Process Control Fundamentals (ECEE-5412) ppt

Aim: To understand the concepts of advanced industrial process

control.

Brain Storming Question:

What is the aim of control system?
By Geremu G. 1
 Chapter one

Review of Fundamental Process Control

Desired outcomes
 upon completion of this topic, students should:
Understand basic methods of modeling and analysis of dynamic
processes

By Geremu G. 2
 Revision on Control Systems
Classical Control Modern Control
System Modelling System Modelling
Transfer Function State Space Modelling
Block Diagrams
System Analysis
Signal Flow Graphs
Eigenvalue Analysis
System Analysis
Observability and
Time Domain Analysis Controllability
Frequency Domain Analysis State Transition Matrix Method
 Bode Plots, Nyquist Plots,
Nichol‟s Chart System Design
 Root Locus State Variable Feedback
techniques
System Design
Optimization techniques
Compensation Techniques
PID Control By Geremu G. 3
Introduction to process dynamics and control
A system is an interconnection of elements and devices for a certain purpose.
A Control System is a device, or set of devices that can able to manage, command,
direct or regulate itself or another system to achieve a desired objective.
System + Control = Control System
A control system can also be defined as an interconnection of components forming
a system configuration that will provide a desired system response.
Some of the basic components of control system includes:
The plant (or process) to be controlled
The controller (either hardware or software)
Actuator
Feedback element or sensor

By Geremu G. 4
 Cont.
A process is a series of interrelated tasks that, together, transform inputs into a given output.
 These tasks (processes) may be carried out by people, nature or machines using various resources
(inputs)
Input Process Output
 Process is also defined as a device, plant, or system under control.
How does the control mechanism works?
 Driver: controller
 Steering mechanism: final control element
capable of changing the course of travel
 Driver‟s hand: (actuator) that act upon the
steering mechanism (final control element)
 Automobile: plant (process)
 Actual course of travel (path): controlled variable
(controller output or measured variable)
 Desired course of travel (path): reference input
(command input)
 Driver estimation: measurement output
 Error: the difference between reference input and
measurement output
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 Basic components and variables in a process
The plant (process) to be controlled: is the device under control that is expected to
produce the desired output.
The controller: is the device that evaluate the system performance and decide the
corrective action to be taken (i.e. it guides the behavior of the system).
Actuator: a device that act upon the final control element in order to manipulate
(vary) the manipulated variable.
feedback elements (sensor or transducer): measure the controlled output and
convert or transform it to a suitable value so that it can be compared with the
reference input.
Controlled Variable (actual output): It is the quantity that is Controlled. usually,
controlled variable is the output of the control system.
Manipulated Variable: It is the quantity or the condition that is varied by the final
control element and has a direct effect on the value of controlled variable.
Disturbances: A signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the controlled
variable. It is an unwanted input of the system.
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 Review on Basic control Concepts
Manual control Example.
This shows a process with one
controlled quantity.
On the stream leaving the process,
there is an indicator to provide the
operator With information on the
current actual value of the controlled
variable.
The operator is able to inspect this indicator visually and, as a result, manipulate a
flow into the process to achieve some desired value or set point of the controlled
variable.
The set point is in the operator‟s mind, and the operator makes all of the control
decisions.
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 Cont..
Feedback control Example.
Here measuring devices are installed to measure
the actual values of the controlled variables.
These actual values are then transmitted to
feedback control hardware, and the hardware
makes an automatic comparison between the
Set points (or desired values) of the controlled
variables and the measured (or actual) values of
these same variables.
Based on the differences (“errors”) between the actual values and the desired values of
the controlled variables, the feedback control hardware calculates signals that reflect the
needed values of the manipulated variables.
These are then transmitted automatically to adjusting devices (final control elements) to
manipulate proper inputs to the process.
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 Cont..
Manual feedforward control Example.
In this case, as a disturbance enters the process
the operator observes an indication of the nature
of the disturbance entering, and based on the
entering disturbance the operator adjusts the
Manipulated variable so as to prevent any
ultimate change or variation in the controlled variable caused by the disturbance.
Here, the operator is an expert who knows the relationship between the nature (or type of
disturbance) and the manipulated variable in detail in order to provide a proper
manipulation of the variables.
The conceptual improvement offered by feedforward control is apparent. Feedback
control worked to eliminate errors, but feedforward control operates to prevent errors
from occurring in the first place.
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 Cont..
Automatic feedforward control Example.
In this case disturbances are shown entering
the process, and sensors are available to measure
these disturbances.
Based on the sensed or measured values of
the disturbances, the feedforward controllers
then calculate the needed values of the manipulated variables.
Set points that represent the desired values of the controlled variables are provided to the
feedforward controllers.
It is clear that the feedforward controllers must make very sophisticated calculations.
These calculations must reflect an awareness and understanding of the exact effects that
the disturbances will have on the controlled variables.
With such an understanding, the feedforward controllers are able to calculate the exact
amount of manipulated quantities required to compensate for the disturbances.
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 Process modeling..
Mathematical modeling
Any processes in a complex systems can be represented with a set of mathematical
equations known as mathematical model.
These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems for the process.
Design of control system involves developing a mathematical models for the system at
hand and performing cause and effect analysis between various variables of the process.
Analysis means finding the detailed relationship between different variables and
parameters within the process.
Modeling is the process of representing the behavior of a real system by a collection of
mathematical expressions and logics.
Models can be broadly categorized as either static or dynamic.
In static model there is no energy transfer
Systems that are static produce no motion, heat transfer, fluid flow, etc.
On the other hand a dynamic model has energy transfer that results in power flow.
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 Different kinds of models
The following mathematical models are mostly used.
Differential/ difference equation model
Transfer function model
State space model
Differential equation model
Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of process control
systems. It can be represented by the derivatives of system variables.
Follow these steps for differential equation model.
Apply basic laws to the given process of the system.
Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the
intermediate variable(s).
Example: Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure
(next slide). The circuit consists of resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical
elements are connected in series. The input voltage applied to this circuit is „vi‟ and the
voltage across the capacitor is the output voltage „vo‟.
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 Cont..

Which shows the process of obtaining the output (vo) from the input (vi) is
represented by a second order differential equation.
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 Transfer function model
Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of a systems.
The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the
ratio of Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of input by assuming all
the initial conditions are zero.
If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding
Laplace transforms are X(s) and Y(s).

The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown as below

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Laplace transform of basic signals

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 Cont..
Example
Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as
Where,
 vi(s): is the Laplace transform of the input voltage vi
 vo(s): is the Laplace transform of the output voltage vo
 The above equation is a transfer function of the second
order electrical system.
 The transfer function model of this system is shown
below

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 Mechanical Systems Modelling
There are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.
I. Translational mechanical systems
II. Rotational mechanical systems
Translational mechanical systems: Translational mechanical systems move along
a straight line and mainly consist of three basic elements. Those are mass, spring
and dashpot or damper.
Mass: is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy. If a force is applied on
a body having mass M, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This
opposing force is proportional to the acceleration of the body
Spring: is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring
K, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing
force is proportional to the displacement of the spring
Dashpot: If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force
due to friction of the dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of
the body By Geremu G. 17
Force balance

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 Example

Formulate a mathematical model for the translational mechanical system shown in

the following figure

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 Rotational mechanical system modeling
Rotational mechanical system modeling: Rotational mechanical systems move about a
fixed axis. These systems mainly consist of three basic elements. Those are moment of
inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.
moment of inertia: is the property a body to stores kinetic energy in rotational system. If a
torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is opposed by an opposing
torque due to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to angular
acceleration of the body.
Torsional spring: is the property a body to stores potential energy in rotational system. If a
torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the
elasticity of torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular
displacement of the torsional spring.
Dashpot: If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due
to the rotational friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular
velocity of the body.
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Torque balance

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 Electromechanical Systems modeling
Electromechanical system: consists of both electrical and mechanical systems.
Consider the armature controlled dc motor shown below.

Solution :

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 Dynamic process modeling

Dynamic system is a system with continuously changing parameters. Such

systems are complex and requires technical approaches for modeling.
The complexity is due to the material combinations and creation of new
components as well as energy conversions.
We see three main dynamic process under this topic
Chemical process (Blending process)
Fluid level system
Thermodynamic process (Stirred-Tank Heating Process)

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 Conservation laws
Theoretical models of chemical processes are based on
conservation laws.

Conservation of Mass
 rate of mass  rate of mass  rate of mass 
   
 accumulation   in   out 
Conservation of Component i
rate of component i  rate of component i 
  
 accumulation   in 

rate of component i  rate of component i 

   (2-7)
 out By  G.
Geremu
produced  24
 Conservation of Energy
The general law of energy conservation is also called the First
Law of Thermodynamics. It can be expressed as:
rate of energy  rate of energy in  rate of energy out 
   
 accumulation   by convection   by convection 

net rate of heat addition   net rate of work 

   
  to the system from   performed on the system 
 the surroundings   by the surroundings 
   

The total energy of a thermodynamic system, Utot, is the sum of its

internal energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy:

U tot  U int  U KE  U PE

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 The Blending Process
For a blending process shown in the figure below, total mass conservation equation is:
rate of accumulation   rate of   rate of 
   
 of mass in the tank  mass in  mass out 
dV
  w1  w2  w
dt
 d Vx 
 w1x1  w2 x2  wx
dt
Expanding the accumulation term using the “chain rule” for
differentiation of a product:
d Vx  dx dV
  V  x Which gives:
dt dt dt
dx dV
V   x  w1x1  w2 x2  wx
By Geremu G.
dt dt 26
 Cont..
Substitution of the mass balance in for  dV/dt in gives:
dx
V  x  w1  w2  w   w1x1  w2 x2  wx
dt
After canceling common terms and rearranging, more convenient model form is
obtained:
dV 1
  w1  w2  w 
dt 
dx w1 w2
  x1  x    x2  x 
dt V  V
This equation is the differential equation model of stirred thank blending process.
Here x1 and x2 >> percentage composition of component (1 && 2) respectively
w1 and w2 >> mass inflow rates of component (1 && 2) respectively
w and x >> are mass outflow rate and percentage composition of the solution
v >> volume of the total liquid in the tank.
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 Fluid Level System
The resistance R for liquid flow in such a pipe or restriction is defined
as the change in the level difference (the difference of the liquid
levels of the two tanks) necessary to cause a unit change in flow rate;
that is,

If the flow through this restriction is laminar, the relationship

between the steady-state flow rate and steady-state head at the level
of the restriction is given by By Geremu G. 28
 Cont..
The capacitance C of a tank is defined to be the change in quantity of
stored liquid necessary to cause a unit change in the potential (head).
(The potential is the quantity that indicates the energy level of the
system.)

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 Cont..
Since the inflow minus outflow during the small time interval dt is
equal to the additional amount stored in the tank, we see that

From the definition of resistance, the relationship between qo and h is

given by
The differential equation for this system for a constant value of R
becomes
Note that RC is the time constant of the system.
Taking the Laplace transforms of both sides of the above
equation assuming the zero initial condition,

If qi is considered the input and h the output, the transfer

function of the system is
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If, however, qo is taken as the output, the input being the
 Thermal Systems
For conduction or convection heat transfer,

The thermal resistance R for heat transfer between two

substances may be defined as follows:

The thermal resistance for conduction or convection heat

transfer is given by
Assume that the temperature of the inflowing liquid is kept constant
and that the heat input rate to the system (heat supplied by the heater)
to (H +
is suddenly changed from Hhi)
to where hi represents a small change in
the heat input rate. By Geremu G. 31
 Cont..
The heat outflow rate will then change gradually tofrom (H + ho)
to The
temperature of the out flowing liquid will also be changed from Δ𝜃)
to (𝜃+ to
For this case, ho, C, and R are obtained, respectively, as

Since the thermal conductivity and convection coefficients are almost

constant, the thermal resistance for either conduction or convection is
constant. The thermal capacitance C is defined by A capacity of storing heat
It is assumed that the tank is insulated to eliminate heat loss to the
surrounding air. It is also assumed that there is no heat storage in the
insulation and that the liquid in the tank is perfectly mixed so that it is at a
uniform temperature. By Geremu G. 32
 Cont..
Thus, a single temperature is used to describe the temperature of the liquid
in the tank and of the outflowing liquid.

The heat-balance equation for this system is

which may be rewritten as

Note that the time constant of the system is equal to RC or M/G
seconds. The transfer function relating u and hi is given by
By Geremu G. 33
 Solution of process models
Solution (Response) of Ordinary Differential Equations:
Most physical process are modeled by ordinary differential equations of different
orders.
Studying of the process dynamics requires finding the solutions of the process
models
Solution: means the response of the system to a given input signal usually test
signals like (impulse, step, ramp, etc)
The time response of a system consists two parts: transient and steady state
responses
Transient: which goes from the initial state to the final state, may be in the form
of oscillations and may be sustained or decaying in nature.
Steady state: the part of the time response which is fixed when time approaches
infinity. It is the part which remains nearly constant after transients have died out
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 Response of first order system
Consider a feedback system shown below

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 Cont..
I Impulse Response of First Order System (1st order differential equation)
Consider the unit impulse signal as an input to the first order system.
So, r(t)=δ(t)
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

R(s)=1, the response =>

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides,

Figure: impulse response

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 Cont..
II Step Response of First Order System
Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system.
So, r(t)=u(t)
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

R(s)=1/s and =>

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides,

By Geremu G.
Figure: step response 37
 Response of second order system
Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system

2
𝜔𝑛
Here, an open loop transfer function, is connected with a unity negative
𝑠 𝑠+2𝛿𝜔𝑛
feedback.
As we know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system having unity
negative feedback given by:
,
=> ……. (*)
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 Cont..
The power of „s‟ is two in the denominator of the above transfer function eq(*)
Hence, the system is second order system.
The characteristic equation is:
The roots of characteristic equation are found by quadratic formula as follow:

The above four cases show respectively the characteristic equations of undamped,
critically damped, over damped and under damped systems

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 Step Response of second Order System
Consider the unit step signal as an input to second order system.
So, r(t)=u(t)
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

1 1
R(s)= and = . Rearranging gives:
𝑠 𝑠

, using partial fraction

, then you will get the values of A,

B and C as 1,−1and−2δωn respectively. Substituting these values in the above
partial fraction expansion gives: …….(**)
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The above expression eq(**) can be rearranged to as:

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

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Rearranging the above equation will give:

If 1 − 𝛿 2 = sin(θ), then „δ‟ will be cos(θ).

Then

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 Time domain specifications of 2nd order system
The performance of a system is usually evaluated in terms of the following qualities.
1. How fast it is able to respond to the input,
2. How fast it is reaching the desired output,
3. What is the error between the desired output and the actual output, once the
transients is died out and steady state is achieved,
4. Does it oscillate around the desired value, and
5. Is the output continuously increasing with time or is it bounded.
The last aspect is concerned with the stability of the system and we would require
the system to be stable

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 Cont..

Time domain specifications of a second order system.

The design specifications are:
1. Delay time td:- It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the steady state
value for the first time.

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 Cont..
2. Rise time 𝑡𝑟 :- It is the time required for the response to reach 100% of the steady
state value for under damped systems. However, for over damped systems, it is
taken as the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90% of the steady
state value.

3. Peak time 𝑡𝑝 :- It is the time required for the response to reach the maximum or
Peak value of the response.

4. Peak overshoot 𝑀𝑝 : It is defined as the difference between the peak value of the
response and the steady state value. It is usually expressed in percent of the steady
state value. If the time for the peak is „tp‟ percent peak overshoot is given by,

=
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 Cont..
5. Settling time 𝑡𝑠 : It is the time required for the response to reach and remain
within a specified tolerance limits (usually ± 2% or ± 5%) around the steady state
value.

6. Steady state error (ess): - is the error between the desired output and the actual
output as 𝑡 → ∞ or under steady state condition
ess = lim (𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑐(𝑡)) = lim 𝑒(𝑡)
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞

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 Example
The open loop transfer function of servo system with unity feed back is given by

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Cont..

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 Steady state error
Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system, which is
having unity negative feedback.

transfer function of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system as:

, the output of summing point is E(s) = R(s) – C(s)

Substituting the value of C(s),

, using the final value theorem:

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Cont..

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Reading Assignment
Use the following numerical methods to solve the ordinary differential equations:
Euler Method,
Runge- Kutta Method

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