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10 Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates

10.1 Curves Defined by Parametric Equations

Suggested Time and Emphasis

1 class Essential material

Points to Stress

1. The definition of parametric equations and techniques of sketching parametric curves.

2. The conversion from parametric equations to functions y = f (x) or x = g (y), and vice versa.

3. The parametrization of a given curve in different ways.

4. The investigation of families of parametric curves.

Quiz Questions

• TEXT QUESTION What is the difference between a function and a parametric curve?
ANSWER Many answers are possible. The graph of a function can be made into a parametric curve, but not
necessarily the other way around. A function has to pass the vertical line test and a parametric curve does
not.

• DRILL QUESTION Sketch the parametric curve x(t) = sin t y(t) = t 2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ π . Is the point (1, π4 ) on this
curve?
ANSWER y 1, π4 is not on the curve.
10
8
6
4
2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 x

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 CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES

Materials for Lecture

• Discuss the process of going from a parametric curve to y y

a relation between x and y. The figure at right is meant

to help students see the way that parametrized curves are x t
sketched out over time. First sketch (x (t) , y (t)),
starting at the initial point (the origin), and moving up
and to the right. (Try to keep your speed constant.) Stop x

when the cycle is about to repeat. Then, to the right of

the figure, graph the motion in the y-direction only.
Then, below the figure, graph the motion in the
x-direction. That graph is sideways because the x-axis is
horizontal.
This process can be viewed for trigonometric functions t
and cubic polynomials using TEC.

• Describe the difference between a function curve and a parametric curve, perhaps using Example 5.
Caution students to take appropriate care in sketching parametric curves, especially concerning questions
of range and direction.

• Show how reversing the functions x (t) and y (t) yields the inverse of a given relation. For example,
x (t) = t x (t) = sin t
is the sine function, so is the general arcsine function. Display an inverse
y (t) = sin t y (t) = t
for f (x) = x 3 + x + 2 graphically using parametric equations. Note that this would be difficult to do
algebraically.
√
• Give an example of a curve such as x (t) = cos (et), y (t) = sin 3 t . This curve essentially fills the
square −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 in that the curve gets arbitrarily close to any point in the square. It can
√
be simulated using TEC or a calculator with the approximations e ≈ 2.7183, 3 ≈ 1.7321. The range
0 ≤ t ≤ 200 should be sufficient to convey this property to the students. Next, describe the family of
√
functions x (t) = a cos (et), y (t) = b sin 3t . If the students are following well, perhaps consider the
√
family x (t) = cos (at), y (t) = sin 3t . The students might be tempted to conclude that every member
√
of this family has the property, but in some cases (such as a = 2 3) they do not.

• Foreshadow polar coordinates. Show how x (t) = r cos t, y (t) = r sin t is a circle of radius r. Draw
x (t) = f (t) cos t, y (t) = f (t) sin t for f (t) = t and f (t) = 1 − sin 2t.

Workshop/Discussion

• Revisit Examples 2 and 3 using different parametric representations and speeds, such as x (t) = sin et ,
y (t) = cos et , ln π ≤ t ≤ ln 3π .
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 SECTION 10.1 CURVES DEFINED BY PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

• Have the students get into groups, and have each group try to come up with the most interesting looking
parametric curve. After displaying their best ones, perhaps show them the following examples:

x2 y2
• Describe two different parametrizations for the ellipse + = 1.
9 4
• Have the students sketch the following curves using the parametric equations, and then eliminate the
parameters to find Cartesian equations. Visualization using TEC could be helpful.
(a) x (t) = 12 t 3 − 2t, y (t) = 12 t 3 − 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3
(b) x (t) = 12 t 3 , y (t) = 12 t 3 − 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3
• Have the students try to guess the shape of x (t) = t, y (t) = sin t. Then have them consider the family
x (t) = at, y (t) = sin (bt). If they are following well, additional parameters can be added: x (t) = at + c,
y (t) = d sin (bt).

Group Work 1: Name that Parametrization

This exercise gives the students some practice playing with parametric curves. Before starting the activity,
make sure that the students know how to graph a simple set of parametric curves using their technology.
ANSWERS
1. (a) Every time sin t completes one cycle, cos 2t completes two cycles.
(b) y = 1 − x 2 − x 2 = 1 − 2x 2

3. They are the same if considered as curves in the 5. (a) Use the technique of Exercise 4.
plane. The second one “moves” twice as fast as (b) y
the first. f
4. (a) The curves are inverses of each other (or, they 2
are symmetric about the line y = x). f Ð!

(b) The curves are inverses of each other (or, they 2 x

are symmetric about the line y = x).

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 CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES

Group Work 2: How Many Ways Can You Trace That Curve?
This exercise gives students practice in finding different parametrizations for the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4, using
the forms x (t) = a1 cos a2 t, y (t) = a3 sin a4 t.
ANSWERS
1. Each of a1 and a3 must be ±2.
2. Once around counterclockwise, starting at (1, 0).
3. a2 = a4 = 2, a2 = a4 = 3
4. Once around clockwise, starting at (1, 0).
5. a2 = 3, a4 = −3; a2 = 5, a4 = −5

TEC Group Work 3: Lissajous Figures

This activity is an extension of Exercise 51. Students can use a calculator or TEC Module 10.1A to generate
the figures.
ANSWERS
1. y All the graphs look the same. The speed at which they are traced out
1
varies. If a1 and a3 are fixed, then the graph is determined by the ratio of
a2 to a4 .

0 1 x

a2 = 2, a4 = 3
2. y y y y
1 1 1 1

0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x

a2 = 1, a4 = 1 a2 = 1, a4 = 2 a2 = 1, a4 = 3 a2 = 1, a4 = 4
As a4 increases, the figure doubles back on itself more in the vertical direction.
3. y y y y
1 1 1 1

0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x

a2 = 1, a4 = 1 a2 = 2, a4 = 1 a2 = 3, a4 = 1 a2 = 4, a4 = 1
The behavior is different, but analogous. This time, the doubling back doesn’t always yield a new loop.
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 SECTION 10.1 CURVES DEFINED BY PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

4. It is a parabola. This is because x = cos 2t = cos2 t − sin2 t = 1 − 2 sin2 t = 1 − 2y 2 .

5. y 6. y
1 1

0 1 x 0 1 x

a2 = 3, a4 = 2 a2 = 7, a4 = 5
b = 2π . x goes through three cycles, and y b = 2π . x goes through seven cycles, and y
goes through two. This can be seen by goes through five. This can be seen by
tracing the graph with a finger, paying tracing the graph with a finger, paying
attention first to the cycles in the x-direction, attention first to the cycles in the x-direction,
then to the cycles in the y-direction. then to the cycles in the y-direction.

7. y y There are several reasons the graphs

1 1
look different. One reason is that
cos (2π − x) = cos x while
sin (π − x) = sin x, so the
0 1 x 0 1 x
functions have different symmetries
on the interval 0 < t < 2π .

a2 = 2, a4 = 3 a2 = 5, a4 = 7

TEC Group Work 4: Aperiodic Curves

This exercise introduces students to the idea of a curve that gets arbitrarily close to every point in a region.
Students can use a calculator or TEC Module 1.7A to generate the figures.

ANSWERS

1. y 2. y 3. y

1 1 1

0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x

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 CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES

4. y y y

1 1 1

0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x

√ √
x (t) = 2 cos 5t y (t) = 1.5 sin 7t

y y y

1 1 1

0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x

√ √
x (t) = 2 cos 2t y (t) = 1.5 sin 18 t
If p and q are relatively prime, then the curve is aperiodic.

Homework Problems
CORE EXERCISES 7, 13, 21, 25, 31
SAMPLE ASSIGNMENT 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 21, 25, 31

EXERCISE D A N G
3 × ×
7 × ×
9 × ×
11 × ×
13 × ×
15 ×
21 × ×
25 ×
31 ×

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 GROUP WORK 1, SECTION 10.1
Name that Parametrization
1. Consider the graph of the following set of parametric equations:

x (t) = sin t y (t) = cos 2t 0<t <∞

(a) Graph this curve with your calculator. Why does it look the way it does?

(b) Write this equation in the form y = f (x). (Hint: Use the formula cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ.)

2. Try to guess what the graph of the following set of parametric equations looks like, and then see if you are
right.
x (t) = sin 2t y (t) = cos 6t 0 ≤ t ≤ 4π
These curves are called Lissajous figures, and are used in electrical engineering to see if two signals are
“in sync”.

3. Consider these two sets of parametric equations:

x (t) = t y (t) = sin t 0<t <∞
x (t) = 2t y (t) = sin 2t 0<t <∞
What is the relationship between their associated curves?

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 Name that Parametrization

4. (a) Consider these two sets of parametric equations:

x (t) = t y (t) = sin t 0<t <∞
x (t) = sin t y (t) = t 0<t <∞
What is the difference between their associated curves?

(b) Given any set of equations of the form

x (t) = t y (t) = f (t) 0<t <∞
What does the graph of the set of equations
y (t) = t x (t) = f (t) 0<t <∞
look like?

5. (a) Use a calculator to check that f (x) = x 5 − 3x 3 + 5x + 2 is one-to-one.

(b) Graph its inverse function f −1 .

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 GROUP WORK 2, SECTION 10.1
How Many Ways Can You Trace That Curve?

Consider the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4. We want to construct parametric curves x (t) = a1 cos a2 t, y (t) = a3 sin a4 t,
with a1 , a2 > 0, which will trace this circle in different ways.
1. What must be the values of a1 and a3 so that (x (t) , y (t)) lies on the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4?

2. Describe the motion of the particle if you set a2 = a4 = 1 and let 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π . What is the starting point?

3. What choice of a2 and a4 will trace the circle twice in a counterclockwise direction starting at (1, 0)?
What choice will trace the circle three times in a counterclockwise direction?

4. Describe the motion if you set a2 = 1, a4 = −1 and let 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .

5. What choice of a2 and a4 will trace the circle three times in a clockwise direction starting at (1, 0)? What
choice will trace the circle five times in a clockwise direction?

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 GROUP WORK 3, SECTION 10.1
Lissajous Figures
The curves with parametric equations x (t) = a1 cos a2 t, y (t) = a3 sin a4 t are called Lissajous Figures. In
this exercise, we fix a1 = a3 = 1 and try to determine the effects of varying a2 and a4 on the shape of the
figure.
1. Compare the graph of x (t) = cos 2t, y (t) = sin 3t to the graph of x (t) = cos t, y (t) = sin 1.5t. Is there
any difference in the shapes of the two figures? Is there any difference in how they are traced out? Now
look at the graph of x (t) = cos 4t, y (t) = sin 6t. Can you make a generalization about figures where the
ratio of a2 to a4 is some fixed value?

2. Fix a2 = 1 and look at the graphs with a4 = 1, 2, 3, and 4. What happens as a4 increases? Can you predict
how the figure will look if a2 = 1 and a4 = 5?

3. Now fix a4 = 1 and look at the graphs with a2 = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Do you see the same behavior as in
Problem 2?

4. The figure with a4 = 1 and a2 = 2 should have a familiar geometric shape. What is this shape? Can you
use a trigonometric identity for x = cos 2t to explain why the figure looks the way it does?

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 Lissajous Figures

5. Now set a2 = 3 and a4 = 2. Starting at t = 0, what is the upper value b of t so that the figure is traced out
exactly once between t = 0 and t = b? How many cycles does x (t) = cos 3t go through between t = 0
and t = b? How many cycles does y (t) = sin 2t go through? Can you see how these cycles are reflected
in the shape of the Lissajous figure?

6. Set a2 = 7 and a4 = 4 and do the same analysis as in Problem 5.

7. Repeat Problems 5 and 6 with the values of a2 and a4 reversed. Can you explain the difference in the
shapes of the curves in this case?

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 GROUP WORK 4, SECTION 10.1
Aperiodic Curves
Consider the parametric curve
√
x (t) = 2 cos 2 t ≈ 2 cos (1.4142 t)
√
y (t) = 1.5 sin 3 t ≈ 1.5 sin (1.7321 t)

Use technology to help you to answer the following questions.

1. Graph this parametric curve for 0 ≤ t ≤ 13. What set of points in the plane will be “hit” by this curve?

2. Next graph this curve for 0 ≤ t ≤ 100. What is your guess now?

3. Finally, graph this curve for 0 ≤ t ≤ 200. What is your guess this time? How is your guess related to the
rectangle −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, −1.5 ≤ y ≤ 1.5?

4. If we extend this curve’s domain far enough, it can be made to come as close as we like to any desired
√ √ √ √ √
point in the rectangle. Try this activity again, replacing 2 with 5 and 3 with 7. Now try it with 2
√ √ √
and 18. Given p and q, how can you tell whether or not the curve has this property?

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LABORATORY PROJECT Running Circles Around Circles
There is an interesting history behind epicycloids that can be used in introducing this project. After Coperni-
cus showed that the sun didn’t move around the Earth, astronomers believed that the planets moved in circular
paths around the Sun. Gradually, mathematical analysis showed that this wasn’t quite the path of the plan-
ets. So they posited that the “circular paths” were actually epicycles: small circles rolling around larger ones.
(See Problems 5–6 in the project.) More accurate numerical data showed that this theory was also wrong. It
was then believed that the paths were double-epicycles: circles rolling around circles rolling around circles.
Finally, Kepler (using Brahe’s data) showed that the paths were elliptical, and then Newton, using his newly
developed calculus, derived laws to discover reasons why Kepler’s discovery was true.

Problems 1–3 are relatively straightforward, with 4–6 being more of a challenge for the students. Any of the
first three questions could easily be included in a regular assignment. I recommend assigning at least the first
four problems if this is to be an extended project, with the remaining problems being used as extra credit if
they are not mandatory. It would be helpful to have several large drawings of the various curves on paper
ready for students who come to office hours with questions. (TEC can be helpful in answering Problems 2–4
and 6.)

The final results will have some excellent figures, and particularly nice examples should be distributed to the
class.

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10.2 Calculus with Parametric Curves

Suggested Time and Emphasis

1–2 classes Essential material (parametric equations, tangents) and recommended material

Points to Stress
1. Computation of the line tangent to a parametrically defined curve (using the Chain Rule).
2. Integration used as a tool to determine the area enclosed within a parametric curve, or several such curves.
3. Computation of the arc length of a parametrically defined curve.

Quiz Questions
• TEXT QUESTION Why does the parametric curve x = f (t), y = g (t) have a horizontal tangent line when
dy/dt = 0 and dx/dt = 0, and not the other way around?
ANSWER dy/dt gives the rate of change in the vertical direction.
• DRILL QUESTION Let x (t) = t 3 + t, y (t) = t. Compute d 2 y/dx 2 at the point (2, 1).
3
ANSWER − 32

Materials for Lecture

• Develop the formula for the area enclosed by a parametric curve.
• The graph of x (t) = t 2 − 5, y (t) = sin (t), −20 ≤ t ≤ 20 is a chain-like series of loops. Demonstrate
the method of computing areas of parametric curves by finding the area enclosed by the leftmost loop
(between t = −π and t = π ).
• Compare the relative difficulty of computing the arc length of a semicircle given in rectangular coordinates
√
[y = 1 − x 2 , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1] and the arc length of a semicircle given in polar coordinates [x (t) = cos t,
y (t) = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π].
• Observe that the parabola y = x 2 is concave up, and the parabola y = −x 2 is concave down. Poll the
students to see if they think the parabola x (t) = t 2 , y (t) = t is concave up or concave down. Use second
derivatives to resolve the issue. (d 2 y/dx 2 = −1/t, showing that the bottom part is concave up, and the
top part is concave down.)

Workshop/Discussion
• Analyze the parametric curve x (t) = 2 sin 2t, y (t) = 2 sin t. Find the equation of the tangent line when
t = π3 . Find the points where the tangent line is vertical and the points where it is horizontal.
• Foreshadow polar coordinates by finding the area of the ellipse 14 x 2 + y 2 = 1 using the parametrization
x = 2 cos θ, y = sin θ.
• Find the surface areas of the ellipsoids obtained by rotating the ellipse x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ (a > b),
0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π about both the x-axis and the y-axis.
• Compute the length of the curve x = 2 cos2 θ, y = 2 cos θ sin θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π . Check the result by graphing
the curve and showing that it is a circle of radius 2.
• Present a straightforward parametric arc length problem such as x = t 2 + 1, y = t 2 − 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2.
√
(The computations work out nicely for this one, giving L = 4 2.)
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 SECTION 10.2 CALCULUS WITH PARAMETRIC CURVES

Group Work 1: Clarifying Areas

WARNING This is quite challenging.

This exercise is for classes that have covered parametric curves, and the areas enclosed by parametric regions.
It develops the equations of an involute of a circle. String, tape, and paper towel rolls should be made available
to the students for Problem 2.
Note that although θ is the parameter, the curve is not given in polar form because the cow is tethered to a
point on the circle of radius r rather than to the origin.
The picture in the answer to Problem 2 below may be given as a hint for Problem 4. A1 + A2 can be computed
by integrating y dx from θ = π to θ = π2 and subtracting off the integral from θ = 0 to θ = π2 .

ANSWERS

1. πr

2.

3. The coordinates of T are (r cos θ , r sin θ ). Since T P was unwound from arc T A, T P has length
r θ, the length of the sector. Also, ] P T Q = ] PT R − ] QT R = π
2 − θ, so P has coordinates
x = r cos θ + |T P| cos ] P T Q = r cos θ + r θ cos π
2 − θ = r (cos θ + θ sin θ) and
y = r sin θ + |T P| sin ] P T Q = r sin θ + r θ sin π
2 − θ = r (sin θ − θ cos θ).

π 3r 2 πr/2 πr/2 r
4. A3 = 14 π (πr )2 = . A 1 + A2 = y dx − r y dx = y dx. Using the results from
4 −r −r

1
0 π π3
Problem 3 gives A1 + A2 = r 2 −θ cos2 θ − 2 θ2 − 1 sin θ cos θ − 16 θ3 + 12 θ = r2 + .
π 2 6
5 3 2
Therefore, the total area is 6π r .
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 CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES

Group Work 2: You Gotta Have Heart

ANSWERS
1. y
1

0 1 2 x

_1

2
(−2 sin t cos t − sin t)2 + cos t + cos2 t − sin2 t
π
2. 0 2π (sin t) (1 + cos t) dt
π √
= 0 2π (sin t) (1 + cos t) (2 cos t + 2) dt
3. First consider the expression under the square root sign:

(−2 sin t cos t − sin t)2 = 4 sin2 t cos2 t + 4 sin2 t cos t + sin2 t
2
cos t + cos2 t − sin2 t = cos2 t + 2 cos3 t − 2 sin2 t cos t + cos4 t − 2 sin2 t cos2 t + sin4 t

Now use the relations

sin2 t + cos2 t = 1
2
sin4 t + 2 sin2 t cos2 t + cos4 t = sin2 t + cos2 t =1

2 sin2 t cos t + 2 cos3 t = 2 cos t sin2 t + cos2 t = 2 cos t

to obtain the result.

4. When rotated about the x-axis, the three-dimensional shape looks like a rounded Valentine heart.

Homework Problems
CORE EXERCISES 7, 11, 17, 25, 31, 41, 65
SAMPLE ASSIGNMENT 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 25, 29, 31, 39, 41, 65

EXERCISE D A N G EXERCISE D A N G
3 × 25 × ×
5 × 29 ×
7 × 31 ×
9 × × 39 ×
11 × 41 ×
13 × 65 ×
17 × ×

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 GROUP WORK 1, SECTION 10.2
Clarifying Areas
Clara the Calculus Cow has been tied to a silo with radius r by a rope just long enough to reach a point
diametrically opposite to the point where she is tied, as depicted in the diagram below:

If she goes to the left side of the silo, she can stand far away from the silo, while at the right side, she can only
graze right next to the silo. We wish to compute the total area of the region upon which she can graze.
1. How far from the silo can sweet Clara stand when she is to its left?

2. Draw a picture of the shape of the region that she can reach. It may help to actually tie a string to a
cardboard tube, and model the situation.

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 Clarifying Areas

3. Assume that a very long rope is wound around the circular silo, and then unwound while being held taut.
The curve traced by the end of the rope is called the involute of the circle. If the silo has radius r and
center O, as shown in the figure below, and if the parameter θ is chosen as in the figure, show that the
parametric equations of the involute are
x = r (cos θ + θ sin θ) y = r (sin θ − θ cos θ)

r
¬ P

O x

4. What is the area of the grazing region available to Clara the Calculus Cow?

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 GROUP WORK 2, SECTION 10.2
You Gotta Have Heart
Consider the parametric curve x = (cos t) (1 + cos t), y = (sin t) (1 + cos t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
1. Draw a graph of this curve.

2. Set up an integral to find the surface area formed by rotating the portion of the curve in the first quadrant
about the x-axis.

π /2 √
3. Show that your first integral can be simplified to 0 2 2π (1 + cos t)3/2 sin t dt. Compute this integral
to find the surface area.

4. Explain the title of this exercise.

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LABORATORY PROJECT Bézier Curves
This project can be used as an out-of-class assignment, or as an extended in-class exercise. Most commercial
drawing programs have the facility to create Bézier curves, although they often aren’t identified as such. A
group project on Bézier curves should certainly include some figures illustrating the varied forms these curves
can take.

598

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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Way
to Win
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Way to Win

Author: William Le Queux

Release date: October 21, 2012 [eBook #41129]

Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Nick Hodson of London, England

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WAY TO WIN

***
William Le Queux
"The Way to Win"
 Foreword.
I do not think anyone who has studied the progress of the
War with care and patience can deny that, during the past
few months, a mighty change has come over the aspect of
the great struggle.

A year ago, when I wrote “Britain’s Deadly Peril,” the

fortunes of the Allies appeared to be at the lowest ebb.
Indomitable energy and perseverance have since worked
wonders. To-day we plainly see that the conquering march
of the Teuton has been arrested and the process of forcing
back his hordes has begun.

Britain—the fierce Lion of Britain—is at last fully aroused to

the momentous issues which hang on the decision, and has
flung herself with all her unrivalled tenacity, and with a
unanimity unparalleled in our history, into the titanic
conflict.

Russia, France, and Italy have responded to the call with

equal nobility. To-day the Allies are more than a match for
the Hun in manpower; they are equal to them, at least, in
the supply of munitions, the lack of which so badly
hampered our cause last year. Finally, the great new masses
of the British Army, straining at the leash, are eagerly
awaiting the signal to hurl themselves at the foe for his
destruction.

The British Navy, silent and invincible, holds the seas of all
the world, and Germany and her Allies are to-day feeling
the pinch of war in most deadly earnest. Prices in enemy
countries are rising by leaps and bounds; the food supply is
beginning to fail; money is lacking; the value of the mark is
falling, and there is every prospect of a shortage of men—
cannon-fodder they were once called by Germans—in the
near future.

We are on the eve of great events.

Already we hear the ominous rumblings which prelude the

breaking of the storm. The great clash is at hand which, for
good or ill, shall settle the destinies of our world for many
generations to come—perhaps for ever.

Can we doubt the issue? Assuredly not. The spirit of our

dear old Britain and her glorious Allies is unbroken, and still
unbreakable. Cost what it may, they are fully determined to
smash, once and for ever, the accursed Teuton attempt to
dominate the world and throw back the clock of civilisation
for centuries. There will be no faltering and no turning back
on Great Britain’s part until that great end is attained.

Courage and resolution and a hard fist are the keys of the
situation for the Allies. We have them in abundant measure.
And unless Britain is unthinkably false to all the traditions
that have made her great, our triumph in the Near To-
morrow is assured.

William Le Queux.

Devonshire Club, London, March, 1916.

 Chapter One.
The Rift in the Clouds.

If we could imagine a being from another planet dropped

suddenly on this old earth of ours and left with the aid of
maps to figure out for himself the real position of the world-
war, we could readily imagine that it would seem to him
that the Germans were winning “hands down.”

Perhaps there would be a good deal of excuse for such a

belief.

He would see, in the first place, that the Germans had

overrun and captured the whole of Belgium except one very
small portion. He would see that the greater part of
Northern France was in their undisputed possession. He
would see that they had driven the Russians from Poland
and penetrated far within the boundaries of Russia proper.

He would also see that they had almost completely

conquered or cajoled the Balkan States, and that German
trains were running from the North Sea to Constantinople.
He would see them holding apparently impregnable lines of
defences against forces at least as strong as their own—
probably much stronger. He would see them or their Allies
holding up British forces in Persia and in Mesopotamia. He
would see the Italians apparently firmly held along the
mountainous boundaries of the Austrian Empire. He would
see that a great British army had been driven out of
Gallipoli. He would unquestionably come to the conclusion
that the cause of the Allies was a lost cause, and would
probably conclude that the best thing they could do would
be to make a speedy peace on the best terms the victors
could be induced to grant.

And he would be unquestionably wrong in his deduction,

even though we admit the accuracy of his facts.

For, like the thoughtless and the whimperers among us, he

would for want of knowledge leave out of his consideration
certain hard facts which, properly considered, would reverse
his judgment. Like the thoughtless and the whimperers, he
would judge too much from mere appearances and would
fail to see the real essential things. He would fail to see the
wood for the trees; he would mistake the shadow for the
substance. Just so the German people to-day are making
the mistake of thinking that the occupation of enemy
territory, a mere temporary advantage gained through
treacherous preparation for war at a time when they
professed to be working for peace, constitutes the victory
that must be theirs before they could hope to gain the
world-dominion upon which, as we now know, their hearts
and the hearts of their rulers have been set for the last
forty years.

For eighteen months the civilised world has been struggling

against the most formidable menace to its liberties by which
it has ever been faced. For eighteen months we have seen
the enemy apparently going on from triumph to triumph.
We have seen the devastation of Belgium, the crucifixion of
a little people whose only wish was that they should be
allowed to live their happy lives in peace, and whose only
crime was that they dared to resist the Prussian bully. We
have seen the martyrdom of Poland. We have seen the very
heart of France—incomparable Paris—threatened with
destruction.
We have seen the stately memorials of a great civilisation,
such as Germany has never known and never can know,
wrecked and plundered. We have seen innocent civilians
murdered in hundreds, women and children sent to death or
a far worse fate. We have seen the ruin of Serbia. We have
lost thousands of our best and bravest sons. We have seen
the tragic failure in the Gallipoli Peninsula—itself a mere
incident of the world-war, yet one of the greatest military
undertakings upon which we have ever embarked. We have
failed conspicuously to protect the little nations in whose
cause we drew the sword, and who have gone down in ruin
under the iron heel of a ferocious tyranny beside which the
worst oppression of historic times seems mild in
comparison. Can it be a matter of wonder if the cry, “How
long, O Lord, how long?” goes up from the fainting heart of
outraged civilisation?

Yet the darkest hour is ever the herald of the dawn; and if
to-day we try with a single mind to penetrate the fog and
mystery with which this greatest of all wars is surrounded,
we shall see that there is really and truly a rift in the clouds.
No doubt we have still many days of storm and stress
before us. The end is not yet. But, in the noble language of
the King, the goal is drawing into sight. The sun of victory is
not yet shining fully upon us, but none the less the dawn is
at hand. Already its first faint gleams are breaking in upon
our eyes; there are abundant signs, if we lift up our hearts
and our courage, that the long period of gloom and
depression is passing away.

Properly to understand the position as it exists to-day we

must look backward to the years 1870 and 1871, for in
those years was born the spirit of aggression and arrogance
which ever since has been the driving power of Germany.
After years of preparation, when so far as possible
everything was ready, Germany fell suddenly upon a France
torn by internal dissensions, weak through want of
preparation, and utterly unready for war. Naturally there
could be but one end to such a conflict, and a few short
months saw France helpless beneath the heel of the
invader. Germany emerged from that war with almost
incalculable profit, firmly imbued with the idea that she was
invincible, and convinced that at any moment she chose she
could reach out her greedy hands and grasp the sceptre of
European domination. Then, as she thought, she could with
safety enter upon a conflict with an England which had
grown over-rich and perhaps over-lazy. Then the real
enemy could be crushed, and the world-dominion of which
her megalomaniac rulers dreamed would be within her
grasp.

If a nation has determined upon war, there is never any lack

of excuse, and Germany chose her time well. Her blow fell
at a time when no single one of the Allies was prepared for
war. That fact alone fixes absolutely the responsibility for
the present appalling conflict, and in the days to come the
unanimous verdict of history will be that the War was
deliberately provoked by Germany through sheer greed and
lust of power.

For, be it remembered, there was no legitimate ambition

before Germany which she was not perfectly free to enjoy.
Her trade was free and unhampered, the seas were as open
to her use as to our own, she possessed vast colonial
dominions which gave her every opportunity for all the
legitimate expansion of which she could dream for centuries
to come. She had grown rich and prosperous in the exercise
of the freedom which she has ever been the first to deny to
others. No one menaced her or sought to do her injury. But
she was the nouveau riche among the nations. She had
been poisoned for a long course of years with the false
doctrine that the German was something essentially
superior to the peoples of other races, and she owes her
approaching downfall, which is as certain as the rising of to-
morrow’s sun, to the blind teachers of the blind who have
imbued her with that spirit of envy and arrogance which
may be as fatal to a nation as to an individual.

We all know only too well what happened when war broke
out. Germany, with her armies trained to the hour after
years of patient preparation, with her forces ready to the
last man and the last gun, shamelessly broke her plighted
word with the invasion of Belgium. She had counted that
there, at least, she would meet with no resistance; she
could not realise that a little people, even to save its
honour, would dare to oppose the onrush of her countless
hordes. In that she made her first and, perhaps, her
greatest mistake. Just as she thought that England would
not draw the sword for a “scrap of paper,” so she thought
that Belgium would not dare to resist.

We know now that she was wrong; we know, too, that the
heroism of the Belgians surely saved Europe in those first
days by gaining the priceless time which enabled France
and England to throw their scanty forces across the path of
the invader, which led ultimately to the great battle of the
Marne, that titanic conflict which surely and decisively
smashed once and for ever the German plans. In spite of all
that has happened since, in spite of the apparent victories
Germany has won, in spite of the territories she has
occupied, the defeat of the Marne marked the beginning of
her final overthrow.

But the peril was appalling. France, Russia, and Britain were
alike unprepared for war, short of men, short of munitions,
short of everything which would have enabled them at once
to meet the common enemy on anything like equal terms.
The days are gone for ever when victory can be won by
men alone; modern war is too machine-like in its
developments, the importance of supplies and organisation
is far too great to give a poorly equipped army the slightest
chance of success. Not men alone, but munitions are the
secret of success to-day, and every single advantage that
Germany has won since war broke out has been won by her
superiority in mechanical equipment. Her men, considered
individually, are certainly not the equals of either the French
or the Russians or the British; they have neither the dash of
the French, nor the dogged courage and endurance of the
Russians, nor the personal sang-froid and cool initiative of
the British. But Germany had the numbers and the
equipment, and to numbers and equipment alone she owes
such successes as she has gained.

Caught unprepared at the outset of war, the Allies were

naturally in a position which must well have seemed
hopeless. Germany reaped to the full the advantages which
she had sought in long preparation for war under the guise
of peace. Her armies plunged forward with resistless
momentum until they were within sight of the very gates of
Paris, and in the eyes of the world it was merely a matter of
time as to when she would occupy the French capital. Then
came Von Kluck’s amazing blunder, the swift stroke of the
French and British against the German right wing, and the
precipitate retreat which led to the defeat at the Marne.
From that day, in spite of apparent successes, the fortunes
of Germany have been on the wane.

There was no mistake about the reply of civilisation to the

German menace. France, Russia, and England threw down
the guage in the most unmistakable terms in the historic
declaration that neither would conclude a separate peace
without the others. That, we have now to recognise, is one
of the main facts which must operate most powerfully in
bringing about the final defeat of Germany. In no particular
can she hope to rival the resources of the Allies, and so long
as the Allies hang together they are unmistakably on the
road to final victory. It is for this reason that at the present
moment it is the main object of German diplomacy to sow
distrust and suspicion among the partners in the Quadruple
Entente. Their one and only hope—and they know it—is to
provoke a quarrel among the Allies which would not merely
rob the Allies of all hope of final victory, but would give the
Huns and their dupes a reasonable chance—indeed, more
than a reasonable chance—of snatching triumph from the
very jaws of defeat.

There is a school of croakers very much in evidence in

England at present who can see nothing of good in anything
which their own country has done and is doing. They remind
one of Gilbert’s

Idiot who praises in enthusiastic tone

Each century but this, and every country but his own.

They are, of course, always with us, but at the present

moment they are more than usually aggressive, and we
notice them perhaps more than is good for us. They are the
chief source of that dangerous form of pessimism which we
see exemplifying itself in a constant belittling of the
enormous efforts and the enormous sacrifices which this
country has made. According to these mischievous
propagandists, nothing we do or have done can possibly be
sufficient or right. The effects of this perpetual “calamity
howling” on our own people is bad enough; it is far worse
upon the peoples of the Allied countries and the neutrals,
because, not understanding our national peculiarities, they
are apt to take us at a wholly absurd valuation and to think
that, as our own people are constantly accusing us of
slackness in a war in which we have so much at stake, there
must be something in the charge. If plenty of mud is
thrown, some of it is tolerably sure to stick, and there can
be no doubt that the perpetual depreciation of British efforts
by people in this country has had a most dangerous effect,
and has, in fact, played the German game to perfection
both here and abroad.

Those who wish to form an adequate realisation of what

Britain has really done in the cause of civilisation should try
to take a longer view, and try also to throw their minds
backward to the condition of affairs which existed when the
declaration of war came eighteen months ago. They should
try, in fact, to learn something of the lessons taught by our
past history.

We can start with the indisputable and undisputed fact that

so far as the war on land was concerned this country was
entirely unprepared to take up the rôle it has since
assumed. That is a proposition which not even the
Germans, who are so ready to accuse England of having
caused the War, can very well dispute. Throughout our
history we have been a naval and not a military Power,
though it is of course true that, judged by the standards of
other days, we have now and again put forward very
considerable military efforts.

But it was many a long year since British troops had fought
on the Continent of Europe, and it is safe to assume that
the great majority of people in this country, had they been
asked, would have replied without hesitation that we should
never again take part in the land fighting in a continental
war.

Now it must be obvious to anyone who takes the trouble to

give the matter a moment’s thought that, for the purposes
of war as it is understood by the great military nations of
Europe, the British Army as it existed in August, 1914, was
hopelessly inadequate. Our real strength lay on the sea,
where it has always lain. It is true that, for its size, the
British force which was thrown into Flanders in the early
days of the struggle was perhaps the most perfectly trained
and equipped army that ever took the field.

But no one will contend that it was adequate in size, and we

know that the Germans regarded it as a “contemptible little
army” that was to be brushed aside with hardly an effort by
the German hordes. It consisted of perhaps 120,000 men,
and undoubtedly, as our French friends have generously
admitted, it played a part worthy of “the best and highest
traditions” of our race. But it was not an army on the
continental scale.

What has been done since? How have we taken up the task
of creating forces which might be regarded as
commensurate to meet the menace by which civilisation
found itself faced?

Our “contemptible little army,” thanks to the genius of Lord

Kitchener, has grown until to-day it numbers something in
the neighbourhood of four million men. That is a fact which
the world knows and recognises, and in itself alone it is
sufficient to refute the contention of those who are to be
found preaching in and out of season that Britain’s efforts
have been lamentably inadequate. Great armies are not to
be made in a day or a year, they do not spring fully armed
from the earth, and the fact that we, a naval rather than a
military Power, have in the course of eighteen months
raised and equipped forces on such a scale ought to be
sufficient to confound those shallow critics who are eternally
bewailing our supposed “slackness,” which, as a matter of
fact, has no existence outside their own disordered
imaginations. I do not believe there is to be found to-day a
military writer whose opinion is of any value who would not
agree that the effort which Britain has made is one of the
most stupendous in all military history.

In France, in Russia, and in Italy everyone whose authority

is regarded as having any substantial basis is agreed on the
point, and the Germans themselves, however they may
affect to sneer at our army of “hirelings,” know a great deal
too much about military matters not to recognise that one
of the very gravest of their perils is the growing military
power of England. That power will be exercised to the full
when the time comes, and it will assuredly be found to be
of the very greatest importance in bringing about the
overthrow of German hopes and ambitions.

We all know—the whole world knows—why the military

power of England has not yet reached its full majesty. We
all know that in the War of to-day a superabundance of
munitions is demanded which none could have expected
from the history of the past. Every form of military stores—
guns, rifles, shell, ammunition—all must be provided on a
scale of colossal magnitude.

It is the fact that Germany alone of all the warring nations

partly realised this, and in her careful preparations for a war
of her own seeking, for which she chose her own time,
accumulated in the days of peace such enormous reserves
of munitions as she hoped would render her to a large
extent independent of manufacture during the actual period
of fighting. It is certain that Germany hoped to overthrow
Russia and France in a series of swift, brief attacks without
trenching dangerously upon her reserve stocks. We know
now that she was wrong; but we know, too, that she came
within an ace of success.

That she realised her error and embarked upon the

manufacture of munitions on a vast scale is true, but none
the less it is also true that she cannot hope to compete in
this respect with the united resources of the Allies once they
get into their full stride. Slowly, perhaps, but none the less
surely, she is being overtaken even in the department which
she made almost exclusively her own, and the day is
coming when she will have not the remotest prospect of
keeping up an adequate reply to the storm of high
explosives which will break upon her lines east, west, north,
and south. When that day comes—and it may be nearer
than most of us think—we shall see the swiftest of changes
in the present position of the War. There will be an end at
last to the long deadlock in which we and our Allies have
been forced to act on the defensive.

Already, indeed, the change is in sight. Germany to-day, in

spite of her frantic struggles, is absolutely and firmly held in
a ring of steel. She is, in every real sense of the word, on
the defensive; her spasmodic attacks are purely defensive
in their origin and conception, and the steadily increasing
pressure of her foes must sooner or later find and break
through some weak spot in lines which are already seriously
extended and must soon wear thin.

I do not pretend for a moment that everything has gone as

well as we could wish; I do not pretend that there have not
been mistakes, delays, lack of decision, lack of foresight. No
war was ever fought without mistakes; we are not a race of
supermen. But I do say that we have made such an effort
as has perhaps never been made in history before to meet
a series of conditions of which neither we in particular nor
the world at large has ever experienced.

The nation that could wage war without making mistakes

would very speedily dominate the world.
If the Germans had not made mistakes at least as great as
those of the Allies, they would long ago have won a
supreme and crushing victory which would have left the
whole of Europe prostrate at their feet. Whereas what do
we see to-day? The plain, unalterable fact is that in her
sudden assault upon nations wholly unprepared for it
Germany has not won a single success of the nature which
is decisive. She did not succeed in “knocking out” either of
the enemies who really count, and she soon found herself
condemned to a long and dragging war of the very nature
which all her experts, for years past, have admitted must
be fatal to German hopes and ambitions. Germany has
always postulated for success swift and shattering blows;
she believed she could deal such blows at her enemies in
detail before she was defeated by a prepared unity against
which she must be powerless. She hoped to shatter France
before the slow-moving Russians could get into their stride,
and leave her ruined and crushed while she turned to meet
the menace from the East. She counted on winning the
hegemony of Europe before she could be checked by a
combination ready to meet her on more than level terms.
There she made the first and greatest of her mistakes, a
mistake from the effects of which she can never recover.

And will anyone contend that, in bringing the German

design to hopeless ruin, Britain has not played a worthy
part? Will anyone be found bold enough to assert that the
position on the Continent to-day would not have been very
widely different if Britain had chosen the ignoble part and
refused to unsheath the sword in defence of those great
principles for which our forefathers in all ages have been
ready to fight and to die? Will anyone venture to express a
doubt that, but for the assistance of Britain, France must
have been crushed? And, with France helpless and Britain
neutral, what would have been Russia’s chance of escaping
disaster?
I need hardly say that I do not put these suggestions
forward with any idea of belittling the part—the very great
and very heroic part—which has been played in the great
world-tragedy by France and Russia. But I do seriously
suggest—and French and Russian writers have been the
first generously to admit it—that England’s assistance has
made their campaigns possible.

If we have not done the terrific fighting which has been

done by France and Russia, we have at least borne a very
respectable share in the fray; we can leave others to speak
for us on this score. But we have supported our Allies in
other fields; we have, to a very large extent, found the
sinews of war; we have made of our land the workshop of
the Allies, and poured out a stream of munitions which has
been of the utmost value, even if it has not made all the
difference between victory and defeat. And, above all and
beyond all, we have, by our sea power, practically carried
the campaigns of our Allies on our backs. Thanks to our
unchallenged supremacy afloat, the Allies have been able to
move in all parts of the world with a security unknown in
any other war in history. While the German Fleet skulks in
the fastnesses of the Kiel Canal, and the German flag has
disappeared from the ocean highways of the world, the
ships of the Allies move almost unhindered on their daily
business, the endless supplies of men and munitions go to
and fro unchallenged except by the lurking submarines of
the enemy, which, for all their boastings, are powerless to
affect vitally the ultimate issue or to do more than inflict
damage which, compared with the targets offered them, is
practically of no significance.

Has our country anything to be ashamed of in the

contribution it has thus made to the war for the liberation of
civilisation from the domination of brute force? Assuredly
not. And when in the fullness of time the opportunity is
offered us for a more striking demonstration of what British
world-power means, I am confident that we shall see ample
proof that the spirit and temper of our race is as fine as
ever, and that we shall play a worthy part in the final
overthrow of the common enemy. In the meantime let us
make an end of the constant stream of self-depreciation
which is far removed from real modesty and self-respect;
let us do our part in that stern and silent temper which has
for all time been part of our great heritage.

Stern work lies before us; the long-drawn agony is not yet
even approaching its close. But we can best help forward
the end if we approach our task not with empty boasting,
not with perpetual whimperings and self-reproach, but with
the cool courage and dogged determination which have
carried us so far through the worst dangers that have
threatened us in the past, and which, if we play our part
without faltering, will yet bring us to a triumphant issue
from the perils which beset us to-day.
 Chapter Two.
Our Invincible Navy.

It is the brightest and most encouraging feature of the War

that British supremacy at sea is unchallenged and probably
unchallengeable by Germany.

It is true that the main German Fleet has not yet dared to
give battle in the open sea, and that the endeavours of
scattered units afloat have met with speedy disaster. It is
no less true that should the “High Canal Admiral” venture
forth from the secluded shelters in which the Imperial
German Navy has for so many months concealed itself, its
prospects of dealing a successful blow at the maritime
might of Britain are exceedingly slender.

None the less, it is incredible that, sooner or later, the

German Navy will fail to attempt what German writers are
fond of describing as a “Hussar Stroke.” We can
contemplate that issue—and we know our sailors do so—
with every confidence. In every single particular—in ships,
in men, in moral, and in traditions—the British Navy is
superior to that of Germany. Even without the powerful help
we should receive from our French and Italian Allies, British
control over the ocean highways is supreme.

A Radical journal, which for years past has been

conspicuous for its laudation of everything German, has
lately tried to make our flesh creep with tales of the
mounting in German warships of a monster gun—said to be
of 17-inch calibre—which was so utterly to outrange
anything we possess as to render our control of the North
Sea doubtful and shadowy.
It is strange to find a journal which, before the War, was
one of the chief asserters of the peaceful intentions of
Germany thus passing into the ranks of the “scaremongers.”
When the late Lord Roberts ventured, before the War, to
point out the dangers which lay before us, he was
denounced as an “alarmist.” Yet on the very doubtful
supposition that a single shell which fell into Dunkirk was a
17-inch missile the Daily News has built up a “scare” article
worthy only of a race of panic-mongers, and full of false
premisses and false deductions from the first line to the
last. Such are the changed views brought about by changed
circumstances!

But even supposing that the Germans actually possess a

17-inch naval gun, is the Daily News content to assume that
the Admiralty and the Government are not fully aware of
the fact and that they have taken no steps whatever to
meet the new danger? It is a literal fact that we have
always been an inch or two ahead of Germany in the calibre
of our biggest guns—the history of the Dreadnought fully
proves that—and it is incredible that we should suddenly be
caught napping in a matter on which we have led the world.
I leave out of consideration the purely technical question as
to whether such guns could by any possibility be fitted to
ships designed and partly constructed to take smaller
weapons; experts say that such a change would be
impossible without what would amount to practical
reconstruction.

Putting these considerations on one side, is the record of

our naval service such as to justify us in assuming that they
know less than they have always known of the plans and
intentions of the enemy?

Mr Balfour’s reply on the subject was plain and categorical;

the naval authorities know nothing of any such weapon, and
do not believe that it exists. In all probability we shall be
quite safe in accepting their estimate of the situation, and
whatever the facts may be the Navy may be trusted to deal
with new penis as they arise. After all, a Navy is not merely
so many ships and so many men armed with so many guns
of such and such a size. That is a fact which, however
imperfectly it is appreciated in Germany, is well known
here. Tradition and moral count even more afloat than
ashore; we possess both. A Navy whose chief achievements
have been the drowning of helpless non-combatants in the
infamous submarine campaign may hardly be said to
possess either.

For many months now the German flag has vanished from
the ocean highways of the world. For many months British
commerce has peacefully pursued its pathways to the
uttermost ends of the earth.

There have been times when the depredations of German

raiders, such as the “Emden,” caused some inconvenience
and considerable loss. There have been times when the
submarine campaign has apparently had a great measure of
success. But though many ships, with their cargoes and
with many innocent lives, have been sunk, nothing which
the German pirates could do was sufficient seriously to
threaten our overseas trade. Very soon the marauders were
rounded up and destroyed, and in a space of time which,
before the War, would have been deemed incredible the
seas were practically free for the passage of the ships of the
Allies.

In the early days of the War many good judges believed

that the German commerce raiders would have been as
effective against our overseas trade as were the French
privateers in the days of the Napoleonic wars. Certain it is
that it was the universal expectation that our losses in
mercantile tonnage would have been far more grievous than
has proved to be the case.

We see now that this expectation was unduly alarmist. But

it was entertained not merely by amateur students of war,
but by many of the sailors who have given a lifetime of
thought to the problems of warfare at sea. Every lesson
that could be drawn from history suggested that the life of
the German raiders would have been far longer than
actually proved to be the case. Those lessons, however,
were learned in the days when the war fleets were
composed of great sailing vessels which could keep the sea
far longer without fresh supplies than is possible to-day. Cut
off from any possible sources of regular supplies of food,
coal, and ammunition, the few German ships which
remained at liberty when war broke out were quickly hunted
down by superior forces and destroyed until, a very few
months after the outbreak of war, Germany’s strength afloat
was closely confined to the Baltic and a very small portion
of the North Sea.

Nothing like the achievements of the British Navy has ever

been witnessed in the history of war. Not even the most
enthusiastic believer in sea power could have dreamed of
such brilliant and striking successes; not even the most
enthusiastic admirer of the British Navy could, in his most
sanguine moments, have expected such results as have
been attained.

When we come to think of the expanse of ocean to be

covered, the services which the British Navy has rendered
to civilisation will be seen to be stupendous. Not merely
have all the German ships which were at liberty outside the
North Sea and the Baltic been hunted down and destroyed,
but the Grand Fleet, the darling of the Kaiser’s heart, the
object upon which millions have been poured out like water