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UNIT 2
CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION

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 THE CELL
• It is the smallest unit of life.

• It is the smallest building block that makes up all living organisms.

• A cell has all the physical & chemical components needed for its own
maintenance, growth & division.

• Physical components: these are the cell organelles, i.e. generally the cell
membrane, cytoplasm & the nucleus.

• Chemical components: include its genetic material (DNA), oxygen, nutrients,

etc. 3
 The cell cntn’d
• The cell is capable of independently carrying out all the activities necessary for
life.

• It should be no surprise therefore that very small living things such as bacteria
are made up of only one cell.
• i.e. They are unicellular.

• The cell has certain specialised structures that carry out specific functions.
• These structures are called organelles.

• For instance, chloroplasts in plant cells contain chlorophyll (a green pigment)

involved in photosynthesis. 4
 The two types of cells
Animal cell Plant cell

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 Structural differences between plant & animal cell

Plant cell Animal cell

Larger and regular in shape Smaller and irregular in shape

Have a cell wall made of cellulose Have no cell wall present

Have a permanent shape determined Shapes vary as there is no cell wall

by the cell wall
Have large vacuole Have small or no vacuole. If present,
it is small & temporal
Have chloroplasts Have no chloroplasts
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FUNCTIONS OF CELL ORGANELLES

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Cell wall

• It is found only in plants.

• It is a thick wall made of cellulose that surrounds the cell membrane.
• It is non-living.
• It is fully or freely permeable i.e. it allows substances to pass through without
hindrance.

Functions
• It gives the shape, strength & rigidity (firmness) to the cell.
• Due to its turgidity, the cell wall prevents the cell from bursting due to turgor
pressure.
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• Turgor pressure: It is the force within the cell that pushes the plasma/cell
membrane against the cell wall when more water enters the cell by osmosis.
• At this point, the cell is said to be turgid or it has attained turgidity.

• In young plant cells, the cell wall is flexible & elastic, but tough & inelastic in
mature plant cells.

• Elasticity: It is the capability of a material to resume its normal shape

spontaneously after it has been contracted, dilated/stretched, or distorted.

• Inelasticity: The incapability of a material to retain its normal shape after it has
been contracted or stretched.
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Cytoplasm

• It is a jelly-like transport fluid found in the cell.

• This is where all cell organelles are found.
• It contains water, enzymes, sugars, amino acids, vitamins & lipids.

Functions
• It holds cell organelles.
• It is a place where many chemical reactions take place.
• For instance, metabolic reactions such as respiration; making of proteins for the
cell, etc.

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Nucleus

• It is the centre of activity for the cell.

• It is enclosed in a membrane called a nuclear membrane.

Functions
• It regulates/control metabolism (chemical reactions) in the cell i.e. it controls all
cellular activities.
• It regulates reproduction (cell division).
• It determines the shape, size & function of the cell i.e. it controls cell
development.

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Vacuole

• It is a sack bound by a membrane in the cell.

• It acts as a storage deposit for dissolved solutes, water & waste products.
• In a plant cell, the vacuole is generally large.
• However, it is either small & temporal or absent in an animal cell.

Functions
• It acts as a storage of excess water, dissolved solutes & waste products.
• It maintains cell firmness by exerting an outward pressure, due to the volume of
its contents.

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Chloroplasts

• These are found in photosynthesizing plant cells.

• They contain a green pigment known as chlorophyll & enzymes involved in
photosynthesis.

Functions
• It is the place where photosynthesis takes place.
• Acts as a storage for starch.

NB: Animal cells do not contain chloroplasts & thus are incapable of
photosynthesizing.
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Mitochondria

• This is the power house of the cell.

• It is responsible for energy production i.e. where respiration takes place.
• It contains enzymes that control respiration for energy production.
• Why should respiration be a controlled process?

NB: Cells with high rates of respiration have many mitochondria to provide
sufficient energy.

• For instance, the muscle cells of an athlete contain vast numbers of

mitochondria.
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Ribosomes

• These are sites where protein synthesis takes place.

• They are found in large numbers in all cells.

• They may be found freely floating in the cytoplasm (in prokaryotic cells) or
attached to the rER (in eukaryotic cells).

• rER: stands for rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

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 CELL SPECIALISATION
• Multicellular organisms begin their life as a cell during fertilization (i.e. the
fusion of sperm & the egg).
• This cell then undergoes repeated cell division, in a process called mitosis,
resulting in an adult organism.
• Each cell division produces two daughter cells.
• These two new daughter cells may undergo the same process of cell division to
produce more cells.

NB: Usually, one of the two daughter cells grows, & changes shape & structure.
• These physical changes coupled with the chemical changes that take place in the
cell cytoplasm make this particular cell to become adapted to only one particular
function.
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 Cell Specialization cntn’d
• The cells is said to have undergone specialization.
• Under normal circumstances, the cell loses its potential to undergo cell division.

• The body of an adult organism contains many specialized cells.

• These carry out important functions for the survival of the organism.
• Cell specialization is important in that it increases the efficiency of body
processes. 17
EXAMPLES OF SPECIALIZED CELLS

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 Root hair cells
• These are cells with tiny projections that
form the outer layer of young roots.

• Function: Absorption of water & mineral

salts from the soil.

• Structural adaptation: Have an out-growth

(projection) from the peripheral layer
which increases the surface area for
maximum absorption.
• It also has a thin cell wall to facilitate
osmosis & diffusion.
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 Xylem vessel
• This is a vessel that forms part of the
transport system (vascular bundle) in plants.
• Function: To conduct water & mineral salts
from the roots towards the upper part of the
plant.
• These vessels also provide mechanical
support to the plant.
• Structural adaptation: Consists of dead
hollow tubular cells arranged end to end to
ensure a continuous unbroken column of
water.
• The thickened cell walls have lignin for
strength, thus preventing collapse &
distortion of the plant. 20
 Phloem vessel
• The phloem vessel, unlike the xylem vessel, is a
living tissue that forms part of the plant transport
system (vascular bundle).
• Function:transports soluble organic compounds made
during photosynthesis and water to parts of the plant
where needed (Translocation).
• Structural adaptation: Consists of cells called ‘sieve-
tube members’ and ‘companion cells’.
• Sieve-tube members have porous ends called ‘sieve
plates’ that allow sap to move diffuse easily from cell
to cell.
• Companion cells run adjacent to sieve-tube members
and are connected by a number of channels called
‘plasmodesmata’. 21
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 Ciliated cells
• These form the lining of all nasal/air passages &
the wind pipe (trachea) down to the lungs.
• Function: Help in sweeping mucus with dust &
bacteria out of the lungs back to the throat to be
swallowed.
• If you smoke then the hairs die & the mucus
builds up leading to the well known smoker’s
cough.
• Structural adaptation: have tiny ‘hairs’ called
cilia that serve to drive out the mucus.
• NB: Ciliated cells are also found in the fallopian
tube where they move sperm or egg for
fertilization.
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 Muscle cells
• Function: They bring about movement in the
body.
• i.e. Movement of the skeleton (skeletal
muscle), pumping of the heart (cardiac muscle)
& movement of food down the alimentary
canal (smooth muscle).

• Structural adaptation: They contain elongated

structures called myofibrils.
• Myofibrils contain thick filament (myosin) &
thin filament (actin).
• These upon contraction, bring about the
contracting & shortening of the muscles, &
hence movement. 24
 Red blood cells
• Function: Transport oxygen around the body.
• Structural adaptation: have a thin cell membrane to facilitate the diffusion
of oxygen gas (i.e. short diffusion distance).
• Have a disk-like shape that increases the diffusion surface area for
oxygen.

• NB: In Sickle cell anaemia, a condition of shortness of oxygen in blood,

the red blood cells are deformed (i.e. they lose their disc-like shape) &
thus can not absorb oxygen properly.
• Red blood cells have a compound called haemoglobin that helps in
transportation of oxygen.

• Haemoglobin: Is a red pigmented protein molecule which comprises of

four subunits (efficiency) each containing an iron (Fe) atom bound to a
heme group.
• Oxygen is bonded to the iron & is transported as Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3)
compound in blood. 25
 White blood cells
• These are the cells of the body’s immune system i.e.
provide immunity against infection.

• Function: Involved in protecting the body against both

infectious disease and foreign invaders by:
 Ingesting foreign materials and cellular debris.
 Destroying infectious agents and cancer cells.
 Producing antibodies.

• Structural adaptation: Have a nucleus, are capable of

motility (mobility/movement).

• NB: All white blood cells are produced and derived from
multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as
hematopoietic stem cells. 26
 Goblet cells
• These are columnar epithelial cells that are
modified to secrete a gel-like fluid called mucin.
• Mucin has the ability to attract water forming a
protective barrier called mucus.

• The gel-like mucus protects the underlying

epithelial layer of the digestive & respiratory
tract from drying out, pathogens, & mechanical
damage.
• i.e. It forms a protective barrier between the
hydrochloric acid & the epithelium in the
stomach.

• The epithelium is a thin, soft, continuous,

protective layer of cells that form the inner lining
of surfaces of the body. 27
 Nerve cells
• These are highly specialized cells that have thin wire-like extensions of the cytoplasm.
• They form the active component of the nervous system.
• They are also known as neurons.
• Neurons are capable of transmitting information/messages in the form of nerve impulses
around the body.
• They communicate with each other as well as with other cells through electric signals (nerve
impulses) which in turn allow effector organs to respond to the appropriate stimulus.

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 Nerve cells cntn’d
• For instance, when you accidentally touch a hot surface, nerve cells called receptor cells at your finger
tips pick up/ detect the stimulus (i.e. change in temperature).

• The stimulus stimulates the sensory neuron to send electrical impulses to the relay neuron which is
located in the spinal cord of the Central Nervous System (CNS).

• Relay neurons form a connection between sensory neurons & motor neurons (A.K.A. effector
neurons) found in the muscle cells.
• The motor neurons carry out the appropriate response to the stimulus received.
• Hence they are called effector neurons i.e. they effect the response.

• Without even having to think about it you spontaneously remove your hand from the hot surface.
• NB: It is the CNS that is involved, & not the brain.
• This is a simple reflex reaction i.e. not much involvement from the brain, but coordinated through the
CNS.

• NB: Stimulus→ Receptor cells → Sensory neuron → Relay neuron (spinal cord; CNS) → Motor
neuron → Response. 29
 Palisade mesophyll cells
• In simpler terms, these are leaf cells i.e. they
are found in leaves.

• Palisade cells have a tough cellulose cell wall

which strengthens the cells.

• They contain the largest number of

chloroplasts.

• This makes them the primary site for

photosynthesis i.e. converting the energy in
sunlight to the chemical energy if
carbohydrates (glucose).

• The glucose formed by photosynthesis is

preferably stored as starch grains in the
cytoplasm of palisade mesophyll cells. 30
 Egg cells
• These are female reproductive cells.
• They are comparatively larger than any other cell in the human body, including sperm cells.
• They contain yolk as a store of energy.
• This store becomes the immediate energy supply for the newly formed offspring after
fertilization.
• Egg cells are produced in the ovaries of females & once matured they are transported to the
fallopian tube where fertilization by a sperm may occur.

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 Sperm cells
• These are a very specialised set of cells.

• They are the male reproductive cells produced and stored in the testicles in
animals.
• Sperm cells are motile i.e. they can move.
• Their movement is facilitated by the presence of a tail known as a
flagellum.
• The flagellum is adapted for swimming.
• The head of the sperm carries genetic information (DNA) from the male
parent to the female parent. (NB: Male → Female).

• This is known as sexual reproduction i.e. both male & female reproductive
cells are involved.
• Recall: In asexual reproduction, only one parent reproductive cells are
involved (sweet potato/potato growing).
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 Development
• This is an increase in the complexity of an organism as a result of the formation
of new cells & the repair of old worn-out cells.

• Development results in an organism changing form.

For instance, a seed germinating into a seedling & later growing into a mature
plant;

A zygote growing into a foetus then a body before growing into an adult human
being.

• The body of an organism is able to change form & get bigger, becoming more
complex. In short, development. 33
 Cell, Tissue, Organ, & System
• Recall: A cell is the smallest building block that makes up all living organisms.

• A group of specialized cells (similar cells) performing a specific function form a tissue.
• For instance, cells in the muscle form a muscle tissue & they perform one specific function i.e.
movement.

• NB: These muscle cells are similar cells; they are specialized; they perform a singular specific
function.
• All three qualities are necessary for cells forming a tissue.

• A group of tissues working together for a common purpose form an organ.

• For instance, the skin is an organ made up of tissues such as epidermis, dermis, nerves & fat layer.

• All these tissues form the skin & their common purpose is to insulate/protect the body from harsh
external environment.

• Other examples of organs: Liver (detoxification), brain (intellectual purposes), lungs (breathing →
Respiration), heart (pumping blood around the body), etc. 34
 Cell, Tissue, Organ, & System cntn’d
• Different organs linked to a certain function form a system.

Examples
• The circulatory system (heart & blood vessels) → for carrying blood around the body.

• The digestive system (for digestion), the respiratory system (for breathing/respiration),
the reproductive system (for reproduction), the CNS (for coordination & response),
etc.

• Task: Find out what organs make up these systems.

• Different systems form an organism.

• NB: Cells → Tissues → Organs → Systems → Organism

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MAGNIFICATION

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 Calculating the magnification of a specimen
• Specimen: It is a sample of cells, tissues, organs, or organism that represents a
whole for study purposes.

• For instance, blood sample, insect, etc.

• Specimens come in different sizes.

• Some are big enough to be seen with a naked eye (e.g. insect), while others are too
small to be seen (e.g. cell).

• When asked to draw these specimens or objects, we can use a microscope or handy
lens to see clearly in order to make a perfect drawing.

• NB: However, the drawings are no longer of the same size as the specimens, hence
we need to calculate magnification. 37
 Magnification cntn’d
• Magnification: is defined as how big is the drawing (image size) compared to the
specimen/object (actual size).

• i.e. 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒

• Image size: length/diameter of drawing;

• Actual size: length/diameter of specimen.
• NB: All measurements should be in millimetres (mm).

• When given the drawing & its magnification (say ×500), we can calculate the actual
size of the specimen.
• Use a ruler to measure the length/diameter of the drawing (image size) in millimetres
(say 50 mm).
• Then use the equation;
• 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
= 50𝑚𝑚
500
= 0.1 mm 38
THE END!

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