 there were more than fifty arrivals.
The shore of the Willamette at Portland was lined with all kinds of
vessels, and wharfs and warehouses were in great demand.
It is upon this command of the two waterways, with her superior
port, that the permanent commercial supremacy of Portland rests.
The most conspicuous name in connection with this development of
Portland's shipping interests is that of John H. Couch. In 1840
Captain Couch brought into the Columbia the first American trader
which had crossed the bar since the Wyeth expedition. This was the
brig Maryland, from Newburyport, Mass. After subsequent voyages
he brought his family from Newburyport and settled in Portland, in
1849. In partnership with his brother-in-law, Captain Flanders, he
built wharfs and warehouses and established the first regular
shipping business in the city. The first brig sailing from Portland to
China, Emma Preston, was dispatched by Couch & Co.
Such has been the development of Portland shipping that it is now
well up among the great ports of the country. Last year (1900),
according to the annual review by the Oregonian, it was ahead of
Philadelphia and Baltimore. Its wheat shipments (15,858,387
bushels) exceeded those of San Francisco, and more than equalled
the combined shipments of Tacoma and Seattle.
THE
PORT
OF
PORTL
AND.

Henry Villard's great genius suffered no aberration when he

selected Portland as the centre of Pacific coast transportation. For
not only does this city command the waterways, but it is also the
great railway centre. Four transcontinental systems, beside local
lines, make the Union Station their actual terminus. The Hotel
Portland, one of Villard's many projects, should be to Portlanders a
memorial of Villard's brilliance and public spirit, as to the tourist it
offers, with its elegance and comforts, a suggestive contrast to the
camp of the early traveller.
 JUDGE MATTHEW P.
DEADY.

VIEW
OF
PORTL
AND,
1900.

To conclude from Portland's rapid growth and commercial

supremacy that it is a typical "western" town, would be to strike
wide of the mark. One must go east from Portland to find the typical
characteristics, good and bad, of a western town. Portland's
character was largely formed before the railway came, for it had a
population of nearly twenty thousand before there was connection
by rail with the United States. This population was made up of the
influx from the Willamette Valley, whose civilization had been deeply
impressed by the religious and educational establishment at its
foundation, and of a good class of immigrants coming directly from
the eastern States. A characterization of Portland by Judge Deady, in
1868, is illuminating: "Theatrical amusements never ranked high.
There is no theatre house in the town fit to be called such. On the
other hand, church-going is comparatively common."
 A
CORNE
R IN
CHINA
TOWN.

As early as 1849 some citizens of Portland organized an

association, elected trustees, and built a school and meeting-house
at a cost of over two thousand dollars. This was the first enterprise
of the kind on the coast. Within a few years all the prominent
religious denominations were represented by houses of worship. The
earliest of these buildings were those of the Methodists and
Congregationalists. The Methodists, Roman Catholics, and
Episcopalians also supported institutions of learning and of charity.
No single religious denomination or individual clergyman has exerted
such a commanding influence in the religious development of the
city as to warrant any attempt at discrimination. It may be less
invidious if two among the many citizens who have influenced the
thought and ministered to the higher non-ecclesiastical life of the
city should be briefly noticed. Matthew P. Deady, who was prominent
in the territorial government of Oregon, and whose was a controlling
mind in framing both the organic and statute law of the State, was,
upon the admission of the State, appointed Federal Judge, which
office he held until his death. Upon his appointment he secured the
location of the court at Portland, and identified himself with the city.
The city, too, became identified with him, inasmuch as the act of its
incorporation passed the Legislature as it came from his hand. Judge
Deady ever strove to promote the higher interests of Portland,
through his important office, which he filled with great ability;
through the institutions of the Episcopal Church, of which he was an
honored member; and through the various channels which offer
themselves to the public spirited citizen. His monument, perhaps, is
the Public Library, which, with its fine building, is largely the result of
his interest and efforts; although much of the money for the building
was directly derived from a bequest.
THE
PORTL
 AND.

When it is known that the Oregonian has been published in

Portland practically since the foundation of the city, and that it is
deemed by competent judges to be the best edited newspaper west
of the Atlantic coast, the conclusion is not far away that the man
who has been the editor and master mind of that journal for more
than thirty years must have wielded an immense influence upon the
thought and opinion of Portland and the Pacific Northwest. That man
is Harvey W. Scott.
It is needless to say, these two men do not stand alone. C.E.S.
Wood, Esq., might be named as one who has contributed more than
any, perhaps, to the development of the city in the appreciation of
and interest in art. Judge George H. Williams, who was Attorney-
General in Grant's Cabinet, might be cited as an example of those
who have served the nation as well as the city. Others, too, have
shared in making Portland, but space forbids even the mention of
their names.
With almost a hundred thousand inhabitants, drawn from all parts
of the world, and with a "Chinatown" in its midst, the social
character of Portland has, of course, changed since 1868. And yet
Judge Deady's characterization given then would fairly hold good to-
day. This means, of course, that Portland is eminently conservative,
with the advantages and disadvantages of conservatism.
In externals, Portland is an attractive city, with the trees in its
streets and the lawns about its houses and its wonderful roses. Its
early architecture is poor, but many of the recent buildings,
municipal, ecclesiastical, commercial, domestic, and general, are not
only large and imposing, but good. The city is beautifully situated,
with the rivers at its feet and the wooded hills behind it, and in the
distance the snow mountains, of which the finest and the favorite is
Hood. Portland sits to-day mistress of the North Pacific, and with
historic and prophetic reasons for expecting to be the metropolis of
the whole Pacific coast. If the sceptre slips from her, it will be only
because she lacks the faith, the courage, and the enterprise to enter
into her inheritance.
 SAN FRANCISCO

BY THE WEST GATE OF THE WORLD

"City of gold and destiny"

"With high face held to the ultimate sea."

By EDWIN MARKHAM

If Xenophon had journeyed westward from Athens, pressing

beyond the amber caverns of the Baltic, beyond the tin mines of
Thule, out past the Gates of Hercules, exactly west, across an ocean
and a continent, the next thalatta of his men would have saluted the
Pacific at the Golden Gate from the low, shifting sand-hills of the
unrisen San Francisco. For the violet-veiled city of Athene and the
gray-draped city of St. Francis are in one line of latitude.
San Francisco crowns the extremity of a long, rugged peninsula, a
little north of the centre of California,

"The land that has the tiger's length,

The tawny tiger's length of arm,"
the land that stretches from pine to palm,

"Haunch in the cloud-rack, paw in the purring sea."

The one break in the mountain wall of the California Coast Range is
the Golden Gate, the watery pass that leads from San Francisco to
the Pacific. Spurs and peaks and cross ridges of this mountain chain
would at long range seem to encompass the city round about; but,
on nearer view, the edging waters on three sides make her distinctly
a city of the sea.
Looking from the bay, past the fortified islands of the city, one may
see San Francisco to the west, rising in airy beauty on clustered gray
hills. At night the city hangs against the horizon like a lower sky,
pulsing with starry lamps. By day it stretches in profile long and
undulating, with spires and domes climbing up the steeps from a
shore lined with the shipping of every nation—felucca, ironclad,
merchantman, junk, together with bevies of tiny busybody craft, all
of them circled and followed by slow-swinging gulls.
VIEW
NORTH
WEST
FROM
SPREC
KELS'
BUILDI
NG.

For years after the magnificent, all-inclusive claims of the Cabots at

Labrador in 1497, nothing was known of the west coast of North
America. Cabrillo felt his way along it in 1542, claiming it for Spain.
In 1579, Francis Drake, fleeing from plundered Spanish galleons,
tarried for repairs beside Cape Reyes, the Cape of Kings, and
claimed the country, as New Albion, for Elizabeth of England.
Although anchored in a cove within a mile of San Francisco Bay, he
doubtless sailed away without guessing its existence behind the
forest-covered mountains.
In 1602, Vizcaino, charting the west for Spain, as Gosnold was
mapping the east for England, made stay in Drake's old anchorage,
and named it the Port of San Francisco.
Notwithstanding the reiterated desire of the Spanish Crown that
Mexico, or New Spain, should set about colonizing upper California,