THE NOMENCLATURE OF INDIA

 India has been also called BHARAT, HINDUSTAN, ARYAVARTA ANDJAMBUDWEEP.

 The name of India is derived from the river Indus.

 In 518 BC DARIUS-I, THE PERSIAN EMPEROR conquered the area around the Indus and due
to difficulty in pronouncing the initial 'S' turned Sindhu into Hindu.
 Later, the Greeks termed Hindu as Indus.
 In Rigveda, the word Bharat indicates about the tribe, but later on it refers to the
legendary EMPEROR BHARAT, the founder of the Bharat dynasty.

 The name ARYAVARTA refers to the land of the Aryan Race.

 The name BHARATVARSHA was first coined by Panini in his text 'ASTHADHYAYI'.
 TYPES OF SOURCES
The sources for the reconstruction of Ancient Indian history - Three broad categories ---
1. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
2. LITERARY SOURCES
3. ACCOUNTS OF FOREIGN HISTORIANS AND TRAVELLERS

1. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
 It may be divided into the following four categories
(i) INSCRIPTIONS
(ii) NUMISMATIC EVIDENCE
(iii) RUINED CITIES AND MONUMENTS
(iv) MISCELLANEOUS

(I) INSCRIPTIONS

--- EPIGRAPHY.

 The study of inscription is called epigraphy.

 Inscriptionsare inscribed on stones and metals.
 Written in different languages, such as PALI, PRAKRIT, SANSKRIT, TAMIL, TELUGU etc.
 It has been noticed that there are two types of scripts which were in practice in
writingin scriptions uiz BRAHMI AND KHAROSTHI.

---- ASHOKAN EDICTS

 The earliest known inscriptions are the ASHOKAN EDICTS.

 BRAHMI SCRIPT

 The Brahmi script is one of the earliest known writing systems in South Asia and is considered
the ancestor of most modern scripts used in India, Southeast Asia, and Tibet.
 It was in use from around the 4th century BCE to the 4th century CE.
 The Brahmi script was primarily used to write various Prakrit languages, including Sanskrit,
Pali, and other regional languages.
 It was written from LEFT TO RIGHT AND HAD A CONSONANT-VOWEL SYSTEM.

 Initially, Brahmi consisted of around 41 characters, but over time, regional variations and
modifications led to the development of different scripts.

KHAROSTHI SCRIPT

 The Kharosthi script was another ancient script used in the NORTHWESTERN REGIONS OF THE

INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, particularly in present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, during the 3rd
century BCE to the 3rd century CE.
 The name "Kharosthi" is derived from the ancient city of Taxila (Takshashila), where the
script was believed to have been developed.
 It is written from RIGHT TO LEFT AND HAS A CONSONANT-VOWEL SYSTEM LIKE BRAHMI.

 The script is known for its rounded shapes and distinct symbols for certain sounds.
 It was mainly used to WRITE PRAKRIT LANGUAGES, GANDHARI, AND SANSKRIT.
 There are 14 MAJOR ROCK EDICTS, a number of minor Rock Edicts, 7 PILLAR EDICTS and other
inscriptions of Ashoka discovered so far.

HATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTION KHARAVELA

 The HATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTIONS of the Kalinga KING KHARAVELA.

 The JUNAGADH INSCRIPTION of the SAKA KING RUDRADAMANA.

JUNAGADH INSCRIPTION NANAGHAT INSCRIPTION

 The NANAGHAT INSCRIPTIONS of the SATAVAHANA KING GAUTAMIPUTRA SATAKARNI.

 The TAXILA SILVER SCROLL and the PANJTAR STONE INSCRIPTIONS of the Kushans etc.

 PRASASTIS are a different kind of official inscriptions, written by the court poets and officials,
on behalf of the kings and emperors, narrating their achievements and personal qualities.
Some of them are

ALLAHABAD PRASASTI SAMUNDRAGUPTA

 ALLAHABAD PRASASTI ON SAMUDRAGUPTA.
 THE GWALIOR PRASASTI ON KING BHOJA.
 THE AIHOLE INSCRIPTION ON PULAKESIN II ETC.
  ERAN INSCRIPTION – SAMUDRAGUPTA
 MEHRAULI PILLAR INSCRIPTION -- CHANDRAGUPTA II
 BHITARI STONE PILLAR INSCRIPTION -- SKANDAGUPTA
 SONIPAT COPPER SEAL INSCRIPTIONS – HARSHAVARDHANA
 BANAKHERA-PLATE INSCRIPTION – HARSHAVARDHANA
 MADHUBANA COPPER PLATE INSCRIPTION – HARSHAVARDHANA.

NUMISMATIC EVIDENCE

PUNCH MARKED COIN INDO-GREEK COINS GUPTA PERIOD COINS

 Coins in the period prior to Alexander's invasion are generally of two types i.e. INDO-GREEK
AND PUNCH MARKED COINS.
 Punch marked coins are the earliest coin of India.
 The coins of COPPER, SILVER AND GOLD issued by the Indo-Greeks are of artistic excellence.
 Coins are the sources which corroborates the literary and epigraphic sources of Ancient
Indian history.

HISTORIAL CITIES – AS GIVEN BELOW IN MAP

 MEHARGARH, located on the bank of the Bolan river in the Kochi plain (Baluchistan), is the only
known NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT IN THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT, attributed to approximately 7000
BC.

 LITERARY SOURCES
The literary sources can be divided into three main parts
(I) SOCIO-RELIGIOUS SCRIPTURES
(II) SECULAR LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY
(III) HISTORICAL WRITINGS

(I) SOCIO-RELIGIOUS SCRIPTURES

Again, they can be classified into three main branches, namely ---
(A) HINDU TEXT
(B) BUDDHIST LITERATURE
(C) JAINA LITERATURE

(A) HINDU TEXT

 THE VEDAS

 The term Veda is derived from the root word VID, MEANING TO KNOW, SIGNIFYING,
KNOWLEDGE PAR EXCELLENCE.
 The Vedas comprises of, a huge collection of hymns,prayers, charms and sacrificial
formulae.
 The Vedas are also called APAURUSHEYA (NOT MADE BY MAN) and NITYA (EXISTING IN ALL

ETERNITY).

 The Vedas are four in numbers namely RIGVEDA, SAMAVEDA, YAJURVEDA, ATHARVAVEDA.
 THE BRAHMANAS

 They explain the hymns of the Vedas.

 They are written in prose and ritualistic in nature.
 Brahma means sacrifice.
 Thevarious sacrifices and rituals have been elaborately discussed in Brahmanas.
 Every Veda has several Brahmanas.

VEDA RELATED BRAHMANAS

THE ARANYAKAS
 They give PHILOSOPHICAL INTERPRETATIONS OF THE RITUALS.

 The word Aranya means the Forest.

 The forest texts are called the 'FOREST BOOK', because they were written mainly for
the hermits and students residing in jungles.
 The Aranyakas are the CONCLUDING PORTIONS OF THE BRAHMANAS.

THE UPANISHADAS
  The Upanishadas, also called VEDANTAS, DEAL MOSTLY WITH THE PHILOSOPHY OF
ATMA(SOUL), KARMA (ACTION), BRAHMA (GOD) AND BRAHMANA (ULTIMATE SPIRITUAL REALITY
OF THE UNIVERSE).
 They came towards the end of the Veda.
 THERE ARE 108 UPANISHADAS.
 BRIHADARANYAKA IS THE OLDEST UPANISHADA.

THE VEDANGAS

 The Vedangas (meaning: limbs of the Vedas), composed c. 600-200 BC, are SUPPLEMENTARY
TEXTS FOR PROPER UNDERSTANDING AND RECITATION OF THE VEDAS.

 There are six Vedangas, which are as follow- --

(i) SHIKSHA (PHONETICS/PRONUNCIATION)

(II) KALPA SUTRAS (SACRIFICIAL RITUAL)

 It is divided into three classes
(a) SHRAUTA SUTRAS/SHULVA SUTRAS deal with sacrifices.
(b) GRIHYA SUTRAS/SMARTA SUTRA deal with the domestic ceremonies and sacrifices
meant to be performed by the householder.
(c) DHARMA SUTRAS deal with the laws, manners and customs of people in general. It
constitutes the foundation of the Dharmashastras such as the laws of Manu.

(III) VYAKARANA (GRAMMAR) – Ashtadhyayi of Panini is the oldest grammar treatise.

 (IV) NIRUKTA (ETYMOLOGY) - it is acollection of difficult Vedic words.

(V) CHHANDA (METRICS)

(VI) JYOTISHA (ASTRONOMY) – VEDANGA JYOTISHA (BY LAGADH MUNI) is the oldest Jyotisha text.

THE SMRITI
 Literally Smriti means 'REMEMBRANCE'.
 It means traditional knowledge and INCLUDES THE ENTIRE CORPUS OF THE POST-VEDIC CLASSICAL
SANSKRIT LITERATURE.
These are six famous Smritis ----

(I) MANUSMRITI.
(II) YAJNAVALKYA SMRITI.
(III) NARADA SMRITI.
(IV) PARASHARA SMRITI.
(V) BRIHASPATI SMRITI.
(VI) KATYAYAN SMRITI.

'THE UPAVEDAS

 The UPAVEDAS OR THE AUXILIARY VEDAS deal with a number of subjects such as MUSIC, ARTS

AND CRAFTS, ARCHERY,MEDICINE ETC and not included in proper Vedic literature.
 AYURVEDA OR MEDICINE, was an Upaveda of the RIGVEDA.

 DHANURVEDA OR ARCHERY was said to be a part of the YAJURVEDA.

 GANDHARVAVEDA, the signs of singing waspart of SAMAVEDA.

 THE SCIENCE OF ARTHA OR WEALTH, was part of ATHARVAVEDA.

THE EPICS

 There are mainly two epics, namely, THE RAMAYANA AND THE MAHA- BHARATA.

 The Ramayana (composed 5th century BC to 3rd century AD by Valmiki).

 The Mahabharata (composed c.400 BC-400 AD by Ved Vyasa).
 THE BHAGAVAD GITA IS EXTRACTED FROM BHISHMA PARVAN OF THE MAHABHARATA.
 Shanti Parvan is the largest Parvan (chapter) of the Mahabharata.

THE PURANAS

 It deals with world creation, the GENEALOGIES OF GODS AND RISHIS AND THE ROYAL DYNASTIES.

 There are18 main Puranas, like VISHNU,VAYU, MATSYA, BHAGVAT AND AGNI PURANA ETC.

 The Puranas provide details on the ancient political history, referring to early dynasties like
the Nandas, Mauryas and the Satavahanas.

THE SHAD-DARSHANA

 There are six schools of INDIAN PHILOSOPHY KNOWN AS SHAD-DARSHANA.

 These are --.
 NYAYA DARSHAN --- GAUTAMA

 VAISHESIKA DARSHAN --- KANADA RISHI

 SANKHYA DARSHAN--- KAPILA

 YOGA DARSHAN--- PATANIALI

 PURVA MIMAMSA--- JAIMINI

 UTTARA MIMAMSA --- BADRAYAN

(B) BUDDHIST LITERATURE
The important Buddhist religious works which preserve valuable testimonies on the present
subject of study are the;

 TRIPITAKAS which encompass all the basic aspects of Buddhist socio-religious order
i.e.VINAYA PITAKA, SUTTA PITAKA AND ABHIDHAMA PITAKA.
 JATAKAS, DIVYAVADANA, LALITAVISTARA, MAHAVASTU, MAHAPARINIBBANA SUTTA ,the Pali
chronicles of CEYLON-DIPAVAMSA AND MAHAVAMSA etc are the most authentic Buddhist
works in determining the early career and the succession of Chandragupta Maurya as
the first Mauryan emperor.

 The Mahayana works of ASVAGHOSA, SUCH AS, BUDDHA CHARITA, SAUNDARANANDAKAVYA

(PARTLY RELIGIOUS AND PARTLYSECULAR), VAJRASUCHI etc offer valuable materials on

different aspects of Ancient Indian history during the Kushana period.

(C) JAIN LITERATURE

 The important Jaina works, such as, ANGAS, KALPASUTRA, BHAGAVATI SUTRA, MARUTUNGA,

PARISISTAPARVAN, UTTARADHAYAYANA, ARDHA-MAGADHI, STHAVIRAVALI ETC.

  These literature contain various subjects including GRAMMAR, HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY,

LIFE-SCIENCES, MUSIC ETC.

(11) SECULAR LITERATLIRE AND PHILOSOPHY

KAUTILYA'S WORKS RELATED TO POLITICAL ECONOMY

 His Arthasastra (4th century BC) reveals the most authentic informationon all the
fundamental aspects of the structure of the Mauryan empire.

Following are the secular philosophies---

 THEORY OF DIALECTICS preached by Gautama Buddha.
 PHILOSOPHY OF RELATIVITY formulated by the great MAHAYANA BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHER

NAGARJUNA in his famous work PRAJNA- PARIMITA-SUTRA-SASTRA.

SANGAM LITERATURE

 Particularly, this literature of the Tamils in the far South, written in Kavya (poem).
 Poetic compilations by group of poets of different times patronised by many chiefs and kings
are called Sangama.
 Of those, the following three are most relevant as the literary source materials for the study
of early history of far South
(I) PATTUPATTU OR THE TEN IDYLLS
(II) ETTUTTOGAI OR THE EIGHT COLLECTIONS
(III) PATHINENKILKANAKKU OR THE EIGHTEEN MINOR DIDACTIC POEMS.
 HISTORICAL WRITINGS
Ancient Indian historical writings may be classified into following two categories

INDIVIDUAL HISTORIANS

 RAJATARANGINI written inverse by KALHANA.

 He wrote this book mainly on the basis of the written records of Kashmir.

LOCAL DYNASTIC CHRONICLES

 RASMALA AND KIRTI KAUMUDI OF SOMESVARA
 PRABANDHA KOSA OF RAJASEKHARA
 CHACHNAMA,NARRATES IN DETAILS THE ARAB CONQUEST OF SINDH.
 LOCAL CHRONICLES OF NEPAL ARE KNOWN AS VAMSAWALIS.
 IN ASSAM, LOCAL CHRONICLES OF KAMARUPA SANSNAVALI ARE ONE OF THE IMPORTANT
SOURCES IN RECONSTRUCTING THE HISTORY OF LATE HINDU PERIOD OF KAMARUPA IN
ASSAM.

ACCOUNTS OF FOREIGN HISTORIANS AND TRAVELLERS

 The Greek writer, HERODOTUS, had never been to India and yet his book has reference to the
conquest of North-Western India by the Persian emperor.
 MEGASTHENESE'S famous work, INDICA.

AUTHOR BOOK INFORMATION

MEAASTHENES - lndica - Mauryan empire
PLINY- NATURAL HISTORY Information on Mauryan administration.
PTOLEMY - GEOGRAPHY TREATISE ON THE NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA, written in the 2nd century AD
 DRAMA
Some of the notable and important drama are explained below

 VISHAKHADATTA'S MUDRARAKSHASA, contains valuableinformation on the Nandas and the

Mauryas.
 His another dramatical work DEVICHANDRAGUPTAM bears valuable historical data on the
genealogy of the Guptas.
 KALIDASA'S FAMOUS WORK MALAVIKAGNIMITRAM offers us valuable information regarding the
SUNGA DYNASTY.

 VAKPATI WROTE GAUDAVAHO, based on the exploits of YASOVARMAN OF KANNAUJ.

 BILHANA'S VIKRAMANKADEVA CHARITA describes the victories of the later CHALUKYA KING

VIKRAMADITYA.

BIOGRAPHIES
 On Buddha's life, BUDDHA CHARITA AND SAUNDARANANDA KAVYA, written in Kavya style by
Asvaghosa are well-known.
 BANABHATTA'S HARSHA CHARITA on Harshavardhan.
 BHOJAPRABANDHA OF BALLALA ON THE PRATIHARA KING BHOJA.

 Prithviraja Raso written by Chand Bardai on PRITHVIRAJ CHAUHAN etc are some important
monarchical biographies.

 OTHER AUTHORS AND TRAVELLERS

 ALEXANDER HAMILTONwas the first French person who taught Sanskrit in Europe.
 FRIEDRICH MAX MUELLER edited the translation of RIGVEDA.
 JAMES PRINCEP interpreted the earlier Brahmi script in 1837 and could read Emperor
Ashoka's edicts.

 WILLIAM JONES translated KALIDASA'S ABHIJNANA SHAKUNTALAM into English in 1789. He

also set up the ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL IN 1784, to understand the ancient Indian
laws and customs better.

THE PRE-HISTORIC AGE

 No written records are available for thepre-historic India. However, plenty of archaeological
remains are found in different parts of India to reconstruct the history of this period.

INTRODUCTION

 In the early PLEISTOCENE I.E. BETWEEN 2000000 AND 10000 years before, the present,
humans are said to have appeared on the Earth.
  From the artefacts(investigative procedure) recovered FROM BORI IN MAHARASHTRA recently,
the historians are now able to know the presence of human in India, dated backas 1.4 million
years ago.

DIVISION OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

Historians divided Ancient Indian history under three important heads-----

 PRE-HISTORY -- The period for which NO WRITTEN RECORDS ARE AVAILABLE (evolution of
humans till upto the 3000 BC). e.g. EARLY NEOLITHIC CULTURE (7000-9000 BC) AT MEHRGARH . The
principal features of Neolithicculture are crop cultivation, animal husbandry and settled life.

 PROTO-HISTORY -- The period for WHICH WE HAVE WRITTEN RECORDS, BUT FOR WHICH, THE

SCRIPTS, HAVEN'T BEEN DECIPHERED YET e.g. the Harappan Civilisation (3000 - 600 BC).

 HISTORIC PERIOD--The period with ENOUGH AVAILABILITY OF WRITTEN RECORDS IN THE FORM OF

INSCRIPTIONS (THOSE WITH DECIPHERED SCRIPTS), which can be well understood (600 BC to the
period onwards).

STONE AGE
In India, the pre-historic period is divided into the ---

 PALAEOLITHIC (OLD STONEAGE),

 MESOLITHIC (MIDDLE STONE AGE),
 NEOLITHIC (NEW STONE AGE),
 CHALCOLITHIC
 MEGALITH CULTURE IRON AGE.
 --- BRUCE FOOTE.
The earliest contributions to the study of the Stone Age in India were by BRUCE FOOTE (1916), a
geologist, who made observations about the Stone age material from many parts of
Peninsular India.

PAIAEOLITHIC OR OLD STONE AGE (100000 - 10000 BC)

 'Palaeo' means 'old' and 'lithic' means 'stone'.

 It was basically HUNTING AND FOOD GATHERING CULTURE.

 The Palaeolithic sites are largelyfound in various parts of the Indian sub-continent.

BHIMBETKA PAINTING
  THE SOAN VALLEY AND POTWAR PLATEAU IN NORTH-WEST INDIA.
 THE SIVALIK HILLS IN NORTH INDIA.
 BHIMBETKA IN MADHYA PRADESH.
 ADAMGARH HILLS IN NARMADA VALLEY.
 KURNOOL IN ANDHRA PRADESH.
 ATTIRAMPAKKAM NEAR CHENNAI.

 Palaeolithic age in India is divided into three Phases ----

1. EARLY OR LOWER PALAEOLITHIC
2. MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC
3. UPPER PALAEOLITHIC

1. EARLY OR LOWER PALAEOLITHIC (100000 – 50000 BC)

--- TOOLS OF LOWER PALAEOLITHIC

 It covers the greater part of the Ice age and its characteristic feature is the use of
hand axe, cleavers and chopper.
 Sohan, Singrauli basin (Uttar Pradesh), Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand), Assam, Karnataka,
Pahalgam (Kashmir) are the major sites.

2. MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC (50000-40000 B C)

--- TOOLS OF MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC CULTURE

 The Middle Palaeolithic culture is CHARACTERISED BY FLAKE TOOL INDUSTRY.

 The principal tools are a variety of blades, points and scrappers made up of flakes.
 In the various parts of India, these flakeshave been found such as in the banks of river
Narmada and in South of the Tunga bhadra river.
 3. UPPER PAIAEOLITHIC (40000-10000 BC)

 It marks the appearance of HOMO SAPIENS AND NEW FLINT INDUSTRIES, the appearance
of wide range of bone tools, including needles, fishing tools, harpoons, blades and
burin tools.
 In India, the sites belonging to upper Palaeolithic period seem to have appeared in the
ARID REGIONS OF PAKISTAN AND WESTERN INDIA.

 MESOLITHIC OR MIDDLE STONE AGE (10000-7000 BC)

 It was a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithicage and has also
been referred to as the LATE STONE AGE.

 The Mesolithic people lived on HUNTING, FISHING AND FOOD GATHERING.

 AT A LATER STAGE, THEY ALSO DOMESTICATED ANIMALS.

 BEGINNING OF PLANT CULTIVATION.

 THIS PHASE IS TECHNOLOGICALLY CHARACTERISED BY MICRO-LITHS OR SMALL POINTED AND
SHARP TOOLS.
 Such tools were extremely small, about 3 cm in length.
 MICRO-LITHS
 Materials used in making micro-liths - CHERT, CRYSTALS, JASPER, CARNELIAN, AGATE ETC.

BHIMBETKA PAINTINGS.
 The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic men practised painting.
 Though pre-historic art appears at several places, BHIMBETKA APPEARS TO BE A STRIKING AREA

IN THIS RESPECT.
 ADAMGARH, PRATAPGARH AND MIRZAPUR, ARE ALSO KNOWN FOR THEIR CAVE PAINTINGS.
 BAGOR IN RAJASTHAN, is the largest Mesolithic site in India.
 Other Mesolithic sites are LANGHRAJ IN GUJARAT and MOHRANA PAHARA IN MIRZAPUR, both
providing the earliest evidence of burials, along-with the goods placed with the dead.
 NEOLITHIC OR NEW STONE AGE (7000 BC ONWARD)

 The Neolithic age (beginning of settled life) marked the initiation of food production.
 The age also witnessed the domestication of animals and cultivation of plants.
 While the DOG, GOAT AND SHEEP were the first domesticated animals, WHEAT AND BARLEY were
the earliest cereals grown.

 The inhabitants knew the art of producing fire by the process of friction.
 Growth of villages and farming communities.

NEO-LITHIC TOOLS NEO-LITHIC POTTERY

 The ground was digged with a heavy digging-stick, sickles for harvesting, axes for cutting
trees, for grinding querns and mortars, grain etc.
 The need for pottery emerged much now, so to store surplus grains andto hold liquids.
 OCHRE-COLOURED POTTERY (OCP) was used by the Neolithic People.

 The wheel was an important discovery.

 The people are said to be inhabiting in polished and painted caves, with the depiction of the
scenes of hunting and dancing.
 MEHRGARH IN BALUCHISTAN (PAKISTAN) is the OLDEST NEOLITHIC SITE IN INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT
(7000 BC).

FEATURES OF SOME NEOLITHIC SITES

KASHMIR - Only site where Micro-liths are completely absent.
 CHIRAND AND KASHMIR- only sites which have yielded considerable bone implements.
BURZAHOM- Domestic dogs used to be buried with their masters in their graves.
ALLAHABAD District Cultivation of rice in the 6th millennium BC.

 IMPORTANT AREAS OF NEOLI'THIC SETTLEMENTS

 Based on the types of axes used by the Neolithic settlers, one can distinguish three important
groups of Neolithic settlement.
 The first group among them is found in the North-West in the valley of Kashmir at a
place named BURZAHOM (WHICH MEANS THE PLACE OF BIRTH).

 The second group of Neolithic people inhabited in South India (2600 and 800 BC),
South of the Godavari river at sites such as NAGARJUNAKONDA, BRAHMAGIRI, MASKI,
HALLUR, PAIYAMPALLI AND SANGANAKALLU.
 THE THIRD GROUP IS LOCATED IN THE HILLS OF ASSAM.

CLASSIFICATION OF NEOLITHIC CULTURES

On the basis of excavations, Neolithic cultures can be classified into three stages which are as follow
The First Stage It is characterised by handmade unsophisticated and unrefined kind of reddish-brown
pottery and ground stone tools. The Second Stage It is characterised by red ware and is marked by
thedomestication of animals.The Third Stage It is characterised bygrey ware. NEOLITHIC SITES ARE
ALSO SEEN IN THE BELAN VALLEY OF UTTAR PRADESH KOLDIHWA, MEHRGARH AND CHOPANI MANDO.
  THE CHALCOLITHIC AGE

 Combined usage of COPPER (OR BRONZE) AND STONE TOOLS.

 The economy of the Chalcolithic people rested on subsistence agriculture, stockraising,

hunting and fishing.
 A large number of Chalcolithic cultures appeared after the end of the Harappan culture, with
some regional variations.

 CHALCOLITHIC AGE SITES

 A yet another striking feature of the age was the burial practice of the dead, who were buried
in the North-South position in Maharashtra, but in East-West position in South India.
 FEATURES OF THE CHALCOLITHIC AGE
Features of the Chalcolithic age were Use of distinctly painted pottery, which was mostly
black and red ware.

 Cultivation of both KHARIF AND RABI CROPS.

 Barley was the chief crop. Evidence of rice has been found from Inamgaon.
 They were the first to produce cotton.

 They were first to build fortified settlements evidenced from sites such as DAIMABAD,

INAMGAON AND NAGADA etc.

 They practised Jhum cultivation.
 The Chalcolithic age is argued to have covered the period from 2800-700 BC.

CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES
 AHAR CULTURE THE SITES OF AHAR CULTURE WERE AHAR (RAJASTHAN), BALATHAL, GILUND ETC.
 KAYATHA CULTURE- Located in Chambal and its tributaries.
 MALWA CULTURE- Narmada and its tributaries in Gujarat along with Navdatoli, Eran and
Nagada form the most important sites.
 Savalda Culture- the well-known sites are in Dhule district of Maharashtra.
 Jorwe Culture Major Settlements in Maharashtra, Nevasa, Chandoli, Daimabad and
Inamgaon arewell-known sites.
 MEGALITH CULTURE OR IRON AGE

 A Megalith is a large stone used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or

together with other stones.
 The term 'megalith' is derived from Greek 'megas' which means 'great' and 'lithos' meaning
stone.

MEGALITH BURIAL OF SOUTH INDIA

 Most of the information about the iron age in South India comes from the excavations of the
megalithic burials.
  Iron objects have been found universally in all the megalithic sites right from JUNAPANI
NEAR NAGPUR IN VIDHARBA REGION (CENTRAL INDIA) DOWN TO ADICHANALLUR IN TAMIL NADU IN

THE FAR SOUTH.

 Some of the important in Megalithic sites at PAIYAMPALLI IN TAMIL NADU, CHOWANNUR,

KAKKAD AND PORKALAMIN KERALA etc.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

Indus Valley Civilisation, also named as the Harappan Civilisation, due to 'Harappa'
being the first site to have been discovered, stands as one of the earliest
civilisations of the world, apart from those of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and
China's Shang civilisations.

THE DISCOVERY
 A vast civilisation in the North-West of India was archaeologically discovered in 1921-22, what
is now referred to as the INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION or the Harappan Civilisation.
 HARAPPA AND MOHENJO-DARO were its two urban centres. These excavations were carried out
by the then Director General of Archaeological Survey of India, JOHN HUBERT MARSHALL and
his colleague RD BANERJEE.

-- RD BANERJEE

 Many other cities too came to be dug out gradually, by other excavators, namely- ROPAR
(CHANDIGARH), LOTHAL (AHMEDABAD), KALIBANGAN (RAJASTHAN),KOT DIJI AND CHANHUDARO
 (SINDH), DHOLAVIRA (KUTCH, GUJARAT), BANAWALI(HISAR, HARYANA) AND SUTKAGEN-DOR (MAKRAN

COAST, PAKISTAN) etc.

 The HARAPPAN CIVILISATION is dated between 2600 AND 1900 BC.

 There were three cultures termed as EARLY, MATURE AND LATE HARAPPAN PHASE.

 The Early Phase characterised by authority and an increasingly urban quality of life.
 The Mature Phase saw the emergence of large urban centres.
 The Later Harappan Phase gives the signs of a gradual decline of the Indus Valley
Civilisation.

 The Harappan Civilisation was known as a BRONZE AGE CIVILISATION.

 THE GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT
 SUTKAGEN DOR on the Makran coast of Pakistan represents its western boundary.
 ALAMGIRPUR in Uttar Pradesh represents its Eastern boundary.
 MANDA in Jammu and Kashmir represents the Northern extreme.
 DAIMABAD in Maharashtra represents its Southern boundary.

 The HARAPPA-GHAGGAR (KA1IBANGAN)- MOHENJODARO axis is perceived to be representing the

heartland of the Harappan Civilisation, with most of the Harappan settlements located in the
region.
 The occupying of far away places, for Instance- SHORTUGHAI IN NORTH-EASTERN AFGHANISTAN or
Surkotada in Gujarat, by the Harappans can be seen as a result of the wide trade network
and the economic independence of each Harappan region.

 FEATURES OF HARAPPAN SITES ---

 HARAPPA (PUNJAB, PAKISTAN)

CUNNINGHAM
 Located on the banks of the river Ravi, it was the first Indus site to be discoveredand
excavated in 1921.
 It was CHARLES MASSON, who first visited Harappa.
 It was visited by Cunninghamin 1853 and 1873.
  The Indus Civilisation was originally called HARAPPAN CIVILISATION after the discovery of
this site.
 There were two rows of six granaries at Harappa with the combined floor space.
 It is a brick structure that was built on a massive foundation over 45 metres North-South and
45 metres East-West.

 MOHENJO-DARO (SINDH)

 It is the largest site of the Harappan Civilisation, DISCOVERED BY RD BANERJEE IN 1922.

 In Sindhi language, the word Mohenjo-daro means Mound of the Dead.

GREAT BATH OF MOHENJO-DARO GREAT GRANARY- MOHANJO-DARO

 The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro is the most important public place, Located at the centre of
the citadel, it is remarkable for its beautiful brickwork.
 Its floor is made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortars.
 The Great Granary, so found was the largest building, measuring. It is located within the
citadel.
 Other buildings include an oblong multi-pillared assembly hall and a big rectangular building,
which was served for administrative purpose.
 MULTI-PILLARED HALL

 IMPORTANT HARAPPAN SITES

 CHANHUDARO (SINDH)

 It is known as the LANCASHIRE OF INDIA and is the only Indus city without a citadel.
 Chanhudaro was perhaps a GREAT CENTRE OF BEAD MANUFACTURE.

KALlBANGAN (RAJASTHAN)

 Literal meaning of Kalibangan is black bangle. Many houses had their own wells.
 Three different cultural layers, THOSE OF INDUS, JHUKAR AND JHANGAR CAN BE SEEN HERE.
 ROPAR/RUPAR (PUNJAB)

 First site to be excavated after independence.

 Buildings were made of stone and soil.

LOTHAL (GUJARAT)
 The most unique feature of LOTHAL WAS ITS DOCKYARD, the world's first tidal port, which
served as a main sea-port for the Indus people, baked bricks with lime plaster were used in
the dockyards of Lothal.
 Lothal has been perceived by the historians to be an outpost for sea-trade with contemporary
West Asian Societies, particularly Oman.
 IT IS KNOWN AS THE MANCHESTER OF HARAPPAN CIVILISATION FOR ITS COTTON TRADE .

RAKH IGARHI (HARYANA)

 Situated in Hisar district of Haryana, it is termed as the Provincial Capital of the Harappan
Civilisation.
 TWO DISTINCT CULTURES, I.E. EARLY HARAPPAN AND MATURE HARAPPAN,CAN BE SEEN
HERE.

SURKOTADA (GUJARAT)

 Both citadel and the lower town were fortifiedwith a stone wall.
 IT PROVIDES THE FIRST ACTUAL REMAINS OF HORSE BONES.

BANAWALI (HARYANA)
 Both Pre-Harappan and Harappan phases are found here.

DHOLAVIRA (GUJARAT)

 The most unique feature of the site is its division into three sections.
 SUTKAGEN-DOR (AFGHANISTAN)
 The town at Sutkagen-Dor had a citadel surrounded by a stone wall built for defence.
 The site, in all probability, made up for the need of a sea port fortrading purposes.

BHIRRANA (HARYANA)
 Recently excavated Harappan site, which as per Archaeological Survey of India report,
located in Fatehabad district, state of Haryana.
LIST OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
SITES DESCRIPTION/DISCOVERY /FINDINGS

Harappa 1. Excavated by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921-1923.

2. Situated on the bank of river Ravi in Montgomery district of Punjab (Pakistan).
3. Stone dancing Natraja and Cemetry-37 have been excavated here.

Mohenjo-Daro 1. Excavated by RD Bannerji in 1922.

(Mound of Dead) 2. Situated on the Bank of river Indus in Larkana district of Punjab (Pakistan).
3. Great Bath, Collegiate Building and the Assembly Hall are the special features
of the site.
4. Pashupati Mahadeva (Proto Shiva) seal and fragment of woven cotton have
been excavated.

Chanhudaro (Sindh, 1. Excavated by NG Majumdar in 1931.

Pakistan) 2. Situated on the Bank of river Indus in Sindh, Pakistan.
3. It is only Indus Site with no Citadel.
4. Bronze figurines of bullock cart and ekkas and a small pot suggesting a kink
well have been excavated.

Lothal (Gujarat) 1. Excavated by SR Rao in 1954.

2. Situated on the bank of river Bhogava.
3. City was divided into Citadel and the lower town and dockyard.
4. Evidence of rice has been found here.

Kalibanga (Black 1. Excavated by BB Lal in 1961.

Bangles), 2. Situated on the bank of river Ghaggar
Rajasthan 3. Evidence of ploughed field, wooden furrow, seven fire-altars, bones of
camel and two types of burials (Circular grave and rectangular grave) have been
found.

Dholavira 1. Excavated by JP Joshi in 1967-68.

2. Situated on the bank of river Luni of Kachchh district in Gujarat.
3. Evidence of unique water management system, Harapan inscription and
stadium has been found here.

Surkotada (Gujarat) 1. Excavated by JP Joshi in 1972.

2. Situated between the rivers Sabarmati and the Bhogavo.
3. Evidence of horse, oval grave and pit burial has been found here.

Banawali (Haryana) 1. Excavated by RS Bisht in 1973.

2. Situated on the bank of river Saraswati.
3. Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan culture and barley with good
quality has been found here.

MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF HARAPPAN SITES

TOWN PIANNING
 The towns were divided into two parts: The Upper part or the citadel and the Lower part.
 Harappa and Mohenjo-daro both had THEIR OWN CITADEL OR ACROPOLIS, which was possibly
occupied by members of the ruling class.
 Below the citadel, in each city, lay a lower town containing brick houses, possibly inhabited
by the common people.
 The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they followed
the GRID SYSTEM.

---- HARAPPAN CULTURE BRICKS.

 THE USE OF BURNT BRICKS IN THE HARAPPAN CITIES IS REMARKABLE , because in the contemporary
buildings of Egypt, mainly dried bricks were used and in contemporary Mesopotamia, baked
bricks were utilised.

DRAINAGE SYSTEM

--- HARAPPA DRAINAGE SYSTEM

 The drainage system was very impressive.
 In almost all cities, every big or small househad its own courtyard, well and bathroom.

HARAPPAN STREETS
 --- HARAPPAN STREETS.

 They are wide, they run in straight lines and cross one another at right angles.

USE OF BRICKS
 Major Harappan towns extensively used bricks, which were both burnt and unburnt.

BUILDING STRUCTURES

 Harappan building structure included dwelling houses, large buildings, public bath and
granaries.

HARAPPAN GATEWAYS
 The location of Harappa has led several authors to conclude that it was a GATEWAY CITY.

 SOCIAL LIFE -

DIVISION OF THE SOCIETY

 It is not proved whether there existed any classes or castes.
 But based upon the mounds, it can be assumed that there did exist classes(and not castes),
based on the occupation of the people like peasants, herdsmen, artisans, merchants etc.
 MOTHER GODDESS

 Dominance of Mother Goddess suggests that family was matriarchal.

BURIAL PRACTICES DURING HARAPPAN PERIOD

 The most common method of burial remained keeping the body of the deceased in an
extended position,with the head towards the North, in a single pit or brick chamber.
 Grave goods were too placed, indicating the belief of the people in life after death, but were
not too lavish.
 POLITICAL LIFE

 There is no clear-cut idea on the political organisation of the Harappans.

 We have no religious structures of any kind, except for the Great Bath.Therefore, it would be
wrong to think that priests ruled in Harappa.

 Harappan rulers were more concerned with commerce than conquests and Harappa was
possibly ruled by a class of merchants.

 ECONOMIC LlFE

 The Harappan economy was based on irrigated surplus agriculture, cattle rearing, proficiency
in various crafts and brisk trade (both internal and external).

 AGRICULTURE

 Agriculture was the backbone of the Harappan civilisation and was mainly dependent on
irrigation.
 The soil was fertile due to the inundation on the river Indus.
 The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded
and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April, before the advent of the next flood.
 The other grains (apart from wheat and barley) found at the Harappan sites include lentil,
chickpea and sesame.
 They used the wooden plough.
 The representations of the bull on seals and sculptures have led the archaeologists to
concede that OXEN MIGHTHAVE BEEN USED FOR PLOUGHING.

 DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS
 The Harappans kept animals on a large scale.
 Oxes, buffaloes, goats, sheeps and pigs were domesticated.
 The humped bulls were favoured by the Harappans.
 From the very beginning, dogs were regarded as pets.
 Cats were also domesticated and signs of the feet of both dogs and cats have been noticed.
 They also kept ASSES AND CAMELS, which were obviously used as beasts of burden.
 The remains of horse are reported from SURKOTADA (GUJARAT).

 ELEPHANTS were also well known to the Harappans.

 A single instance of the Indian rhinoceros has also been reported from Amri.

TRADE, CRAFTS 'TECHNOLOGY AND WEIGHT AND MEASURES

TRADE

 Both inland and foreign trade was believed to have been carried on an extensive scale in the
Harappan times, well attested by the appearance of small terracotta boats and also by the
brick-built dock at Lothal.
 The Harappans settled in Nageshwar and Balakot, as these areas had a huge availability of
shells. SHORTUGHAI (INAFGHANISTAN) WAS NEAR, THE BEST SOURCE OF LAPIS LAZULI (A HIGHLY
VALUED BLUE-STONE).
 Lapis lazuli
 Lothal was nearby the sources of CARNELIAN (FROM BHARUCH IN GUJARAT).

 Steatite was obtained from South Rajasthan and North Gujarat.

 Jade from Central Asia and Metal was from Rajasthan.
 They also used to send expeditions toareas, such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for
copper) and to South India (Karnataka) (for gold), which used to establish communication
with the local communities.
 Tin may have been brought from present day Afghanistan and Iran.
 Harappa had intense trade relations with Mesopotamia, well attested by Mesopotamian
literature.
 Harappan seals and other objects have also been found at Mesopotamia attesting to the
existence of trade relations between them.
Imports From
Gold Kolar (Karnataka) , Afghanistan, Persia, (Iran)
Silver Afghanistan, Persia (Iran), South India
Copper Khetri ( Rajasthan), Baluchistan, Arabia
Tin Afghanistan, Bihar
Lapis Lazuli and Sapphire Badak- shan (Afghanistan)
Jade Central Asia
Steatite Shaher –i-Sokhta (Iran) , Kirther Hills (Pakistan)
Amethyst Maharasthtra

Chalcedonies and Saurashtra and West India Carnelians.

Agate

 CRAFT PRODUCTION

 Craft production was also undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappan and
was not only confined to rural settlements.
 Bead making constituted the maincraft of the Harappans.
 Chanhudaro was exclusively devoted to BEAD MAKING and was also involved in other areas of
craft production such as shell-cutting, metal working, seal making and weight making.

- BEAD PRODUCTS.

 Carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite were used to make beads.
 NAGESHWAR AND BALAKOT were specialised centres for making shell objects including bangles,
ladles and inlay.

--- SHELL

TECHNOLOGY
 The Harappans were well skilled at mining, construction and metal working.
 Manufacturing of GYPSUM was also undertaken, so used to join metals and stones, along-with
that of long-lasting paints and dyes.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

 There was a good system of weightand measures.

 They were made up of CHERT and were generally in cubical shape.
 Weights were also made up of JASPER, AGATES and even of GREYSTONE.

 While the lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ...upto12800), the
higher denominations followed the decimal system.
 16 chhatank made a ser and 16 annas made one rupee.
 Heat and cold resistant strips of shell were used for length measurement.
 They were in multiples of 16.

RELIGIOUS LIFE

PASHUPATI MAHADEVA
 In Harappa, numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found.
 These indicate that worship of the MOTHER GODDESS was acommon feature of religion.
 In one figurine, a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman.
 Probably, the image represents the GODDESS OF THE EARTH and was intimately connected
with the origin and growth of plants.

---- GODDESS OF THE EARTH

 The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the Earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her, in
the same manner as the Egyptians worshipped the Night Goddesses.
 The chief male diety, the PASHUPATI MAHADEVA (PROTO-SHIVA), is represented onseals in the
sitting posture of a YOGI, SURROUNDED BY AN ELEPHANT, A TIGER, A RHINOCEROS, A BUFFALO AND

TWO DEERS APPEAR AT HIS FEET.

 PASHUPATI MAHADEVA (PROTO-SHIVA)

 This God is depicted as having a three-horned head.

 We also come across the prevalence of the PHALLIC OR PHALLUS WORSHIP, evidenced by a
number of stone symbols of female sex organs so found.

YONI WORSHIP PHALLUS WORSHIP

 The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees.
 The picture of a deity is represented on a seal in the midst of the branches of the pipal which
continues to be worshipped.
 Animal worship formed a part of the religious beliefs of the Harappan people is indicated by
the representations of animals on seals or in terracotta andstone figurines.
 The most important of them is the one horned animal unicorn which may be identified with
rhinoceros.
 Next is the humped bull. The frequency with which the unicorn appears has been taken to
indicate that it was the tutelary deity of the city.
 FIRE ALTARS HAVE BEEN DISCOVERED AT KALIBANGAN, the presence of ash and charcoal in which,
attested to its association with fire.

FIRE ALTER OF INDUS VALLY CIVILIZATION AMULET

 The Harappans were wary of evils and ghosts have been evidenced by their using certain
amulets and talismans.
 Some tablets of clay and copper were used as amulets.
 SWASTIKS AND CROSS SIGNS were considered as harbingers of good luck.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

 Their most notable artistic achievements were their SEAL ENGRAVINGS.
 HARAPPAN POTTERY

 The Harappans were great experts in the use of the POTTER'S WHEEL.

 Harappan pots were generally decorated with the designs of trees and circles.
 The Harappan pottery is BRIGHT OR DARK-RED GLAZED and is uniformly sturdy and well baked.
 Scripts too were engraved on it.

HARAPPAN SCRIPT

---- HARAPPAN SCRIPT

 The Harappan script is yet to be deciphered.
 It is pictographic in nature.
 It was written from right to left in the first line and then left to right inthe second line.
 The writing-style is called BOUSTROPHEDON.
 The boustrophedon style has been referred to as proto-Dravidian.
 In all, there are NEARLY 375 TO 400 SIGNS.

 The fish symbol is the most represented.

HARAPPAN SEALS
 HARAPPAN SEALS

 About 2000 seals have been found and of these, a great majority carry short inscriptions with
pictures of the one horned bull, buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros, goat and elephant.
 These seals were most commonly made of steatite (a softstone).
 The famous bull seal has been discovered from Mohenjo-daro.

--- BULL SEAL (MOHENJO-DARO)

 IN MESOPOTAMIAN LITERATURE, THERE IS REFERENCE OF MELUHHA.

 Scholars believe that Meluhha stood for India.
 Similarly, the PERSIAN SEAL is found in Lothal and a cylindrical seal, a specific feature
of the Mesopotamian Civilisation is found in Kalibangan.
TERRACOTTA FIGURINES
 Figurines were made up of fire baked earthen clay which came to be called TERRACOTTA
FIGURINES.
 They were either used as toys or objects of worship.
 Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest the same to be serving as an important means
of transporting goods and people across land routes.

IMAGES

DANCING GIRL (MOHAN JODARO) BEARDED MAN (MOHAN JODARO)

 The Harappan artisans made beautiful images of metal.
 A WOMAN DANCER MADE OF BRONZE is the best specimen of them.
 This 10.8 cm statue of the dancing girl was found in 1926 from Mohenjo-daro.
 The beard head in stone from Mohenjo-daro is also a well known piece of art.

DECLINE AND END OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION:-

 The Harappan culture flourished until about 1800 BC.
 Afterwards, the culture began todecline.
 Many mature Harappan sites in regions (e.g. Cholistan) were abandoned by c.1800
BC.
 Population expanded in new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and Western Uttar
Pradesh.
 There is nounanimity among historians on the exact reason of the decline of this
civilisation.
 Different theories of decline have been put forward by different scholars.
 Aryan invasion was believed to be a major reason for this decline.
 THE VEDIC AGE

The history of Vedic India is known largely through its religious texts, the Vedas, which gave
the period its name.

 THE ARYANS

 The Vedic age is perceived to have been initiated in Indiain about 1500 BC and extending
upto 600 BC. The same issaid to have begun with the coming of the Aryans, whoinhabited
the plains of Northern 1ndia.
 THE WORD ARYAN IS DERIVED FROM THE WORD ARYA, IMPLYING HIGH BIRTH, BUT GENERALLY, THE
WORD REFERS TO A LANGUAGE AND NOT RACE.
 The Vedic culture was developed by these Aryans, based on the Vedas.
 The Vedas are said to have been passed from one generation to the next through verbal
transmission and are, therefore, also known as Shruti (to hear).
 There are many theories about the origin of these PEOPLE (ARYANS).
 The most accepted view is that, they lived some where to the East of the Alps, the region
of the Caspian sea and also in the Southern Russian steppes, as believed by scholars,
namely MAX MUELLER AND DR THAPAR.
 They were semi-nomadic people. IN THE 2ND MILLENNIUM BC, they started moving from
their original homes and migrated eastwards and southwards.

--- BOGHAZ KOI INSCRIPTION (TURKEY)

 THE BOGHAZ KOI INSCRIPTION DATED 1400 BC, providesinformation about a peace treaty
between the HITTITES AND THE MITTANI RULERS OF THE HITTANI.

 In which mention the names of the Vedic Gods- INDRA, MITRA, NASATYA AND VARUNA, which
supports the view that Central Asia was the homeland of the Aryans.
 Others scholars, namely GANGANATH JHA, AC DAS etc laid down the SAPTA-SINDHU THEORY,

stressing that the Aryans were indigenous people, not foreigners and resided in the
regions of Punjab and Sindh who regarded Sapta-Sindhu as their original home.

--- ZEND-AVESTA (RELIGIOUS TEXTS OF ZOROASTRIANISM)

 The Vedic age was established by the Aryans, has also been corroborated by a striking
similarity between the RIGVEDIC (LANGUAGE) AND THE ZEND AVESTA.
 ADVENT OF THE ARYANS IN INDIA

 It is believed that Indo-Aryans migrated from Central Asia into the Indian sub-continent in
several stages or waves via ASIA MINOR (MODERN TURKEY).

 From Iran, a group of Aryans branched off to move towards India.

 These Indo-Aryans and Iranian Aryans occupied Iran for much time, a part of this country came
to be known as the ARAIYA OR HARAIVA.

 Through Hindukush, these Indo-Aryans came to India around 1500 BC.

 These early immigrants made the region of SAPTASINDHU THEIR HOME.
  The Aryans are argued to have entered into a conflict with the Dravidians (or the indigenous
inhabitants), so mentioned as DASA OR THE DASYUS IN THE RIGVEDA . TRASADVASYU WAS THE ARYAN

chief who overpowered the indigenous lot, with the term DASYUHATYA (MEANING, SLAUGHTER OF

THE DASYUS) finding a repeated mention in Rigveda.

REASONS BEHIND THE RAPID EXPANSION OF THE ARYANS

 Chariots driven by horses.
 Weapons made of good quality bronze.
 Use of armour (varman).
 Use of destructive machine called the PURCHARISHNU.

The Aryans soon mingled with the local people and adopted an agrarian way of life after
settling down in small and organised communities.

 EARLY VEDIC AGE (I500-1000 BC)

 The Rigveda is the oldest religious text in the world.

 IT CONTAINS 1028 HYMNS AND IS DIVIDED IN TEN MANDALAS.

 THE TENTH MANDALA CONTAINS THE FAMOUS PARUSHASUKTA WHICH EXPLAINS THE FOUR VARNAS
(BRAHMANA, KSHATRIYA, VAISHYA AND SHUDRA).

FOUR VARNAS
 GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE

SAPTA SANDHAV REGION

 Aryans were confined to the area which came to be known as the Sapta-Sindhu (land of the
seven rivers), comprising the modern day Eastern-Afghanistan, Punjab (both India and
Pakistan) and parts of Western Uttar Pradesh.
 THE NADISUKTA HYMNS OF THE RIGVEDA MENTIONS OF 21 RIVERS WHICH INCLUDE GANGA IN THE
EAST AND KUBHA (KABUL) IN THE WEST.

 THE RIGVEDIC POLITY

(TRIBAL POLITY)
 No defined sort of a political hierarchy existed in the Early Vedic age.
 The Rajanyas (those involving in war) were upper position and other clans men had lower
position.
 SABHA, SAMITI, VIDHATA AND GANA FORMED THE TRIBAL ASSEMBLIES OF THE
PERIOD.
 VIDHATA --- OLDEST ASSEMBLY
 SABHA & SAMITI --- MOST IMPORTANT
  These were responsible for certain social, political, military, economic and religious functions.
 THE SABHA WAS THE COUNCIL OF CERTAIN SELECTED CLAN MEMBERS.
 THE SAMITI WAS A GENERAL TRIBAL ASSEMBLY AND WAS LESS EXCLUSIVE.
 WOMEN TOO ATTENDED THESABHA AND THE SAMITI.
 Both Sabha and Samiti are said to be daughters of Prajapati.

PUROHITA
 The king was assisted by the PUROHITA AND THE SENANI.

 The yajnas or sacrifices acquiring importance due to the increasing number of wars and
conflicts, the importance of the Purohita grew manifold.
 VRAJAPATI - was the head of the pasture ground.
 Tribal groups, namely the VRATA, GANA, GRAMA AND SARDHA performed the military functions.

 TRIBAL CONFLICTS
 The Aryans were engaged in dual types of conflicts-firstly, they fought with the non-
Aryans and secondly, they also fought among themselves.
 Divided into five tribes –
 PURUS
 ANUS
 DRUHYU
 YADUS
 TURVASUS
 They were called PANCHAJANYA.

 The Aryans fought amongst themselves.

VASHISTHA
 The BHARATA was a ruling clan supported by the priest VASHISTHA and it was opposed by a
host of 10 chiefs five of whom were the heads of Aryan tribes and the remaining were from
the non-Aryan people.
 ---- VISVAMITRA

 The group was led by priest Visvamitra resulted in the BATTLE OF TEN KINGS FOUGHT ON THE
RIVER PARUSHNI, THE MODERN RAVI.

 It gave victory to the Bharata and established the supremacy of the Bharatas.
 THIS WAR IS ALSO KNOWN AS DASARAJANA WAR.

 SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIFE SOCIAL ORGANISATION

 Kinship was the basis of social structure and a man was identified by the clan to which he
belonged, as can be seen in the names of several Rig vedic kings.
 People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe which was called the JANA. The jana forms the
largest unit and has a repeated mention in the Rigveda.
 While the raja or the gopati formed the chief of the tribe, the Rajanya was the warrior group.
 The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rigveda, which formed the basic social
unit and was the basic unit of production and consumption.

 THE FAMILY (KULA), THE VILLAGE (GRAMA), THE CLAN (VIS), THE PEOPLE (JANA), THE COUNTRY
(RASHTRA).

 Griha seems to be a more common term for family.

 Naptri was the common term used for cousins, nephews, grandsons etc indicating the
existence
 of joint families.
 The eldest male member of the family was known as KULAPA.

 The hostile groups DASA, DASYU AND PANI, too find occasional references in the Rigveda.
 The dasa meaning slaves, the dasyus described as rich, possessing cattle and residing in
fortified settlements and the panis meaning the holders of immense treasure and cattle, not
practising any sacrifice and thus, hostile.

SOCIAL DIVISIONS

 VARNA was the term used for colour and it seems that the Aryan language speakers were fair
and the indigenous inhabitants were dark in complexion.
 THE DASAS AND THE DASYUS, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves along-
with the Shudras.
 The Rigveda mentions the Arya Varna and the Dasa Varna.
 The PURUSHA-SUKTA hymn in the 10thMandal of the Rigveda.
 It conceded that the BRAHMANA, KSHATRIYA, VAISYA AND THE SUDRA classes have originated
from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet respectively, of THE PURUSHASYA or the cosmic man,
which later became the four castes.

THE POSITION OF WOMEN

 Their participation in the productive process is confirmed from the usage of the term
DUHITRI.
 Child marriage was unknown. Society was patriarchal, so evident from the prayers made for
sons and not for daughters.
 Most of the deities were also male, thus attesting to the gender-bias. Women could not
occupy the highest positions as well.
THE NON-ARYANS
The non-Aryans were generally referred to as follow.
Avrata --- Not obeying the ordinances of the Gods.
 Ajais --- Who performs no sacrifices?
Mridhravachah --- Whose speech is indistinct.
Anas --- Flat nosed
Devapiyu --- Anti-Vedlc Gods

RIGVEDIC ECONOMY

 The Rigvedic economy was essentially a pastoral economy.

 CATTLE BREEDING was the main occupation.
 Oxen, cows, goats, dog, buffaloes, sheep and horses were the animals domesticated by the
Aryans.
 The importance of cattle, especially of the cow, can be understood by the fact that the
wealthy persons were known as GOMAT, the chief of the jana was known as the GOPATI and
his daughter was called the DUHITRI (ONE WHO MILKS COW).
 Agriculture was the SECONDARY ECONOMIC ACTIVITY of the Rigvedic Aryans.
 The grains werec ollectively called YAUA AND DHANYA i.e.barley.

 OTHER IMPORTANT FEATURES OF THE RIGVEDIC ECONOMY ARE AS FOLLOWS----

 No use of iron technology.
 Fire used to burn down the forests.
 Land held in common.
 Cultivation undertaken by the family members (no reference to slaves or hired labour
in agriculture).
 Pottery technique(s) similar to that of the Harappans.
  Limited references to trade; possibility of the existence of BARTER SYSTEM, long distance
trade unknown.

 Existence of the VOLUNTARY TAX CALLED BALI.

 Metals known to the Rigvedic people

GOLD - HIRANYA
IRON - SHYAMA (KRISHNA) AYAS
COPPER - AYAS

 FOOD AND DRINKS

 Milk and its products curd, ghee formed an important part of food.
 The cow was deemed 'AGHNYA' "NOT TO BE KILLED".
 Intoxicating drinks SURA AND SOMA were also consumed.

 RELIGIOUS LIFE

 They worshipped the various forces of nature, but at the same time, believed in the basic
unity of nature.
 The Vedic people worshipped many Gods not because of the fear of natural phenomena, but
for gaining their favours.

 DIVISION OF GODS
In the Rigveda, a triple classification of Vedic Gods has been hinted, according to which the
three corresponding orders
1. TERRESTRIAL
2. AERIAL OR INTERMEDIATE
3. CELESTIAL
 IMPORTANT VEDIC GODS
INDRA ---

 Among the aerial or atmospheric Gods, Indra has the highest number of hymns, (about 250),
attributed to him.
 Called PURANDARA.
 He is the Aryan War Lord, who fulfilled the dual functions of the War-God and the Weather
God as well.
 Indra was associated with storm and thunder and his hand bore the thunderbolt (Vajra), with
which he destroyed the enemies. HIS WIFE WAS INDRANI OR SACHI (ENERGY).

AGNI

 The second position is held by Agni.

 About 200 hymns in the Rigveda are addressed to the Fire-God (Agni).
 He was an intermediary between the Gods and the mortals, he consumed the sacrificial
offerings and carried them to the Gods.
 VARUNA

 The third position is occupied by Varuna.

 He was seen as the king, the universal monarch who lived in a Golden palace in the heaven.
 HE IS THE BESTOWER OF RAIN AND REGULATED SEASONS (RITU).
 He is the God of water, clouds, oceans and rivers.
 He determined the path for all stars in heaven.
 Varuna is an ancient God, probably Indo-Iranian.
 The AHURA MAZDAH (WISESPIRIT) of the Avesta agrees with Varuna in character.
  Varuna also controls day and night.

SUN

 Several Gods were associated with the Sun. Surya (the common word for Sun) drove across
the sky in a flaming chariot, like the Greek God 'Helios'.
 SAVITRI, the stimulator or God of light, was another solar God. The famous Gayatri mantra is
addressed to her.
 PUSHAN too, was in some measure a solar God, driving daily across the sky,but his main
function was that of GUARDING THE ROADS, HERDSMEN AND STRAYING CATTLE.

RUDRA

 He was associated with storm and was also invoked to ward off the epidemics and disaster.

 YAMA

 Yama is conceived to be the Zord of the dead.'

 SOMA
It was the most popular drink of the Vedic Aryans, extracted from a creeper found in the
MUJAWANT MOUNTAINS.

 FEMALE DIVINITIES
 The female divinities were very few----
  PRITHVI --- (A PERSONIFICATION OF THE EARTH) :
 USHAS (THE GODDESS OF DAWN)
 ADITI (THE GREAT MOTHER OF GODS)
 RATRI (THE SPIRIT OF NIGHT)
 ARANYANI (THE LADY OF THE FORESTS)
 DISHANA (THE GODDESS OF THE VEGETATION).

LATER VEDIC AGE (1000-600 BC)

This was the period when the later Samhitas, Samaveda, Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda
were composed, Along with the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the Upanishadas. The age is also
known as PGW (PAINTED GREY WARE) iron phase.

 GEOGRAPHICAL EXPANSION

 During the Later Vedic period, the Aryans are said to have moved into Eastward and
Southward areas. The literature of this period contains references about the Arabian sea, the
Vindhyan range and the Northern plains of the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
 Moving eastwards, they habituated the Awadh region and moving further east, they entered
into Bihar.
 The Eastward march of the Aryans was made possibleby the use of fire and implements of
iron. With the help of these two, they were able to clear thick forests, kill wild animals and
break the soil.
 The story of AGNI AND VIDEHA MADHAV amoving eastwards, as narrated in the SATAPATHA -
BRAHMANS, gives a proof of the eastward march.
 In this process, the Janas transformed into Janapadas.
 The later Vedas give three broad divisions of India ---
 THE ARYAVARTA (NORTHERN INDIA)
 THE MADHYADESA (CENTRAL INDIA)
  THE DAKSHINA PATHA (SOUTHERN INDIA)

 POI-ITICAL ORGANISATION
 Reiterating, the first change so observed in the political milieu was the transformation of the
Rigvedic jana(meaning, people or tribe) into the Janapada (meaning, the area where the tribe
settled).
 The Rajan became the protector of the territory of the tribesmen.
 In Later Vedic Period, society became differentiated on the basis of varna.
 The proliferance of profession gave rise to Jatis.
 The nature of kingship was transformed.
 Rituals like Rajasuya (Royal coronation) assumed significance.
 In Later Vedic Period, Rigvedic popular assemblies lost their importance and royal power
increased at their cost.
 The Vidhata completely disappeared.
 The Sabha and Samiti continued to hold the ground but their character changed.
 The Sabha became more important than the Samiti.
 They came to be dominated by the chiefs and the rich nobles.
 Women were not allowed to attend the Sabha which was now dominated by the nobles and
the Brahmanas.

 In the beginning, each area was named after the tribe which settled there first.
 At first, Panchala was the name of the people and then, it became the name of a region.
 THE TERM RASHTRA, WHICH MEANS TERRITORY, FIRST APPEARED IN THIS PERIOD.

 It was the beginning of an administrative machinery.

 The king had to maintain acouncil of advisors known as the Ratnis.
 RATNIS AND OFFICIALS OF VEDIC PERIOD
RATNIS AND OFFICIALS WORKING AREA (DESCRIPTION)

PUROHITA CHIEF PRIEST, ALSO SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS THE RASHTRAGOPA

SENANI SUPREME COMMANDER OF THE ARMY
VRAJAPATI OFFICER IN-CHARGE OF THE PASTURE LAND
JIVAGRIBHA POLICE OFFICER
SPASAS/DUTAS SPIES, WHO ALSO SOMETIMES WORKED AS MESSENGERS
GRAMANI HEAD OF THE VILLAGE
KULAPATI HEAD OF FAMILY
MADHYAMASI MEDIATOR OF DISPUTES
BHAGADUGHA REVENUE COLLECTOR
SANGRIHITRI TREASURER
MAHISHI THE CHIEF QUEEN
SUTA CHARIOTEER AND COURT MINISTER
GOVIN KARTANA KEEPER OF GAMES AND FORESTS
PALAGALA MESSENGER
ATHAPATI CHIEF JUDGE
TAKSHAN CARPENTER

 BALI AND BHAGA now became regular tributes and taxes.

 But even during this period, the king did not possess a standing army and tribal units were
mustered in times of war.

 LATER VEDIC ECONOMY

 There was a huge transformation in the Later Vedic age, from pastoralism to agriculture.
 Increase in economic production and was made possible by the iron aided geographical
expansion in the Later Vedic Period.
 Mixed-farming comprising both cultivation and herding, became the occupational norm.
 Land-clearing began to be done by the curved iron-axe.
 An iron ploughshare has been found at JAKHERA.
 APART FROM THE RIGVEDIC CROPS YAVA (BARLEY) VRIHI (RICE), GODHUMA(WHEAT) AND PULSES
MUDGA (MOONG),MASS (URAD), YAMAKA (MILLET) AND TILA(SESAME) WERE ALSO GROWN AND WERE
ATTESTED BY THE TEXTS. SUGARCANE WAS ALSO KNOWN.
 The patriarchal household or the griha was now the basic unit of agricultural production, with
the grahapati emerging as the de-facto owner of the land.
 Apart from the family members, land was cultivated with the help of the Shudras and the
slaves.
  Bali became less voluntary and was at times even extracted by force.
 The importance of metallurgy has been confirmed by the repeated references to LOHIT AYAS

(COPPER), SYAM AYAS OR SYAMASA (IRON) , to smelters and smiths and also from the
archaeological evidences from the PAINTED GREY WARE(PGW) sites (comprising iron weapons
and tools etc).

--- PAINTED GREY WARE (PGW)

 Jewellery was manufactured.

 The manufacture of glass was known.
 NISKA AND SATAMANA WERE THE UNITS OF CURRENCY.
 THERE IS NO EVIDENCE OF THE USE OF COINS.

POTTERY (PAINTED GREY WARE CULTURE)

 The Painted Grey Ware Culture has been assigned to the Later Vedic age i.e. 1000 C to 600
BC.
 The Painted Grey Ware (PGW) is a particular type of pottery.
 First discovery of PGW at AHICHHATRA IN 1946.

 SOCIAL LIFE

 More importance began to be given to the Varna hierarchies.

 The growth of settled agriculture led to differentiation within the Vis, amongst whom, the
more prosperous households BECAME THE VAISHYA AND THE POORER GOT DEGRADED INTO

SHUDRAS.
  Shudras included both artisans and labourers.
 Marriages between couples belonging to the same gotra could not take place.
Four ashramas were prescribed, meaning stages of life, represented by the ---

1. BRAHMACHARYA (CELIBACY).
2. GRIHASTA (HOUSEHOLDS).
3. VANAPRASTHA (PARTIAL RETIREMENT FROM HOUSEHOLD LIFE BY RESIDING IN THE FOREST).
4. SANYASA (COMPLETE RETIREMENT FROM ACTIVE PARTICIPATION IN THE WORLD).

 THE INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE

 No references to child marriage and the marriageable age in the Rigveda were 16.
 The practice of widow remarriage and levirateis also mentioned.
 On the basis of Varna system, there existed two forms of marriage---
 ANULOMA was the marriage between the male of higher Varna and the female of
lower Varna.
 PRATILOMA was the marriage between the male of lower Varna and the female of
higher Varna. The social status of a person born of Anuloma was higher than Partiloma
and they followed their father's occupation.

THE SMRITI WRITERS OF THE AGE MENTIONED THE FOLLOWING FORMS OF MARRIAGES ----
BRAHMA-- MARRIAGE OF A DULY DOWERED GIRL TO A MAN OF THE SAME VARNA WITH VEDIC RIGHT AND RITUALS.
DAIVA--- IN THIS MARRIAGE, THE FATHER GIVES THE DAUGHTER TO THE SACRIFICIAL PRIEST AS A PART OF HIS FEE
OR DAKSHINA.
ARSA--- IN THIS MARRIAGE, A TOKEN-BRIDE PRICE OF A COW AND A BULL WAS GIVEN IN PLACE OF THE DOWRY.
 PRAJAPATI-- THE FATHER GAVE THE GIRL WITHOUT DOWRY AND WITHOUT DEMANDING THE BRIDE'S PRICE.
GANDHARVA -- IT WAS A MARRIAGE BY THE CONSENT OF THE TWO PARTIES. A SPECIAL FORM OF THE SAME WAS
THE SWAYAMVARA OR SELF-CHOICE.
ASURA--- IT WAS A MARRIAGE BY PURCHASE AND WAS LOOKED UPON WITH DISFAVOUR BY THE SACRED TEXTS.
RAKSHASA-- IT WAS MARRIAGE BY CAPTURE, PRACTISED ESPECIALLY BY THE WARRIOR CLASS.
PAISACHA--- IT WAS THE SEDUCTION OF A GIRL WHILE ASLEEP, MENTALLY DERANGED OR DRUNK, HENCE CAN
HARDLY BE TERMED A MARRIAGE.
OF THESE EIGHT FORMS, ONLY FIRST FOUR WERE GENERALLY APPROVED AND PERMISSIBLE TO THE BRAHMANAS.

 THE POSITION OF WOMEN

 In regard to the position of women, there was hardly any improvement in Later Vedic period.
 Daughters were regarded as a SOURCE OF MISERY. Women could not go to the Tribal Council
or Assembly, neither could they take an inheritance.
 The status of women declined, but the opportunity of education was not completely denied.
They were deprived of the Upanayana and religious ceremonies.
 In, BRIHADARANYAKA UPANISHADA, YAJNAVALKYA-GARGI dialogue proves, some women did get
higher education.

RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS

 The lustre of the older Gods gradually dimmed.

 THE LORDS INDRA AND AGNI LOST IMPORTANCE.

 The sacrificial side of religion was greatly developed by the priests.

 PRAJAPATI, the lord of created beings, cost all the older deities into the shade.
 Rudra, earlier a minor deity gained significance.
 Pushan, the protector of cattle in the early Vedic period, now became the God of the Shudras.
 Vishnu also emerged as an important deity.
  Signs of idolatry are too noticed in the Later Vedic times.

VEDIC LITERATURE

 RIGVEDA

 It is the oldest religious text in the world.

 It consists of 1028 HYMNS (SUKTA) AND IS DIVIDED INTO 10 MANDALAS OR BOOKS.

 The 10th Mandala contains the famous PURUSHASUKTA hymn.

 SAMA VEDA

 It is a collection of hymns, taken mainly from the 8th and the 9 thMandalas of the Rigveda and
used for the purpose of singing during rituals.
 YAJUR VEDA

It prescribes the rituals for performing different sacrifice with thehymns, documenting the
social and political milieu of the period.
The two royal ceremonies of RAJASUYA AND VAJAPEYA are mentioned for the first time in this
Veda.
IT IS DIVIDED INTO TWO PARTS
 (i) KRISHNA YAJURVEDA (BLACK)- It contains not only the hymns, but also prose
commentaries.
(ii) SHUKLA YAJURVEDA (WHITE) - It contains only hymns.

 ATHARVA VEDA

 The Atharvaveda (book of magical formula) contains charms andspells in verse, to word off
evil forces and diseases. It is believed to be the work of the non-Aryans and contains 711
hymns.

PRE-MAURYAN AGE
 EMERGENCE OF NEW RELIGIOUS SECTS
 Following conditions and causes were responsible for the rise of new sects ---

 The rise of a trading class, THE VAISHYAS, gave a jolt to established hierarchies.
 Vedic sacrifices were seen as complicated, wastage of time, energy and money.
 The caste system of Later Vedic period became rigid and brutal.
 The supremacy of the Brahmins created unrest in the society.
 The religious text was mostly in Sanskrit, which was the language of elite.
 While Jains and Buddhists spoke simple languages like PALI OR PRAKRIT.

 SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS
 The socio-economic and political milieu during the rise of these movements include
Strengthened agrarian economy.
 Rise of a trading class.Existence of several small scale industries, for instance, clay working,
carpentry, glass industry etc and each of them forming a professional group.
 This local occupational divisions gave rise to sub-castes or jatis.
 Brisk inland and foreign trade with the urban economy dominated by a large number of
craftsmen and merchants.

--- KAHAPANA COIN

 Coins called KAHAPANA (MADE OF COPPER AND SILVER) came to be used as a medium of
exchange.

JAINISM

In the Rig-vedic hymns, there are clear references to RISHABHA AND ARISHTANEMI two of the
Jaina tirthankaras. Rishabha was described as the incarnation of Narayana in the Vishnu
Purana and Bhagwat Purana.The Jainas believe that their religion system is the outcome of
the teaching of 24 tirthankaras, all of them being Kshatriyas.

 Though there are said to be 24 Tirthankarain the present cycle, most of them are known only
by their names and symbols ---
TIRTHANKARAS WITH THEIR SYMBOLS

TIRTHANKARAS SYMBOLS

1. LORD RISHABHA (ADINATH) BULL OR OX

23. LORD PARSHVANATHA SNAKE (NAAG)

24. LORD MAHAVIRA LION (SINH)

 LORD RISHABHA LORD-PARSHVANATH LORD-MAHAVEERA

 VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA (540-468 BC)

 According to one tradition, VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA WAS BORN IN 540 BC, in avillage
KUNDAGRAMA NEAR VAISHALI IN NORTH BIHAR.

 His father SIDDHARTHA was the head of a FAMOUS KSHATRIYA JANTRICA CLAN and his
mother was TRISHALA, THE SISTER OF THE LICHCHHAVI PRINCE CHETAKA , whose daughter
was wedded to Bimbisara.
 His wife was named YASODA and his daughter was named ANOJJA.

 ENLIGHTENMENT AND TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA

  In the search of truth, Mahavira became an ascetic at the age of 30. He kept on wandering for
12 years from place to place.
 At the age of 42, he attained KAIVALYA (PERFECT KNOWLEDGE OR SUPREME KNOWLEDGE
AND FINAL DELIVERANCE FROM THE BONDS OF PLEASURE AND PAIN) AT JIMBHIKAGRAMA ON
THE BANK OF RIVER RIJUPALIKA UNDER A SAL TREE.

 Through Kaivalya, he conquered misery and happiness. Mahavira got acclaimed as a

tirthankara, A KAIVALYA (SUPREME-OMNISCIENT), A JINA (CONQUEROR) AND AN ARHANT (BLESSED
ONE).

 He propagated Jainism for 30 years and his mission took him to KOSALA, MAGADHA, MITHILA,

CHAMPA ETC.

 He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 BC at a place called Pawapuri near modern Rajgir.
 He became the head of a sect, called NIRGRANTHAS (FREE FROM ALL THE BONDS), who later
came to be known as jinas.
 MAHAVIRA BELIEVED IN KARMA AND TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL , according to him, universe
was the product of nature. He also rejected the authority of the Vedas and Vedic rituals.
 DOCTRINES OF JAINISM
  Jainism believed the entire world to be animated, including stones, rocks and even water.
 It believed in the principle of ahimsa or non-injury to living beings, especially to humans,
animals,plants and insects.
 The cycle of BIRTH AND REBIRTH, IN JAINISM, WAS SHAPED THROUGH KARMA.
 The following terms are associated with doctrines of Jainism
 ASCETICISM AND PENANCE were the two pre-requisites for freeing oneself from the cycle
of birth and rebirth.
 MONASTIC EXISTENCE was a necessary condition of salvation.
 AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE) means cause no harm to the living beings.
 SATYA (TRUTHFULNESS) means always speak the truth.
 ASTEYA (NON-STEALING) not to possess anything which isn't willingly offered.
 BRAHMACHARYA (CELIBACY) to exercise control over one's senses and keep them free
from indulgence.
 APARIGRAHA (POSSESSION) to observe detachment from people, places and material
things.

 Jainas believed in the dualistic principle of JIVA (ETERNAL SOUL) and AJIVA (ETERNAL
ELEMENT) everywhere.The Jiva acts and is effected by acts, it is a knowing self; the Ajiva is
atomic and unconscious.
 Every object is an agglomeration of ajiva, with at least one jiva enmeshed in it.
 The Jainas were permitted to eatthings with two jivas.
  A Code of Conduct was prescribed both for the householder and for the monks.
A householder was supposed to follow the five anuvratas ----
1. NON-INJURY
2. NON-STEALING
3. NON-ADULTERY
4. SPEAKING THE TRUTH
5. NON-POSSESSION
 The followers of Mahavira came to be known as NIRGRANTHAS.
 A Jaina monk had to observe certain strict rules and was to abandon all the worldly
possessions.

 PHILOSOPHY OF JAINISM
 Jainism rejected the authority of the vedas and the vedic rituals.
 According to them, the WORLD WAS NOT CREATED, MAINTAINED AND DESTROYED BY A
PERSONAL GOD, BUT BY A UNIVERSAL LAW.
 Thus, it didn't believe in the existence of God.
 It believed in Karma and the transmigration of the soul.

 MAJOR PHILOSOPHIES

 ANEKANTAVADA-- The Jainas metaphysics is a realistic and relativistic.It is called

Anekantavada or the DOCTRINE OF THE MAYNESS OF REALITY.

 SYADVADA-- According to Syadvada, the theory of 'may be', along-with seven modes of
prediction (saptabhangi) are possible. Absolute affirmation and absolute negation, both are
wrong. All judgements are conditional.
 NAYAVADA-- It includes understanding the reality or arriving at something, considering a
particular point of view, letting go the irrelevant facts.

 RATNATRAYA -- (THREE GEMS OF JAINISM)

  RIGHT FAITH (SAMYAK VISHWAS)
 RIGHT KNOWLEDGE (SAMYAK GYAN)
 RIGHT CONDUCT (SAMYAK KARMA)

 Includes the fulfilment of the 5 vows of Jainism.

 THE FIVE CATEGORIES OF SIDDHAS

The five categories of Siddhas include
TIRTHANKARA --- WHO HAS ATTAINED SALVATION.

ARHANT --- WHO IS ABOUT TO ATTAIN NIRVANA.

ACHARYA --- THE HEAD OF THE ASCETIC GROUP.

UPADHYAYA --- THE TEACHER OR THE SAINT.

SADHU --- INCLUDING THE REST.

 SECTS OF JAINISM
 Mahavira founded the Jaina church.
 He had eleven ardent disciples called the Ganadharas, ten of whom died during Mahavira's
lifetime. Only one, ARYA SUDHARAMAN, survived and became the first Thera (or pontiff) after
the death of Mahavira.
 BHADRABAHU KALPASUTRA
 In the 3rd century BC, BHADRABAHU was born, the greatest ever exponent of the Jaina
philosophy. who also composed KALPASUTRA, the most authentic treatise on the rise and
development of Jainism.
 Chandragupta Maurya was also a follower of Jainism and accepted this faith in the last years
of his life. He left Pataliputra and accompanied by Bhadrabahu, reached
SHRAVANABELAGOLA IN KARNATAKA, WHERE ON THE CHANDRA HILLS, he performed his fast
unto death and like a true Jainaupasaka, attained kaivalya.

 According to the Jaina canons, BHADRABAHU spread Jainism in South India.

 Followers of Bhadrabahu, who accompanied him to the South were known as DIGAMBARAS as
they believed in the retention of the rule of nudity.

 STHULABHADRA, the leader of the monks who remained in the North and his followers were
known as the Shvetambaras as they wore white garments.
 Among the Jaina writers, the most important were BHADRABAHU (KALPASUTRA),
Siddhasena, Divakara, Siddha, HEMACHANDRA (PARISISTHA PARVAN), Nyayachandra
and Mallinath. The Jainas wrote narrative literature, kavyas, novels, dramas and hymns.

 JAINA COUNCILS

THERE WERE TWO JAINA COUNCILS ---

 The First Jaina Council It was held at PATALIPUTRA, UNDER STHULABAHU, AROUND 300 BC.

 It resulted in the compilation of 12 angas (sections or limbs) to replace the lost 14

purvas (former texts).
 These texts were accepted by the Shvetambaras.
 The Second Jaina Council It was held at VALLABHI (GUJARAT) in 512 AD and was

presided by DEVARADHI KSHAMASRAMANA.

 12 ANGAS AND 12 UPANGAS (MINOR SECTIONS).

 The council resulted in the final compilation of 12 ANGAS AND 12 UPANGAS (MINOR
SECTIONS).

 SPREAD OF JAINISM
 In order to spread the teachings of Jainism, Mahavira organised an order of his
followers which admitted both men and women.
 Jainism gradually spread to South and West India.
 Jainism spread to Kalinga in the 4th century BC.
  KHARVELA PATRONISED it in the 1st century AD.
 Shuetambara Sect-Prevailed in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
 Digambaras- It were dominant in Mysore.

 DECLINE OF JAINISM
 The Jainas took the concept of ahimsa too far.
 No patronage was extended to the Jainas by the later rulers.
 Observance of extreme penance and austerity could not find favour with the common
people.

 THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF JAINISM RELIGIOUS TEXTS

 Hindu religious texts - Sanskrit
 Buddhist texts – Pali
 Jainas - Prakrit
 Though at different places, texts were written in the local languages as well. Mahavira himself
PREACHED IN ARDHA-MAGADHI.

 JAlNA LITERATURE
THE SACRED BOOKS OF JAINAS INCLUDE
TWELVE ANGAS
TWELVE UPANGAS
TEN PRIKARNAS
SIX CHHEDASUTRAS
FOUR MULASUTRAS
TWO SUTRA GRANTHAS

 JAINA ARCHITECTURE ---

 The image of a TIRTHANKARA FROM LOHANIPUR (PATNA) dating back to the Mauryan period
is one of the earliest Jaina figures.

HATHIGUMPHA CAVE KHANDAGIRI AND UDAIGIRI CAVES

 The HATHIGUMPHA CAVE OF KHARVELA and the KHANDAGIRI AND UDAIGIRI CAVES OF
ORISSA contain early Jaina relics.
 During the Kushana period, Mathura was a great centre of Jain art.
 GOMATESHVARA
 The gigantic statues of BAHUBALI (CALLED GOMATESHVARA) AT SHRAVANABELAGOLA AND
KARKALA, BOTH IN KARNATAKA, are real wonders.

JAIN TEMPLE RANAKPUR (RJ) DILWARA TEMPLES AT MOUNT ABU (RAJASTHAN)

 The temples at Ranakpur, near Jodhpur in Rajasthan and the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu
(Rajasthan) are the products of superb craftsmanship.
 Innumerable manuscripts in palm leaves were written down and some of them were painted
with gold dust. These gave rise to a new school of painting known as the 'WESTERN INDIAN
SCHOOL.'

WESTERN INDIAN SCHOOL PAINTING

  The Jainas composed the earliest important works in APABHRAMSA and its first grammar.

 SOME FAMOUS CAVES AND TEMPLES OF JAINA ARCHITECTURE ARE ---

 Caves --Hathigumpha, Udaygiri and Khandagiri (Orissa).
 Temples -- Dilwara temples at MountAbu, Vimalavasahi and Tejapala temples, Girnar and
Palitana temple (Gujarat), Pawapuri and Rajagriha temple (Bihar).

 ROYAL PATRONS
 South India -- The Kadamba and Gangadynasty, Amogavarsha (Rashtrakuta dynasty), Siddharaj Jai
Singh and Kumara Pala (the Chalukyas Solankis).
 North India -- Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Udayin (Haryanka), Nandas,Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara
and Samprati (Mauryan), Pradyota(Avanti), Udayan (Sindhu-Sauvira),Kharavela (Kalinga).

BUDDHISM

 GAUTAMA BUDDHA
 The childhood name of Buddha was Siddhartha also known as SAKYAMUNI was born in 563
BC in SHAKYA KSHATRIYA family in LUMBINI IN NEPAL, NEAR KAPILAVASTU.

 His FATHER SHUDDHODHANA was the elected ruler of Kapilavastu and headed the republican
clan of the Shakyas. His MOTHER MAHAMAYA was a princess of the KOSHALAN DYNASTY.
 He was taken care of by MAHAPRAJAPATI GAUTAMI.
 He was married at the age of 16 to YASHODHARA, the daughter of a neighbouring chieftain
and his son was Rahul.
 SYMBOLS REPRESENTING IMPORTANT EVENTS OF BUDDHA'S LIFE
EVENT SYMBOL
BUDDHA’S BIRTH LOTUS & BULL
THE GREAT DEPARTURE (MAHABHINISHKRAMANA) HORSE
ENLIGHTMENT (NIRVANA ) BODHI TREE
FIRST SERMON (DHAMMACHAKRAPARIVARTAN) WHEEL
DEATH (PARINIRVANA) STUPA

 ENLIGHTENMENT OF BUDDHA

 AT THE AGE OF 29 , he left his home. He kept on wandering for about 7 years and then
attained knowledge at the age of 35 at Bodh Gaya under a peepal tree. From this time, he
began to be CALLED AS THE BUDDHA.
  Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath in Banaras.
 His missionary activities did not discriminate between the rich and the poor, the high and' the
low, the men and the women.
 Gautama Buddha attainted MAHAPARINIRVANA AT KUSHINAGARA THE VILLAGE CALLED
KASIA (UTTAR PRADESH) in 483 BC at the age of 80.

BUDDHA MAHAPARINIRVANA

 DOCTRINES OF BUDDHISM
The Buddha was a practical reformer. His primary aim was to secure deliverance from the
grim reality of sorrows and sufferings. So, he pronounced the Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya).
The Four Noble Truths thus include---

1. Sorrow (DUKKHA) world is full of sorrow.

2. The cause of sorrow is DESIRE (TRISHNA).
3. Cessation of sorrow (DUKKHA NIRODHA) is possible.
4. Path leading to the cessation of sorrow (DUKKHA NIRODAGAMINI PRATIPAD), IS ASHTANGIKA

MARGA.

 The MIDDLE PATH avoided the two extremes the attachment to worldly pleasure and the
practice of self-mortification.
 Noble Eight fold Path or the ASHTANGIKA MARGA, leading (as believed) to wisdom,
knowledge, enlightenment and release.
 THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH (ASHTANGIKA MARGA) INCLUDE ----

 The Buddha laid emphasis on self-effort and argued nothing to be left to the divine
intervention.
 It rejected the concept of the transmigration of the soul.
 The Buddha also laid down certain Sheela or rules of conduct for his followers viz –
 Non-injury
 No destruction of life
 No stealing
 No use of intoxicants
 No lying
 No magic, ritual or worship etc.
 Buddhism too appealed to the socially down trodden classes, especially the Vaishyas, who
were striving for an equal status.

 BUDDHIST COUNCILS
  Buddhism does not recognise the existence of God and soul.
 It particularly won the hearts of the lower orders as it attacked the Varna System. People
were taken into the Buddhist order without any consideration of caste.
 Women were also admitted to the Sangha and thus brought at par with men.
 The Buddha repudiated the authority of the Vedas and the rituals.

 TRIRATNAS OR THE THREE JEWELS

 THE BUDDHA -- THE ENLIGHTENED

 THE DHAMMA -- THE DOCTRINE
 THE SANGHA -- THE ORDER
 Vaishakha Purnima, known in India as Buddha Purnima or Buddha Jayanti.

 THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM

Buddhism was accepted by a large section of people. The people of Magadha, Kosala,
Kausambi, the Republics of Shakya, Vajjis and Mallas had embraced Buddhism. Ashoka and
Kanishka made Buddhism a state religion and spread it to Central Asia, West Asia and Sri
Lanka. The appeal of Buddhism to a large section of population was because of the following
factors---
 Emphasis on practical morality.
  A SIMPLE PHILOSOPHY and easily acceptable solutions to the problems of mankind.
 The idea of SOCIAL EQUALITY laid down in the codes of Buddhism.
 The use of PALI LANGUAGE to explain the doctrines.

DISPUTE IN BUDDHISM
Like Jainism, Buddhism also faced disputes. Buddhism was divided into three main sects

HINAYANA OR 'THE LESSER WHEEL

 Its followers believed in the ORIGINAL TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA.

 THEY SOUGHT INDIVIDUAL SALVATION THROUGH SELF-DISCIPLINE AND MEDITATION.
 They did not believe in idol worship.
 HINAYANA is a religion without God with KARMA taking the place of God.
 The oldest school of Hinayana is the STHAVIRAVADA (THERAVADA IN PALI) or the Doctrine
of Elders.
 HINAYANA BUDDHISTS USED PALI LANGUAGE, since it was the language of the masses.
Ashoka patronised HINAYANISM.

MAHAYANA OR THE GREATER WHEEL

  Its followers believed in the heavenliness of the Buddha & sought the salvation of all,
through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
 It believed in idol worship.
 MAHAYANA HAD TWO CHIEF PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOLS NAMELY–

-- NAGARJUNA
 MADHYAMIKA (PROPOUNDED BY NAGARJUNA)
 YOGACHARA (FOUNDED BY MAITREYANATHA)
 SANSKRIT, the language of scholars was used by the Mahayana Buddhists.
 Kanishka patronised MAHAYANISM. Later, Harsha supported it.

3. VAJRAYANA OR THE 'VEHICLE OF THUNDERBOLT'

 Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the magical
power, which they called VAJRA.
 The chief divinity of this new sect was TARA.
 It became popular in Eastern India, particularly in Bengal and Bihar.

 THE BUDDHIST SANGHA

  The Buddha had two kinds of disciples the monks (BHIKKHUS) and the lay worshippers
(UPASAKAS).
 The former were organised into the SANGHA or the congregation.
 The membership of the SANGHA was open to all persons, male and female.
 There were no caste restrictions.
 The life of monks and nuns was strictly governed by laws and the TEN COMMANDMENTS and
there was no room for personal likes or dislikes.
 The higher ordination of BHIKKHU WAS CALLED THE UPASAMPADA.

 THE BUDDHIST LITERATURE (TRIPITAKAS OF BUDDHISM) TRIPITAKAS

 The PALI CANONS were first codified at the First Council held at RAJAGRIHA.
 ANANDA RECITED THE SUTTA PITAKA WHILE UPALI RECITED THE VINAYA PITAKA.
 ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA was added in the Third Buddhist Council.
 These three are collectively known as the TRIPITAKAS, meaning 3 baskets to hold different
types of texts. These include ---
The SUTTA PITAKA is a collection of Buddha's sermons.
The VINAYA PITAKA contains the rules and regulations of monastic discipline for the
monks.
 The ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA contains profound philosophies of the Buddha's teachings.

 THE JATAKAS
  The Jatakas were a collection of over 500 poems, which describe the previous births of the
Buddha.
 THE BUDDHAVAMSA
 It contains legends of verses about the 24 Buddhas, who preceded Gautama in earlier times.

 MlLlNDA PANHO

It has the discussion between Menander and the Buddhist Monk Nagasena.

 CEYLONESE CHRONICLES
 It contains information about DIPAVAMSA (ISLAND CHRONICLE), MAHAVAMSA (GREAT
CHRONICLE) AND CULAVAMSA (LESSER CHRONICLE).

 FAMOUS MONKS AT THE TIME OF THE BUDDHA

ANANDA ---- THE CONSTANT COMPANION OF THE BUDDHA AND THE MOST DEVOTED DISCIPLE.
ANURADDHA ---- THE MASTER OF RIGHT MINDFULNESS
MAHAKASYAPA ---- THE PRESIDENT OF THE BUDDHIST COUNCIL HELD AT RAJAGRIHA.
MOGGALLANA ---- HE HAD THE GREATEST SUPER NATURAL POWERS.
SARIPUTTA ---- POSSESSED THE PROFOUND INSIGHT INTO THE DHAMMA
UPALI --- MASTER OF VINAYA
 COMMON BUDDHIST MUDRAS
 ABHAYA MUDRA

 The ABHAYA MUDRA (MUDRA OF NO-FEAR) represents protection, peace, benevolence and
dispelling of fear. The mudra was probably used before the onset of Buddhism, as a symbol of
good intentions proposing friendship, when approaching strangers.

 BHUMISPARSHA MUDRA

 This gesture calls upon the earth to witness Buddha's enlightenment at Bodhgaya. A seated
figure's right hand reaches toward the ground, palm inwards.

 DHARMACHAKRA MUDRA
  The Dharmachakra Mudra represents a central moment in the life of Buddha, when he
preached his First Sermon after his enlightenment in the DEER PARK IN SARNATH.
 This mudraposition represents the TURNING OF THE WHEEL OF THE DHARMA.
 DHYANA MUDRA

 The DHYANA MUDRA (MEDITATION MUDRA) is the gesture of meditation, concentration and
Good law. This mudra is used in representations of the SAKYAMUNI BUDDHA AND AMITABHA
BUDDHA.

 VARADA MUDRA
  THE VARADA MUDRA (FAVOURABLE MUDRA) signifies offering, welcome, charity, giving,
compassion and sincerity. It is mostly shown made with the left hand by a revered figure
devoted to human salvation from greed, anger and delusion.

 VAJRA MUDRA

 The VAJRA MUDRA (THUNDER MUDRA) is the gesture of knowledge.

 It is made by forming a fist with the righthand, index extending upwards and the left hand
also making a fist and enclosing the index.
 VITARKA MUDRA

 The VITARKA MUDRA (MUDRA OF DISCUSSION) is the GESTURE OF DISCUSSION AND

TRANSMISSION OF BUDDHIST TEACHING.

 GYANA MUDRA

 THE GYANA MUDRA (MUDRA OF KNOWLEDGE) is performed by touching the tips of the
thumb and the index together,forming a circle and the hand is held with the palm inwards
toward the heart.
 KARANA MUDRA

 The Karana Mudra is the mudra, which expels the demons and removes obstacle such as
sickness or negative thoughts. This mudra is also known as TARJANI MUDRA.

 THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF BUDDHISM IDEOLOGY

 ARCHITECTURE

BHARHUT STUPA SANCHI STUPA

 The MAHAPARINIRVAN SUTTA of the Sutta Pitaka mentions Buddha, on his death bed, asking for
the erection of Thupa (Pali name for Stupa).
 ASHOKAVARDANA, another Buddhist text, mentions Ashoka distributing portions of the
Buddha's relics to every important town and ordering the construction of stupas over them.
 Many stupas e.g. at BHARHUT, SANCHI AND SARNATH, is the world-renowned for its gateway,
railing (constructed by the 2nd century BC).

SARNATH STUPA AMRAVATI STUPA

 Buddhist images began to best made by the MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART (WHICH
DEVELOPED DURING THE KUSHANA PERIOD). Even the subject matter of the
GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ART, also called Greco-Buddhist, was also predominantly
Buddhist.

 Buddhism also enriched the Pali language and led to the establishment of residential
universities NALANDA (BIHAR), TAXILA (NORTH-WEST FRONTIER REGION) etc.
 Buddhist missionaries aided in breaking India's isolation and in connecting it with the rest of
the world, besides promoting trade and commerce.
 THE DECLINE OF BUDDHISM

 By the 12th century, AD Buddhism became practically extinct in India.

 Gradually, the Buddhist monks were cut off from the mainstream of people's life as they gave
up Pali, (language of people) and took to SANSKRIT, LANGUAGE OF THE INTELLECTUALS).
 The new form o f Buddhism was known as Vajrayana.
 Entry of women into the Buddhist sanghas and the attacks of the Huna kings in the 6 thcentury
AD and those of the Turkish invaders in the 12th century AD brought about a rapid extinction
of Buddhism.

 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

Founders of both the religions had a common background of Aryan culture.
Both the religions were founded by Kshatriyas in Eastern India.
Both were against the naturalistic interpretation of Vedas and opposed Brahminical
domination.
Both preached truth, non-violence, celibacy and detachment from material comforts.
Both were non-theistic religions.
Both believed in Karma and rebirth.
Both allowed the sudras and women to follow their religion, become monks and attain
salvation.
Both of them spread as a result of teaching in the language of the common man.
Both were opposed to the caste system, but could not eliminate it.

 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

Jainism gave prominence to lay followers, while Buddism relied mainly on the Sangha and its
monks. The method of attaining salvation for Jainas was an extreme one, but for the
Buddhists it was quite moderate. Jainism was confined to India, whereas Buddhism spread
rapidly to foreign lands. Jainism was more liberal in its treatment of women. Jainism believed
in soul while Buddhism did not.Jainism laid emphasis on Ahimsa. In Buddhism, Ahimsa meant
liberal feelings and practical behaviour.

 CAUSES OF THE POPULARITY OF BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

 Buddhism used Pali, the language of common people which aided in their spread.
  Buddhism did not indulge in metaphysical discussions and suggested a simple and practical
way of living.
 They were patronised by various kingdoms.
 THE NANDAS PATRONISED JAINISM, WHILE THE MAURYAS PATRONISED BUDDHISM.
 THEY DID NOT ATTACH MUCH IMPORTANCE TO THE EXISTING VARNA SYSTEM AND HENCE APPEALED
MUCH TO THE LOWER CLASSES ESPECIALLY TO THE VAISHYAS.

 OTHER HETERODOX SECTS

 THE AJIVIKAS were a heterodox sect founded by GOSALA MASKANRIPUTERA or

MAKHALI, who was at first a close friend and later a strong opponent of Mahavira.
 He believed in fate called Niyati, Ajivikas prospered during the Pre-Mauryan and Mauryan
times, but declined later.
 AJITA KESHAKAMBALIM was the earliest Known teacher of complete materialism.He
propagated the annihilations. Later the LOKAYATA CHARVAKA SCHOOL originated from
this doctrine.
 MAHAJANAPADAS
Mahajanapadas represent the state system that emerged in the 6 th century BC.Mahajanapadas
symbolise amalgamation of large number of rural and urban settlements and were 16 in number .

 EMERGENCE OF THE MAHAJANAPADAS

 Expansion of the AGRICULTURAL communities as a result of new iron technology.
 Emergence of the GAHAPATIS AS LANDHOLDERS, who got the cultivation done by the slaves,
hired labourers etc.
 Emergence of important class of traders from the ranks of the Gahapatis, trade and
merchandise becoming independent economic activities by the 6 thcentury BC.
 Towns and cities developed thereafter.

 The Mahajanapadas symbolise the amalgamation of a large number of rural and urban
settlements and were perceived to be 16 in number in 600 BC.
ANGUTTARA NIKAYA (A PART OF THE SUTTA PITAKA) - 16 MAHAJANAPADAS at the time of
the Buddha.
 Similarly, the JAINA TEXT BHAGAVATI SUTRA and another BUDDHIST TEXT
MAHAVASTU also provides a list of the 16 MAHAJANAPADAS.
 The phase witnessed a greater accessibility to iron ores because of the eastward expansion
of Aryans and greater use of Iron made articles.
 On one hand, this gave strength to the ruler, on the other this brought agricultural revolution
as-well.
 These Mahajanapadas were either monarchical or republican in character.
 These republican states had a GANA PARISHAD (an assembly of senior and responsible
citizens), which had the supreme authority in the state.
 LIST OF ANCIENT JANAPADAS AND MAHAJANAPADAS
MAHAJANAP CAPITAL LOCATION
ADAS
ANGA Champa Modern districts of Monger and Bhagalpur in Bihar.

MAGADHA Earlier Rajgriha, later Covered the modern districts of Patna, Gaya, and parts of
Patliputra Shahabad.

MALLA Capitals at Kusinara and Pawa Covered the modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhpur and
Siddarthnagar in eastern UP.

VAJJI Vaishali Situated north of the river Ganga in Bihar.

KOSALA Sravasti Covered modern day districts of Faziabad, Gonda, Bahraich of

eastern Uttar Pradesh.

KASHI Varanasi Located in the region around Varanasi (modern Banaras).

CHEDI Shuktimati Covered present day Bundelkhand region.

KURU Indraprastha Covered modern Haryana and Delhi.

VATSA Kaushambi Covered modern districts Allahabad, Mirzapur.

PANCHALA Ahichhatra (Uttara Panchala) Covered the area of present western UP up to the east of river
and Kampilya( Dakshina Yamuna up to Kosala janapada.
Panchala)

MATSYA Viratanagara Covered the areas of Alwar, Bhartpur and Jaipur in Rajasthan.

SURSENA Mathura Covered the area around Mathura.

AVANTI Ujjaini and Mahishmati Covered the western India (modern Malawa).

ASHMAKA Potana Situated in the southern part of the India between the rivers
Narmada and Godavari.

KAMBOJA Capital at Rajapura in modern- Covered the area of Hindukush (modern Hazara districts of
day Kashmir Pakistan)

GANDHARA Taxila Covered the western part of Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan.
 THE RISE OF MAGADHA

 The period from 6th to 4th century BC saw the struggle for supremacy amongst the four
Mahajanapadas-MAGADHA, KOSALA, VATSA AND AVANTI.
 Ultimately, it was Magadha, which emerged as the most powerful and prosperous kingdom in
North India.
 Though the founders of Magadha were JARASANDHA AND BRIHADRATHA, its actual growth
started under the Haryankas.
  CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF MAGADHA
 Advantageous geographical location with both Rajagriha and Pataliputra situated at strategic
locations.
 As aresult of its location, Magadha could also effectively command the Uttrapatha or the
Northern route, lying to the North of the river Ganges.
 The river also facilitated transportation by acting as an artery connecting Magadha with
different regions.
 Abundance of natural resources, such as iron, enabled the Magadhan rulers to equip
themselves with effective weapons, thereby facilitating the expansion of the agrarian
economy and thus generating enough surplus so extracted by the state in the form of taxes.
 The alluvial soil of the Gangetic valley and sufficient rainfall were very conducive for
agriculture.Rise of towns and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce.
 Use of elephants on a large-scale in the wars.

 THE HARYANKA DYNASTY (542-412 BC)

  The earliest capital of Magadha was GIRIVRAJA, which was later changed to RAJA-GRIHA.

According to a Chinese pilgrim, Bimbisara founded the city of Rajagriha at the foot hills lying
to the North of Girivraja.

 BIMBISARA (554-492 BC)

 He was CONTEMPORARY OF THE BUDDHA and the first king to have a standing army.
 He defeated the ANGA KING BRAHMA DUTTA and strengthened his position by matrimonial
alliances. He placed Anga under the viceroyalty of Ajatashatru at Champa.
 His three wives ---
PLACE QUEEN
 KOSALA --- (MAHAKOSALADEVI, SISTER OF PRASENJIT) -- KASHI VILLAGE AS DOWRY.
 LICHCHHAVIS --- (CHELLANA) – VAISHALI VILLAGE AS DOWRY.
 MADRA --- (KHEMA) CLAN OF PUNJAB.

 AJATASHATRU (492-460 BC)

 He was the son of Chellana and Bimbisara and occupied the throne by killinghis father.
 He defeated hismaternal uncle Prasenjit, the King of Kosala and married his daughter Vajjira .
 He destroyed Vaishali the Capital of the Licchavi, after a protracted war of16 years by sowing
the seeds of discord amongst the rulers of Vaishali.
 Buddha died during his reign and he patronised the First Buddhist Council .
 Sunidha and Vatsakar were Ajatashatru's diplomaticministers.
 UDAYIN (460-444 BC)
 Son and successor of Ajatashatru.
 He built the fort upon the confluence of theGanga and the Son rivers at Pataliputra
(Patna) and transferred the capitalfrom Rajagriha to Pataliputra.

 THE SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY (412-344 BC)

 Founder- SHISHUNAG.
 Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power ofAvanti with its capital at
Ujjain.This brought an end to the 100 year old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.
 SHISHUNAGA WAS SUCCEEDED BY KALASHOKA (KAKAVARNA), WHO TRANSFERRED THE CAPITAL FROM
VAISHALI TO PATALIPUTRA.
 The rule of the Shishunaga was short and gave way to the Nanda dynasty under Mahapadma
Nanda.

THE NANDA DYNASTY (344-323 BC)

 First non-Kshatriya dynasty.

 Mahapadma Nanda (founder of the Nanda dynasty), also known as EKARAT, CHHATRI AND
SARVAKSHATRANTAKA.
 The last Nanda ruler, Dhana Nanda, was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya who founded the
Mauryan empire.
 The HATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTION of King Kharavela also indicates their control over someparts of
Kalinga (Modern Orissa).
 The Nanda rule collapsed by 321 BC.
  THE PRE-MAURYAN SOCIAL SYSTEM

The tribal community had been clearly divided into four Varnas i.e. Brahmanas, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Shudras. The Dharmasutras laid down the duties of each of the four Varnas and
the civil and criminal laws came to be based on the Varna division. Patriarchal tendencies
became dominant. Women were looked down in comparison to men. They were to remain
under the tutelage of the male members and were not entitled to either education or the
Upanayana ceremony.

IRANIAN OR PERSIAN INVASION

 The Achaemenian rulers of Iran, who expanded their empire at the same time as did the
Magadhan kings, took advantages of the political disunity of the North-Western frontier.
 Herodotus, the Greek historian, also known as the Father of History states that in 516 BC,
DARIUS (552-486 BC), the grandson of Cyrus, sent a naval expedition to explore the valley of
the Sindhu river.

 EFFECTS OF THE PERSIAN INVASION

 Introduction of the Aramaic form of writing, which later developed into the Kharosthi
alphabets.
 Promotion of Indo-Iranian trade.
  Geographical exploration of the Indus and Arabian sea, leading to the opening up of a new
water route.
 Fusion of the Persian features, quite visible in the Mauryan art.

 ALEXANDER'S INVASION (THE CREEK INVASION)

ALEXANDER

 In the 4th century BC, the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supremacy of the world.
 The Greek ruler Alexander conquered not only Asia Minor and Iraq, but also Iran.
 From Iran, he marched to India, attracted by its wealth.
 After the conquest of Iran, Alexander moved on to Kabul, from where he marched to India
through the Khyber Pass.

 AMBHI, THE RULER OF TAXILA, readily submitted to the invader, augmented his army and
replenished his treasure.
 WAR OF HYDAPES BETWEEN PORUS AND ALEXANDER (326 BC)
 Porus fought bravely, but was defeated.

 EFFECTS OF THE GREEK INVASION

 It opened up the trade route between the North-West India and Western Asia and Europe
came into contact. The Greek Art influenced the architecture of the period, for instance, the
Ashokan pillars have been influenced by the same.

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

 ORIGIN OF THE MAURYAN RULE

CHANDRAGUPTA
  Chandragupta was assisted by the Brahmin Kautilya, also known as CHANAKYA OR
VISHNUGUPTA to rise to power.
 Chandragupta’s origins are shrouded in mystery. The Greek sources (which are the oldest)
mention him to be of non-warrior lineage.
 The Hindu sources also say he was a student of Kautilya of humble birth (probably born to a
Shudra woman).
 Most Buddhist sources say he was a Kshatriya.

 LITERARY SOURCES FOR THE MAURYAN PERIOD

 ARTHASHASTRA

 CHANAKYA WROTE THE ARTHASHASTRA, one of the greatest treatises on ECONOMICS, POLITICS,
FOREIGN AFFAIRS, ADMINISTRATION, MILITARY ARTS, WAR AND RELIGION.
 It is written inprose as well as in verse (in Sanskrit).
 Most important duty of a monarch was to keep the treasury full at all times.

 MUDRARAKSHASA

 It is a historical play in SANSKRIT BY VISHAKHADATTA (of 4th century AD).

 PURANAS
 The Puranas contain some old traditions and provide chronology of the Mauryas.
 The Vishnu purana describes the origin of Nandas and their overthrow by Kautilya and
Chandragupta Maurya.

 MAHAVAMSATIKA
 It’s a commentary on the Mahavamsa, containing information about the origin of the
Mauryas.
 PARISISTHAPARVAN
 It s a Jaina work, written by HEMACHANDRA and is a biography of Chanakya.

RAJATARANGINI OF KALHANA, KATHASARITSAGAR OF SOMADEV AND BRIHATKATHA MANJARI OF

KSHEMENDRA ALSO PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT THE MAURYAN PERIOD.

 BUDDHIST JATAKAS

 Jatakas describe the stories of previous births of Gautam Buddha.

 MANJUSRIMULKALPA
 A non-canonical Buddhist work, contains important facts including those of the Nandas and
Mauryas.

 FOREIGN LITERARY SOURCES

 GREEK GOVERNOR STRABO (64 BC-19 AD) wrote important geographical works. He also refers to the
matrimonial alliance between Seleucus Nicator and Chandragupta Maurya.

PLINY

 The Work of DIODORUS (1ST CENTURY BC) is the earliest available Greek account of India.
 PLINY (1ST CENTURY AD) is the author of Natural History (75 AD).
 PLUTARCH (45-125 AD) mentions CHANDRAGUPTA AS ANDROKOTTUS and states that Chandragupta had met
Alexander.
 JUSTIN (2ND CENTURY AD) mentions CHANDRAGUPTA AS SANDRO-COTTUS and gives an account of Chandragupta
Maurya's rise to power.
 ARRIAN (130-172 AD) narrates the best available account of Alexander's expedition and India's geography
andsocial life.
 MAURYAN RULERS
 CHANDRAGUPTAMAURYA (321 -298 BC)

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA CHANAKYA

 The Mauryan dynasty was founded by CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (AT THE AGE OF 25).
 With the help of CHANAKYA, he overthrew the last Nanda ruler DHANA NANDA and
established the rule of the Mauryan Dynasty.
 In 305 BC, Chandragupta moved towards north-west for a campaign against Seleucus
Nicator, which ended with a treaty of 303 BC, in favour of the Mauryas.
 Chandragupta gave 500 elephants to Seleucus and in return, Seleucus gave him EASTERN
AFGHANISTAN, BALUCHISTAN AND THE AREAS WEST OF INDUS.
 There was also a matrimonial alliance between Seleucus and Chandragupta.
 OBSERVATIONS OF MEGASTHENES ABOUT MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION

 MEGASTHENES was the ambassador of SELEUCUS NICATORin the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
He lived in Indiafrom 304-299 BC.He compiled his account about the Mauryan empire in his book
INDICA.

HE OBSERVED THE FOLLOWING-----

 The king was at the pivot of the administrative structure. He employed alarge number of spies. .
Laws were severe and the crimes wererare. He described the administration of thecapital city by 6
boards, each with 5 men. In-charge of Crafts and Industry, Trade and Commerce, Tax Collection,
Foreigners,Collection of Statistical Information andPublic Works.According to his observation, famine
never occurred in India.
 He recognised seven castes in the Indian society.
 These were philosopher, farmers, herdsmen/shepherd, traders and artisans.warriors, over seers,
councillors andassessors.

 BINDUSARA (298-273BC)

 He was the son of Chandragupta and was known as AMITROCHATES (MEANING SLAYER OF THE
FOES) BY GREEK WRITERS.
 He continued his friendly relations with the Syrian King ANTIOCHUS I.

 Dionysius the ambassador of Antiochus-I was said to have been residing in his court.
 Bindusara's religious leanings are said to be more towards the AJIVIKA SECT.

 ASHOKA (273-232 BC)

  Bindusara appointed his eldest son SUSIMA OR SUMANA AS THE VICEROY OF TAXILA AND ASHOKA

AT UJJAIN. There was a revolt in Taxila during the time of Susima. Bindusara deputed
Ashoka to restore order, who successfully completed the mission.

MASKI EDICT CALCUTTA- BHABRU INSCRIPTION

TITLES AND OTHER NAMES OF ASHOKA
 ASHOKA (SORROW-FREE) occurs only once in the inscriptions of MASKI EDICT.
 In the PURANAS he is referred to as ASHOKAVARDHANA.
 In CALCUTTA-BHABRU INSCRIPTION Ashoka refers to him as PIYADASI, THE KING OF MAGADHA.
 He Assumed two titles PIYADASI AND DEVANAMPRIYA PRIYADARSHI.

 ASCENDING THE THRONE

 Although Ashoka came into power in 273 BC, but his coronation took place 4 years later i.e. in
269 BC.
 KALINGA- WAR (265 BC)

ASHOKA UPGUPTA

 Ashoka fought only one major war, the Kalinga War in the 9th year of his reign.
 The XIIITH ROCK EDICT describes the horrors and miseries of this war and the deep remorse it
caused to Ashoka.
 THE BHABRU INSCRIPTION states that 2 years after the war, Ashoka became an ardent
supporter of Buddhism, under the influence of the Buddhist monk UPAGUPTA.
 ASHOKA'S DHAMMA

 The Dhamma, according to the Ashoka's edict, is not a religion or religious system, but a
moral law (a common code of conduct).
 In PILLAR EDICT 11, Ashoka asked people to—
 Show respect towards elders.
 Abstain from the killing of living beings.
 To maintain the purity of heart and truthfulness,
 Gentleness,
 Self-control etc.
 Promote religious tolerance.
 For the propagation of Dhamma appointed - DHAMMA MAHAMATTAS,
 The ROCK EDICT XIII and many other edicts describe the code of duties or the practical
Dhamma.
 MEASURES FOR 'THE PROPAGATION OF DHAMMA

Issue of Dhamma lipis and Dhamma stambhas.

Appointment of Dhamma- Mahamatras.
Preaching of Dhamma.
Dhamma yatras, royal tours for the propagation of Dhamma.
Dhamma mangala public welfare activities in accordance with the spirit of
Dhamma.Administrative measures.

 Mahindra and Sanghamitra - (Sri Lanka).

 ASHOKAN EDICTS

--- JAMES PRINCEP

 Ashoka was the first Indian ruler to issue edicts.
 Ashokan edicts were inscribed either on the pillars of stone or on rocks. They consist of Major
and Minor groups. They give information on the life and reign of the kings.
  Different LANGUAGES LIKE PRAKRIT, GREEK, ARAMAIC and different scripts like BRAHMI, KHAROSHTI

WERE USED. The most widely used script was Brahmi. Kharoshti was widely used in the
inscriptions found in modern-day Pakistan. Greek and Aramaic was used in inscriptions found
in Afghanistan - for example, the bilingual Greek-Aramaic inscription found in Kandahar.
 THESE EDITS WERE DECODED BY BRITISH ARCHAEOLOGIST AND HISTORIAN JAMES PRINCEP.

 MAJOR ROCK EDICTS

They are a set of 14 inscriptions found at 8 places such as Dhauli, Girnar, Jauguda, Kalsi,
Mansehra, Shahbazgarhi, Sopara and Yerragudi. The Major Rock Edicts also include two
separate edicts found at Kalinga. They deal with administration and ethics.

 MINOR ROCK EDICTS

These are spread on 13 places Bairat, Brahmagiri, Gavimath, Gujarra, Jatinga-Rameshwar,
Maski, Palkigunda, Maadagiri, Rupanath, Sasaram, Siddhapur, Suvarnagiri and Yerragudi. The
Minor Rock Edict includes
 KANDHAR ARAMAIC INSCRIPTION

KANDAHAR INSCRIPTION
It is located at Kandahar and express satisfaction over Ashoka's polices.

BHABRU INSCRIPTION
It is located at Bairat in Rajasthan and deals with ASHOKA'S CONVERSION TO BUDDHISM.

 ASHOKA’S MAJOR ROCK EDICTS

EDICT ASHOKA INSCRIPTION DETAILS

EDICT I Prohibition of animal sacrifice, especially during festive seasons.
EDICT II Mentions the Pandyas, Satyapuras and Keralaputras of South India.
EDICT III Measures to spread Dhamma.
EDICT IV Dhammaghosha (sound of Dhamma/righteousness) over Bherighosha (sound of war).
The King Ashoka attached greatest value to his duty.
EDICT V About Dhammamahamatras & Dhamma Ghosa.
EDICT VI King’s desire to know about his people’s conditions. About welfare measures.
EDICT VII Tolerance towards religions among all sects.
EDICT VIII Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree (his first Dhamma Yatra). Gave
importance to Dhamma tours.
EDICT IX Condemns popular ceremonies. Stresses on moral conduct.
EDICT X Disapproves of the individual’s desire for fame and glory and stresses on Dhamma.
EDICT XI Dhamma is the best policy to follow, which includes respect for elders and concern for slaves and
servants.
EDICT XII It mentions Mahamattas in charge of women’s welfare.
EDICT XIII Mentions victory over Kalinga. The thirteenth rock edict which was issued at the end of
the Kalinga war gives a vivid picture of the change of Ashoka from an aggressive and
violent warrior to a great lover and preacher of peace. The direct and immediate effect
of the Kalinga war was the conversion of Ashoka to Buddhism.
EDICT XIV Purpose of rock edicts.

 PILLAR EDICTS
 There are seven pillar edicts.
 Generally, they are made of sandstone quarried from Chunar.
  All the pillars are monoliths (carved out of stone) and the surface is well polished.
 They have been found from different places like Kandahar (Afghanistan), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan), Delhi,
Vaishali and Champaran (Bihar), Sarnath and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), and Sanchi
(Madhya Pradesh).
 The pillars depict animals such as elephants and lions and wheels and lotuses which are all significant symbols in
Buddhism.
 The majestic pillar edicts have been found at TOPRA, RAMPURVA, NIGALI SAGAR, LAURIYA-ARARAJ, LAURIYA
NANDANGARH, SARNATH AND MEERUT. Feroz Shah Tughlaq shifted pillars, one from Topra and the other from
Meerut, to Delhi.

TOPRA PILLAR RAMPURVA BULL CAPITAL NIGALI SAGAR PILLAR (LUMBINI)

LAURIYA-ARARAJ LAURIYA NANDANGARH SARNATH PILLAR

EDICT ASHOKA INSCRIPTION DETAILS

Pillar Edict I Ashoka’s principle of protecting his people.

Pillar Edict II Defines Dhamma as minimum of sins, many virtues, compassion, liberty, truthfulness and purity.

Pillar Edict III Avoiding practices of cruelty, sin, harshness, pride and anger among his subjects.

Pillar Edict IV Responsibilities of the Rajukas.

Pillar Edict V List of animals and birds that should not be killed on certain days. Another list mentions animals
that should never be killed. Describes release of 25 prisoners. This pillar edict is also known
as Delhi-Topra Pillar Edict.

Pillar Edict VI Dhamma policy of the State (welfare of the people).

Pillar Edict VII Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma. Tolerance for all sects. Also, about Dhamma Mahamattas.

 MINOR PILLAR INSCRIPTIONS

RURNMINDEI
  RURNMINDEI PILLAR INSCRIPTION
It mentions the exemption of Lumbini (birth place of Buddha) from tax.

NIGLIVA SAGAR
 NIGALI OR NIGLIVA SAGAR PILLAR INSCRIPTION
It is located in Kapilavastu. It informs about Ashoka increasing the size of stupa of Buddha
Konakamana to double of its former size.
 SCHISM EDICT
It is located at Kausambi, Sanchi and Sarnath. It appeals for maintaining unity in Buddhist
order.

BARBARA CAVE
 BARABARA CAVE INSCRIPTION
It is located in Bihar. THEY SPEAK ABOUT ASHOKA'S DONATION OF CAVE TO THE AJIVIKAS.
 KAUSAMBI EDICTS ARE KNOWN AS QUEEN'S EDICT

QUEEN KARUVAKI
They indicate about donations given by QUEEN KARUVAKI.

 OTHER RELEVANT INSCRIPTIONS AND IMPORTANT EDICTS:

EDICT/ INSCRIPTION REMARKS
ALLAHABAD – KOSAM/QUEENS Ashoka asks the members of the Sangha to refrain from causing division
EDICT/KAUSAMBI OR SCHISM EDICT
in the ranks.Samudragupta’s inscription is on this edict itself.Jahangir
shifted it to the fort at Allahabad.

KANDAHAR INSCRIPTION It is a famous bilingual edict in Greek and Aramaic.

KALINGA EDICTS (BHAULI AND Mentions ‘All men are my children.’

JAUGADA)
SANNATI INSCRIPTION (KARNATAKA) Site of all 14 major rock edicts as well as two separate Kalinga edicts.

RUMMINDEI INSCRIPTION (NEPAL) It mentions that the village of Lumbini (birthplace of the Buddha) be
 exempted from bali and was to pay only one-eighth of the bhaga.

GIRNAR ROCK INSCRIPTION OF Mentions the Sudarshan lake constructed by Pushyagupta, a rashtriya
RUDRADAMAN
(means provincial governor) of Saurashtra during Chandragupta
(KATHIAWAR)
Maurya’s reign.

INSCRIPTIONS AT SHAHBAZGARHI AND Written in Kharosthi script.

MANSEHRA.

 The tenth and the last of the Mauryas was BRIHADRATHA, who was murdered by his General
PUSHYAMITRA SUNGA. This was the end of Mauryan dynasty.

 THE MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION

 The Mauryan Empire had major administrative units like the Centre and the Provinces, which
had various sub-units down to the village and all came under the purview of central
administration.
 At the centre of the structure, was the king, who had the power to enact laws.
 The king was called by Kautilya as DHARMAPRAVARTAKA or Promulgator of the social order.
 THE HIGHEST FUNCTIONARIES AT THE CENTRE WERE CALLED TIRTHAS.
 There were total eighteen Tirthas.

 PROVINCES AND THEIR CAPITALS

  MAGADHA PROVINCE - PATALIPUTRA.
 GANDHARA PROVINCE (NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE) - TAXILA.
 AVANTI (EASTERN PROVINCE) UJJAIN.
 SOUTHERN PROVINCE - SWARNAGIRI.
 KALINGA - TOSALI.

 THE CITY ADMINISTRATION

Nagarika was the City Superintendent, assisted by two officials. According to Megasthenese,
the City Council was divided into six boards of five, each with the following functions
- To look after everything related to industrial art.
-To attend to the entertainment of foreigners.
- To register birth and death.
- Regulation of trade and commerce.
- Supervised manufactured articles.
- Collected the title on the prices of goods sold and evasion of this tax was
punishable with death.
  JUDICIARY

 The king was the head of justice, the fountain head of law and all matters of grave
consequences were decided by him.
 The sources of law as mentioned by Kautilya were as follows Dharma
VYAUAHARA (CURRENT LEGAL CODES)
CHARITRA (CUSTOMS)
RAJASASANA (ROYAL DECREE)
 The CHIEF JUSTICE CALLED THE DHARMADHIKARINA, presided the Supreme Court.
 There were two types ofcourts ----
 DHARMASTHEYA-- Civil Courts, headed by the Dharmastha.
 KANTAKASODHAN-- Criminal Court, headed by the Pradeshika.

 MAURYAN ARMY

 According to Megasthenes, Chandragupta had at his disposal, a formidable army

numbering about 600000. The army consisted of foot soldiers, elephants and horses. It had
30000 cavalry and 900 elephants.

 ESPIONAGE NETWORK
 The spieswere of two types SANSTHAN (STATIONARY) AND SANCHARI (WANDERING).
 They were also called GUDHAPURUSHAS.
  DIFFERENT TYPES OF TAXES
1 BHAGA --- LAND REVENUE (1/6TH SHARE OF THE PRODUCTION)
2 BALL --- ADDITIONAL TAX
3. CHORARAJJU --- TAX COLLECTED FOR THE SEARCH OF THIEF
4. PRANAVA --- EMERGENCY TAX
5. PINDAKARAS --- TAXES PAID IN KIND BY VILLAGES, COLLECTED ANNUALLY
6. PRAVESHYA --- IMPORT DUTY
7. SENABHAKTAM --- TAX FOR ARMY, FROM THE REGION THROUAH WHICH IT PASSED
8. SULKA --- CUSTOM DUTY
9. VISHTI --- FORCED LABOUR/PAID LABOUR
10. HIRANYA --- A TAX PAID IN CASH
11. UDAYABHANU --- INCOME TAX
12. NISHKRAMYA --- EXPORT DUTY

 SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIFE
SOCIAL LIFE
 Well developed caste system based upon occupation rather than birth.
 The institutions of marriage and polygamy, both were present.
 Women enjoyed high status.
 No slavery.
 There were proper hospitals and bheshajas (doctors) appointed alongwith a team of
midwives and nurses etc.

 ECONOMIC CONDITION
 The mainstay of the economy was agriculture, though trade was becoming increasingly more
important.
 AGRICULTURE
 GANA SANGHA SYSTEMwith communal ownership of land continued.
 There arealso references to state-owned lands called SITA LANDS,which were worked under
the supervision of theSITADHYAKSHA.
 The RUMMINDEI INSCRIPTIONis the only Ashokan inscription whichmakes a precise
reference to taxation.

 TRADE AND NAVIGATION

Trade was organised in MERCHANT-GUILDS (SANGHAS AND SRENIS).The sale of merchandise
was strictly regulated by the state and a TOLL TAX OF 1/5TH of the value of the commodity
was levied.
 CURRENCY
  The punch marked silver coins, which carried the crescent, the symbols of the peacock and
the hill called PANA, formed the imperial currency of the Mauryans.
 Copper punch marked coins were pieced copper MASIKA was the token currency.
 Kautilya refers the state officer’s incharge of coinage, the SUVARNADHYAKSHA.

 ART AND ARCHITECTURE

 Use of pillars and creation of individual artists was the typical quality of Mauryan art.
 The artistic remains of the Mauryan period come under the following heads

 PILLARS AND SCULPTURE

 The pillars were made of two types of stone.

 Some were of the spotted red and white sand stone others of buff coloured fine grained
hayden grey.
 The best example is the SARNATH PILLAR, the four lions standing back to back and the
figure of four animals (LION, HORSE, ELEPHANT AND BULL) in relief on the abacus, the inverted
lotus and the sacred Dharma Chakra (24 spokes), all indicating a highly advanced form of art.
 STUPAS

SANCHI STUPA AMRAVATI STUPA SARNATH STUPA

 The main purpose of building stupas was to enshrine some relics of Buddha or some great
Buddhist monk.

 CAVES

BARABARA CAVE

 The caves primarily served as residence of monks and assembly halls.

 Caves in BARABARA HILLS are the finest examples.
 LOMAS RISHI AND SUDAMA CAVES (GAYA) was donated by Ashoka to AJIVIKAS.

 PALACES

REMAINS OF MAURYAN PALACE (KUMRAHAR)

 Excavations have revealed a Royal palace in ruined condition near Kumrahar.

 TERRACOTTA OBJECTS

 Terracottas of Mauryan period consist of primitive idols or images, toys, dice, ornaments and
beads etc.

 FOLK ARTS
The examples include Yaksha of Parkham, Yakshini of Besnagar and Chamargrahini of
Didarganj. These statues aremade of stone.

 DECLINE OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

The decline was complete within half a century after the death of Ashoka.

POST-MAURYAN AGE
 NORTHERN AND EASTERN INDIA
THE SUNGA DYNASTY (185-75 BC)
 The information about the Sunga dynasty is found in –
GARGI SAMHITA,
THE MAHABHASYA OF PATANJALI,
MALAVIKAGNIMITRAM OF KALIDASA
HARSHACHARITA OF BANABHATTA.

 The capital of the Sungas was PATALIPUTRA AND VIDISHA.

 PUSHYAMITRA SUNGA, who assassinated the last Mauryan King Brihadrathain 184 BC, was
the founder of the Sunga dynasty.

PUSHYAMITRA SUNGA PATANJALI

 The great GRAMMARIAN PATANJALI was a contemporary of Pushyamitra.
 PUSHYAMITRA SUNGA, is credited to repulse the two attacks of Greeks, one under Demetrius
and, another under Menander.
 PUSHYAMITRA WAS SUCCEEDED BY HIS SON AGNIMITRA , who was the hero of KALIDASA'S
DRAMA MALAVIKAGNIMITRAM.
  The next important ruler of this dynasty was VASUMITRA.
 The last king of this dynasty was DEVBHUTI.
 He was put to death by his minister VASUDEVA KANVA IN 75 BC. Thus, the kingdom of
Magadha was passed from the Sungas to the Kanvas.

 IMPORTANCE OF THE SUNGA PERIOD

 REVIVAL OF BRAHMANISM AND GROWING IMPORTANCE OF BHAGAVATA RELIGION.
 Safeguarding of India from the invasions of Hunas.
 Sunga period saw a flowering of the visual arts, architectural movements such as the
CHAITYA HALL AT BHAJA, THE STUPA AT BHARHUT AND THE RENOWNED GREAT STUPA AT
SANCHI.

 HUNAS

 Hunas were one of the fierce tribes from Central Asia.

 They had been invading India since the Sunga period.
 Weakness of Gupta empire provided them with a chance to occupy Eastern Malwa and a,
good portion of Central India.

 THE KANVA DYNASTY (75-30 BC)

Four important kings of the Kanva dynasty are as follows
1. Vasudeva 2. Bhumimitra
3. Narayana 4. Susharman

 CHEDl DYNASTY OF KALINGA CHETAS

(CHEDIS)
  Their capital was Kalinganagar.
 The first known king of thisdynasty was MAHAMEGHAVARMANA.
 The greatest and themost powerful king of the dynasty was KHARAVELA.
 The only source of information about the king Kharavela isthe Hathigumpha inscription
written in Prakrit languageand Brahmi script.

HATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTION HATHIGUMPHA

 Kharavela was a follower of Jainism.

 DECCAN AND CENTRAL INDIA

THE SATAVAHANA DYNASTY(230 BC-220 AD)
 The Satavahanas appeared as the successors of the Mauryasin Deccan.
 The Puranas list thirty kings of the dynasty rulingfor over 460 years.
 Two inscriptions of the Satavahanas i.e. THE NANAGHAT AND THE NASIK
INSCRIPTIONhave been discovered inMaharashtra.
 NANAGHAT INSCRIPTION NASIK INSCRIPTION
 It was customary for their king tobe named after his mother.
 Such names as GAUTAMIPUTRA AND VASISHTAPUTRAindicate that in their society, the
motherenjoyed a great deal of importance.

GAUTAMIPUTRA SATAKARNI
 ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE SATAVAHANAS

STUPAS OF AMRAVATI CHAITYAS OF KARLE(M.H.)

 The stupas of Amravatiand Chaityas of Karle were the most important.
 Most of the coins of Satavahanas are made of lead.
  TheSatavahana kings were lovers of literature.
 The Prakritlanguage prospered well during this period.
 HALA WROTE GATHA SAPTASATI, GUNADHYA WROTE BRIHAT KATHA.

 INVASION FROM CENTRAL ASIA

 INDO-GREEKS
 The first to invade India were the Greeks, who were also called the Bactrian Greeks.
 In the beginning of 2nd centuryBC, the Indo-Greeks occupied a large part of North-
WesternIndia.
 The most famous INDO-GREEK RULER WAS MENANDER (165-145 BC ), with his capital at
Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Pakistan.

 MENANDER WAS CONVERTED TO BUDDHISM BY BUDDHIST MONK NAGASENA.

 His reign has been mentioned in the famous work MILINDA PANHA, written by Buddhist
scholar Nagasena.

 The Indo-Greek rule is important in the history of Indiabecause of a large number of coins,
which the Greeks issued,are the first ones whose coins carried the portraits of kingsand their
names.
  The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers inIndia to issue coins, which can be definitely attributed
tothe king.
 The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India .
 The Greek rule introducedfeatures of Hellenistic art in the North-West frontier of India.
 This artwas not purely Greek.
 Gandhara artwas its best example in India.

GANDHARA ART
 THE SHAKAS (90 BC-100 AD)

 The Greeks were followed by the Shakas.

 The most famous Shaka ruler of Taxila was Maues or Moga (20 BC-20AD) and that of Mathura
were Bhumaka and Nahpana.
  RUDRADAMAN I

 The Shakas used prestigious titles such as Rajadhiraja in addition toMaharaj.

 The most famous Shaka's ruler in India was Rudradaman I(130-150 AD).
 He is famous in history because of the repairs he undertook to improvethe Sudarshana lake
in the Semi-arid zone of Kathiawar.
 Although, aforeigner settled in India, he issued the first ever long INSCRIPTION IN
(SANSKRIT LANGUAGE) THE JUNAGADH ROCK INSCRIPTION.

 THE PARTHIANS (247 BC-224 AD)

 The Shakas' domination in North-Western India was followed byParthians and in many
Ancient Indian Sanskrit texts, they aretogether mentioned as Shakas-Pallavas.
 Originally, theParthians lived in Iran from where they moved to India.
 In comparisonwith the Greeks and the Shakas' they occupied a small portion ofNorth-Western
India in the 1st century.
  The most famous Parthian's king was GONDOPHERNES, in whose reignST. THOMASis said to
have come to India for the propagation ofChristianity.

 THE KUSHANAS (45-73 AD)

 The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas, who were also calledYue Chi .
 The Kushanas Chief Kujula Kadphises united the various tribes of Yue Chi.
 Kadphises I, also known as Kujula Kadphises I,who crossed the Hindukush mountainsand laid
the foundation of Kushana empire.
 He was succeeded by his son Kadphises II (Wema Kadphises), who issued a large number
ofgold coins and spread his kingdom East of the Indus.
 The house of Kadphises was succeeded byKanishka, the most well known and greatest kingof
all the Kushana kings (78 AD).

KUSHANA KING KANISHKA

KANISHKA
 SUSHRUTA (FATHER OF COSMETIC SURGERY)
Kanishka patronized Charaka who wrote Charaka Samhita. Another greatmedical student,
Sushruta, also belonged to Kanishka'stime. He wrote thesushruta Samhita.Kanishka was the
most famous Kushana ruler. Thecapital of Kanishka I was Purushpur near Peshawar
andMathura was his second capital. He is known to historybecause of two reasons. First, he
started an era in78 AD, which is known as the Shaka Era and heextended his whole hearted
patronage to Buddhism.He organised the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir'sKundalavana
on the advice of Parsvika. Vasumitraacted as the President while Asvaghosh was appointed
Vice-President. Kanishka court was adornedby the presence of such scholars as Parsava,
Vasumitra,Ashvaghosha. Charaka, Nagarjuna. During his reign Taxila and Mathura emerged
as a centres of art and culture.

 IMPACT OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACT

 SOCIAL IMPACT
 We find a large scale assimilation of foreigners intoIndian society.
 The invaders ultimately lost theiridentities in India and became fully indianised.
 Since, they came chiefly as conquerors, they wereclassified as Kshatriyas.
 The Shakas and the Kushanas introduced turban,trousers and long coat.
 The sherwani grew out ofthis long coat, caps, helmets and boots were alsointroduced in India
by these people.

 RELIGIOUS IMPACT
 The Greek ambassador, Heliodorus; set up a pillar inhonour of Vasudeva at Besnagar near
Vidisa(Madhya Pradesh) around the middle of the 2ndcentury BC.
 A few other rulers adopted Buddhism.The famous Greek ruler Menander became a Buddhist.
 The Kushan rulers worshipped both Shivaand the Buddha, and the images of these two
Godsappeared on the Kushan coins.

 MAHAYANA BUDDHISM
 The convening of council (At Kashmir) led to the division of Buddhism into two broad sects
the HINAYANA OR THERAVADA AND THE MAHAYANA.
  Mahayana Buddhism, also known as the GreatVehicle, is the form of Buddhism prominent in
NorthAsia, including China, Mongolia, Tibet, Korea andJapan.
 The Mahayana accepts the canonical texts of theTheravada tradition (what they derisively
call theHinayana or the lesser vehicle).

The most distinctive teaching of the Mahayana is that the great compassion that is an
inherent component of enlightenment is manifest in Bodhisattvas (enlightenment beings);
these beings postpone Nirvana (final enlightenment) in order to assist and guide those
beings still suffering in the cycle of rebirths.

 THERAVAD/HINAYANA
 Theravada means The way of the elders in Pali, reflecting the belief that they most closely
follow the original beliefsand practices of the Buddha and the early monastic elders.
 It isdominant in Southern Asia, especially in Sri Lanka, Myanmar(Burma), Thailand, Cambodia
and Laos. For this reason, it issometimes known as Southern Buddhism.
 The authoritative text for Theravadas is the Pali Canon, an earlyIndian collection of the
Buddha's teachings.
 The purpose of life for Theravadins is tobecome an Arhat/Arahant, a perfected saint, who
has achieved Nirvana and will not be reborn again.
 In Theravada, it is thought to be highly unlikely, even impossiblethat a lay person can achieve
liberation, because Mahayanadisagrees. It regards itself as providing a greater vehicle
toliberation, in which more people can participate.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HINAYANA AND MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

 ECONOMIC IMPACT
Many of the foreign princes patronised Sanskrit literature. Indian art made tremendous
progress on account of the support of the foreign princes. Indian artists and craftsmen came
into contact with the Greeks and the Romans, particularly in Gandhara. As a result, a new
kind of art developed. The contacts with the Greeks benefitted Indian astronomy and
astrology.

 EXPANSION AND MONETISATION OF TRADE AND ECONOMY

 TheIndo-Greek rulers were the frst to issue gold coins.

 Kushanas tooissued gold coins in considerable numbers.
 The Kushanas perhapsissued the largest number of copper coins.
 Expansionof trade and monetisation of economy led to the growth of urbancentres in the
country. The guild system seems to haveloosened the state control over the industrial life of
the country.
 COINS
 Various types of coins were in circulation in this period.
 Nishakha,Dinar Suvarna and Pala were gold coins.
 Shatman were silver coin.Kakani were coins of copper.
 The purest goldcoins could be attributed to Kushanas, who also issued themaximum number
of copper coins.

 SOCIETY IN THE POST-MAURYAN AGE

  This age witnessed many far reaching changes in thetraditional concept of varnaand within
the varnasystem emerged jatis.
 The concept of VratyaKshatriya and Varnasamkara came into existence.

 DEVELOPMENT OF ART(200 BC-300 AD)

 The period witnessed the development of asophisticated kind of sculpture, which came to
beassociated with three different regions i.e.
GANDHARA
MATHURA
AMRAVATI

 In the case of Gandhara school, the style was foreign (Hellenistic/Greek).

 But the subject matter andcontent was indigenous. In the case of Mathura aswell as
Amravati, both the subject matter and stylewas indigenous.

 GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ART

 HELLENISTICincontext of style and BUDDHIST in context of religion.

 The main centers were PESHAWAR, JALALABAD, TAXILA, BAMIYAN, AND BEGRAM.
 Buddha of the Gandhara artists resembles theGreek God Apollo.
 The main patrons of this art formwere the Kushanas and Shakas.
  Distinctive featuresof Gandhara School of Art are as follows---
REALISTIC REPRESENTATIONof human figures (alsothe hallmark of this art form).
In realistic representation, the ANATOMICAL ACCURACYwas emphasised.
The hairstyle was curly, which represents Greekinfluence .
The drapery was transparent and here we find abeautiful harmony between the
drapery and physicalfeatures of human body.
One excellent exampie was the BAMIYAN BUDDHA OF AFGHANISTAN.
GREY SANDSTONEis used in Gandhara School of Artand the other materials used
were mud, lime. Marblewas not used.

 IN GANDHARA ART
All the Buddhas depicted in the Gandhara art, are shown making four types of hand gestures
and this is a remaykable feature in this art. These are as follows

ABHAYAMUDRA :DON'T FEAR

DHYANAMUDRA :MEDITATION
 DHARMACHAKRAMUDRA :A PREACHING MUDRA

BHUMISPARSHAMUDRA :TOUCHING THE EARTH

MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART

 All the three main religions of the timei.e. BUDDHISM, JAINISM AND
BRAHMANISMinfluenced this art form in one way or the other.
 Thisinfluence provided the subject matter and content to this school.
 TheHellenistic or Greek influence on this style wasabsent to a great extent.
 The Mathura School of Art,was not only religious, but also secular, (absent inthe Gandhara
School of Art).
 The chief patron of this art form was Kushana andchief material was white spotted red
sandstone.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF MATHURA SCHOOL

 Images were grand and solid, the masculine beautywas discernible and body was firm.
 The images also show a religious influence.
 Spirituality was expressed in the images.
 We also find images of the Brahmanical God andGoddesses such as Shiva, Lakshmi, Surya,
Brahma, Vishnu, Kubera etc.
 Mathura school also produced the beautiful images of yaksha andyakshini, produced
beautiful female figures, which were veryremarkable.
 MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART VS GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ART

GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ART MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART

It is a style of Buddhist visual art. It deals with subjects from Hinduism (both Vaishnav and
Shavite images) and Jainism as well.

It has Hellenistic features of Buddha The Buddha image at Mathura is modelled on the lines of
image. earlier Yaksha images.

The expression of calmness is the centre Mathura Buddha is delighted in mood, seated in
point of attraction of Gandhar Buddha. Padmasana and right hand in Abhyamudra and left hand
on left thigh showing masculinity.

In Gandhara images, eyes are longer; Mathura tradition, Buddha images have longer ear lobes,
ear lobes shorter and noses sharper and thicker lips, wider eyes and prominent nose.
better defined.

This school use grey sandstone, stucco This school used red stone for making the sculptures.
(lime plaster).

It was a fusion of It was inspired by the early Indian Buddhist arts of Bharhut
Greco-Roman/Hellenisitc and Indian and Sanchi of MP.
styles.

It flourished from about the middle of the The origin has been traced back to the middle of the
first century BC to about the fifth century school century BC, but it was only in the first century AD
AD in the Gandhara region (north- that its genuine progress began.
western India).

AMARAVATI SCHOOL OF ART

 Its patronised first by SATAVAHANAS AND IKSHVAKUS.

 The main centerswere NAGARJUNAKONDA, GHANTASALA, AMARAVATI, JAGGAY-YAPETAetc.
 Chief material used was WHITE MARBLE.
 The principle influence in this case was that of BUDDHIST THEMES.
 Images show sexual expressions.
 BUDDHIST JATAKASwere the popular subject of Amaravatistyle.
 The most popular to be depicted are Buddha's descent from heaven inthe form of white
elephant, the great renunciation, scene oftemptation, the first sermon and the
Mahaparinirvana representedby the stupa. It focusses upon human beings, but the
representation
is more narrative rather than individualistic.
 SCHOLARS OF THE PERIOD

 ASHVAGHOSHA BOOKS ON SAUNDARANAND, BUDDHACHARITA, SARIPUTRA, PRAKARANA AND

VIJRASUCHI.
 NAGARJUNA IT ALSO KNOWN AS INDIAN EINSTEIN FOR PROPOUNDING THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY IN
HIS BOOK PRAJANA PARAMITA SUTRA SHASTRA.
 VASUMITRA BOOK ON BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY TITLED MAHAVIBHASA SHASTRA.
 GUNADHYA BRIHATKATHA IN PAISACHI DIALECT.
 SARVARAMAN KATANTRA (SANSKRIT GRAMMAR).
 BHASA SWAPNA-VASAVADATTA, RAVANABADH, VRUBHANGA (SANSKRIT PLAY).

 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

 Much progress was made in the field of
metallurgy. The presence of Greek engineers
in Kushana court shows an exchange in this
field. Engineering skills in the building of
dams and irrigation tanks are evident from
their remains.
Geometry seems to have been well developed
and it was applied widely. In the field of
astronomy, Greek influence was quite evident
from the text Panch Siddhantika. Indian
medicine made remarkable progress during
this period, Charaka wrote Charaka samhita.
The school at Varanasi specialised in Surgery
and Sushrita Samhita an encyclopaedia of
surgery compiled by sushruta. He stayed at the
Court of Kanishka.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES
IN POST-MAURYAN PERIOD
A Greek sailor, Hippalus, discovered the
monsoon sea route to India from West Asia
in46-47 AD.
New Ports Bharauch and Bar Bairicum on
Western coast, Aricamedu/Podeku (according
to Periplus) on Eastern coast near
Pondicherry.
Bullion was flowing out of Rome to India.
This statement was made by Pliny.
Geographica by Strabo.
Works by Ptolemy.
Natural History by Pliny.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea Unknown.
 SOUTH INDIA
 THE SANGAM ERA

 The term Sangam was an academy of poetswhich flourished in (1st-3rd century AD) different
periods and in differentplaces, under the patronage of the Tamil kings.
 According to tradition, the first Sangam was founded by the Sage Agastyaand its seat was
then at Madurai (South Madurai).
 The three ancientkingdoms of the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras combined wereknown
as Tamilakha or the Tamil realm.

 SANGAM AGE SOURCES

LITERARY SOURCES
 Works like TOLKAPPIYAM, ETTUTHOGAI/ETTUTHOGAL AND PATTUPATTU providevaluable
information to know the history of the Sangam age.
 Among these,Tolkappiyam was the earliest. During the post-Sangam period,
thePATHINENKILKANAKKU or the 18 minor works was composed.
 The twin epicsSILAPPADIKARAM AND MANIMEKALAIalso belonged to the post-Sangamperiod.

 ARCHAEOLOGICAL
They may be classified into
(a) Epigraphy
(b) Excavations
(c) Coins

 EPIGRAPHY
 HATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTIONS KALUGUMALAI INSCRIPTIONS
 The ASHOKAN EDICTS refer to the Chera, Chola and Pandya kingdoms.
 TheHATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTIONSwere inscribed by Kharavela, the then Emperor
ofKalinga, in India, also mentions the three Tamil kingdoms.
 TheKALUGUMALAI INSCRIPTIONShelp us to know about ancient Tamil scriptscalled TAMIL
BRAHMI.

 EXCAVATIONS
 Roman pottery, glass bowls, gems and coins have been found at ARIKKAMEDU NEAR

PONDICHERRY- contacts between the Roman Empire and Tamil country during the Sangam
age.
 Other important sites of excavations are Uraiyur,Kanchipuram and Kodumanal.
 COINS

 Issued goldand silver coins but they are not found in largenumbers.
 Roman coins made of gold andsilver are found all over Tamil Nadu.

--- ROMAN COINS

 These coinsfurther confirm the trade relations between Tamilcountry and Rome during the
Sangam age.

 FOREIGN ACCOUNTS
 MEGASTHENES
PLINY PTOLEMY
 Greek and Roman writers had mentioned aboutSANGAM TAMILS.
 MEGASTHENES IN HIS BOOK INDICAalsoreferred to the three Tamil kingdoms.
 STRABO, PLINY AND PTOLEMYprovidevaluable information regarding the SANGAM AGE.
 TheCeylonese books: MAHAVAMSA AND DIPAVAMSA, helpus to fix the date of the
Sangam.

 According to the Tamil legends, there were THREE SANGAMS (ACADEMY OF TAMIL
POETS) held in the ancient South India popularly called MUCHCHANGAM.

The FIRST SANGAM is believed to be held at MADURAI, attended by gods and

legendary sages. No literary work of this Sangam is available.
The SECOND SANGAM was held at KAPADAPURAM,
only TOLKAPPIYAM survives from this.
The THIRD SANGAM was also held at MADURAI. A few of these Tamil literary
works have survived and are useful sources to reconstruct the history of the
Sangam period.

 THE EARLY KINGDOMS

  The 1st century AD witnessed the formation of threestates respectively under the Cholas,
Cheras andPandyas.
 SOME IMPORTANT FACTORS BEHIND THEIR RISE BEING----
Spread of iron technology.
Monetisation of economy.
Development of North-South trade.
Flourishing trade with the Roman empire.

 THE CHOLA KINGDOM

 The capital of Sangam Cholas was URAIYUR (TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT).
 Second capital atKAVERIPOOMPATTINAM OR PUHAR.

 It was also thechief port of the SANGAM CHOLAS (PUHAR).

 Their symbol was tiger.
 The kingdom comprises the presentTanjore and Tiruchirappalli districts.

 The most popular aniong theSANGAM CHOLAS WAS KARIKALA (190 AD).
 He was a very competent ruler and a great warrior.
 HE DEFEATED THE CHERA AND PANDYA KINGS AT VENNI.
 Puhar flourished as a greatemporium of trade during his reign.
 THE CHERA KINGDOM

 The capital of CHERA KINGDOM WAS VANJI OR KARUR.

 Emblem -- bow and arrow.
 The Cheras were alsoknown as KERALPUTRA.
 The history of the Cheras was markedby continuous fighting with the Cholas and the
Pandyas.
 UDIYANJERAL IS THE FIRST KNOWN CHERA KING.

TEMPLE OF KANNAGI

 SENGUTTUVAN, according to Chera poets, was the greatest Chera king.

 He is rememberedfor building a TEMPLE OF KANNAGI. The worship of Kannagi (Pattinicult)
was started by him.
 His brother ELANGO ADIGALcomposed SILAPPADIKARAM.

ELANGO ADIGAL
 THE PANDYA KINGDOM
  Their capital was MADURAIand their CHIEF PORT WAS KORKAI.

 Theirsymbol was FISH.

 NEDUNCHELIYANwas a famous Pandyan ruler.
 He gave death sentence to KOVALAN, THE HERO OF SILAPPADIKARAM, bymistake, for
which he gave up his life when he came to know' thetruth.
 The Pandyan rule during the Sangam age began to declinedue to the invasion of the
KALABHRAS.

 SAMGAM ADMINISTRATION --
The king's power was restricted by five councils which were known as the 'five great councils'
also known as Aimperunkulu. These five consisted of officials
1. ARMAICHCHAR (MINISTERS)
2. PUROHITAR (PUROHITS)
3. DUTAR (ENVOYS)
4. SENAPATIYAR (SENAPATI)
5. ORRAR (SPIES)

 PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

 KINGDOM --- MANDALAM.
 The Cholamandalam, Pandya mandalam and the Chera mandalam.
 Belowthe mandalam was a major DIVISION, NADU (PROVINCE).
 There was a town, which was described as aBIG VILLAGE (PERUR), A SMALL VILLAGE (SIRUR).
  PATTINAM WAS THE NAME FOR A COASTAL TOWN AND PUHAR WAS THE HARBOUR AREA .
 The administration of nadus was generally carried onby hereditary chiefs.
 The village was the fundamentalunit of administration which was administered by local
assemblies.

 SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE SANGAM AGE

TOLKAPPIYAM SPEAKS OF FOUR CATEGORIES (CASTES) NAMELY---
ANDANAR (BRAHMANAS)
ARASAR (KINGS)
VANIGAR (TRADERS)
VELLALAR (FARMERS)

 Untouchability was prevalent and they were KNOWN AS PARRIYAS.

THESE WERE ----

LANDS CHIEF DEITY CHIEF OCCUPATION
Kurinji Murugan Hunting and honey collection
Mullai Mayon (Vishnu) Cattle-rearing and shifting agriculture
Marutham lndra Agriculture
Neital Varuna Occupation fishing and salt manufacturing
Palai Korravoi Plunder and cattle lifting

 POSITION OF WOMEN

--- AVVAIYAR
 Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished inthis period and
contributed to Tamil literature.
 Karuppu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue ofwomen.
 Love marriage was a common practice.
  Women were allowed to choosetheir life partners.
 However, the life of widows was miserable.
 Thepractice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society.
 Post-Sangam era saw the decline in the status of women.

 RELIGION

 Their ritualswere related to animism and other forms of anthropomorphic deity worship.
 Animism accounts for a good'part of Tamil Sangamreligion and comprised worshipping
stones, water, stars andplanets.

 ECONOMIC LIFE
 Agriculture, industry, trade and commercemade the Sangam Tamils almostself-sufficient.
 The chief occupationof the people was agriculture. Paddy was themain crop.
 Uraiyur and Madurai were the maincentres for the manufacture of cotton fabrics.

 SANGAM LITERATURE
 Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages of South India.
 Among the poetsand thinkers of the Sangam age, TOLKAPPIYAR, TIRUVALLUVAR, ILLANGO
ADIGAL, SITTALAI SATTANAR, NAKKRIAR, KAPILAR, PARANER, AUVAIYAR, MANGUDI
MARUDANAR and a few others are outstanding.

 TIRRUKURAL IS A PHILOSOPHICAL WORK, TOLKAPPIYAM DEALS WITH TAMIL GRAMMAR .

 PERIOD OF SANGAM LITERATURE

 The earliest script that the Tamils used was the BRAHMI SCRIPT.
 It was onlyfrom the late ancient and early medieval period, that they started evolving anew
angular script, called the GRANTHA SCRIPT, from which the modernTamil is derived.
 THE SANGAM LITERATURE WAS FINALLY COMPILED IN ITS PRESENT FORM IN CIRCA 300-600 AD.

 EARLIEST TAMIL WORKS

 Tolkappiyam It is the oldest extant Tamil grammar written by Tolkappiyar.
 Pattupattu (Ten poems) (deals with matters strictly limited to one aspect ofsubjective
experience viz love).
PATHINENKILKANAKKU (EIGHTEEN MINOR WORKS)
 These works are called minor works, because the poems in these areshorter in form.
 The most important among these are the TIRUKKURAL BY TIRUVALLUVAR(known as the
Bible of Tamil land), which is a compound of theDharmasastra, the Arthasastra and the
Kamasutra.

THE EPICS
 The epics SILAPPADIKARAM (THE JEWELLED ANKLET) AND MANIMEKALAIbelong to the
early centuries of theChristian era.

 SILAPPADIKARAMwas written by ILANGO ADIGAL (GRANDSON OF KARIKALA, THE

GREAT CHOLA KING)in the AD2nd century.

ILANGO ADIGAL
 MANIMEKALAI was written by poet SATTANAR.

THE VAKATAKAS
 They dominatedthe entire country of BUNDELKHAND, CENTRAL PROVINCES, BERAR,
NORTHERN DECCANupto the sea.
 The Vakatakas,it seems were BRAHMINS and in their inscriptions theycalled themselves as
HARITAPUTRAS.
 Important rulersof this dynasty were ----
 VINDHYASAKTI--- FOUNDER OF THIS DYNASTY.

PRAVARASENA
 PRAVARASENA- Assumed imperial titles such asMAHARAJADHIRAJA AND
SAMRATand also PERFORMED ASVAMEDHA AND VAJAPEYA.
 RUDRASENA I- He suffered defeat at the hands ofSAMUDRAGUPTA.

PRABHAVATIGUPTA
 RUDRASENA IIHe married PRABHAVATIGUPTA, DAUGHTER OF CHANDRAGUPTA
IIand under herinfluence became a VAISHNAVITE.
 PRAVARASENA II- Composed famous PRAKRIT POEM SETUBANDHA. KALIDASA
WROTE MEGHADUTAMin hiscourt.

CULTURE
 The rock cut BUDDHIST VIHARAS AND CHAITYAS OF AJANTA caves were built under the
patronage of VAKATAKA EMPEROR HARISHENA.
 AJANTA CAVE KING HARISENA

THE CHALUKYAS (543-753 AD) CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI

 The most prominent of the post Gupta dynasties of the Deccan wasthat of the Chalukyas of
Badami.
 JAYASIMHA
 JAYASIMHA was the firstChalukyan King.
 But PULAKESIN I is generally attributed to be thefirst Chalukyan King.
 PULAKESIN II was the most important ruler.
 He defeated the Kadambas, the Gangas of Mysore andHarsha's Army.
 But he was defeated and killed by the PALLAVA RULER, NARASIMHAVARMAN in a later
battle.
 Pulakeshin II's COURT POET RAVIKIRTIwrote the eulogy of his patron in the AIHOLE
INSCRIPTION.It was written in SANSKRIT LANGUAGE.

AIHOLE INSCRIPTION
CHALUKYAS OF VENGl (CAPITAL-VENGI)
 Founded by Pulakesin II's brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana.
 The power of Eastern Chalukyas (Chalukyas ofVengi) was weakened in 10th century AD and
they became the alliesof the Cholas.

 Aihole was a town of temples, and had as many as 70 temples, the most remarkable
LADH KHAN TEMPLE
 JAINA TEMPLE OF MEGUTI

THE DURGA TEMPLE

THE HUCIMALIGUDI TEMPLE

 VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE is the prominent ones.

VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE
 THE PALLAVAS

 The Pallavas were possibly a local tribe, who established their authority in the Tondai Nadu or
the land of creepers.
 SIMHA VISHNU (575-600 AD) WAS THE REAL FOUNDER OF THIS DYNASTY.
 His son and successor Mahendravarman (600-630 AD) wasdefeated by the Chalukyan king
Pulakesin II.
 NARASIMHAVARMAN I (630-668 AD) WAS THE MOST SUCCESSFUL PALLAVA KING.
 He adopted the title VATAPIKONDA.
 In 642, he occupied the Chalukyan(Capital Vatapi) and probably killed Pulakesin II.

KAILASHNATH TEMPLE AT KANCHI

 The KAILASHNATH TEMPLE AT KANCHIand SEVEN PAGODASas well as some other
mansionswere built in the reign of NARASIMHAVARMAN.
 SEVEN PAGODAS
 The striking feature of theKailashnath temple and Seven Pagodas is that they were cut out of
solid rocks.
 The Pallavan power was wiped out by AdityaI, a Chola King, who routed Aparajitavarman and
annexed the Pallavakingdom.
 GHATIKAS was the most important medieval Karnatakaeducational institution of the
Pallavas, located near temples.

 THE IMPERIAL CHOLAS

 Chola kings began asthe rulers of Tamil Nadu, the region around modern Tanjore.
 FounderVIJAYALALA and its rise form the dominant features of thehistory of South India in
the period from 850-1200 AD.

 RAJARAJA (985-1014 AD)

 The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja and his son, Rajendra I.
  Rajarajadestroyed the Chera navy, captured the Pandyan capital Madurai and alsoannexed
the Northern part of Sri Lanka.

 RAJENDRA I (1014-1044 AD) - GANGAIKONDA

 Rajendra I,continued withthe Annexationist Policy by completely overrunning thePandya and

Chera kingdoms and including them in hisempire.
 He also annexed the rest of Sri Lanka.
 Hedefeated the king of Sumatra and annexed a portion ofSumatra.

 He took the title of GANGAIKONDA and foundedGANGAIKONDA CHOLAPURAM.

 He indianised severalislands of South-East Asia and established cordialrelationship with the

king of China.
 Off all hiscampaigns two were very bold and daring, one was hisarmies marched up the East
coast of India throughOrissa and upto Ganga river.The second which took place in South-East
Asia (Navalcampaign).
  KULOTHUNGA III (1178-1210 AD) was the lastgreat Chola monarch, who remained involved in
thePandyan wars of succession and sacked the Pandyacapital in 1205.

 RAJARAJESHWARI OR BRIHADEESWARA TEMPLE OF TANJORE

RAJARAJA CHOLA I

 Brthadeeswara temple dedicated to Shiva as built by Rajaraja Chola I.

 The temple is world's first complete granite temple.
 Brihadeeswara temple is a part of UNESCO World Heritage.

CHOLA ADMINISTRATION
 King discharged his duties with the help of an immediate group of ministers and other high
officers called Udankuttam.

CHOLA SELF GOVERNMENT

 The most important feature of the Cholaadministration lies in the running ofautonomous
institutions.
 Each village had itsown general assembly which administeredcontrol over all the affairs of the
village andwas free from the control of the CentralGovernment.
 It enjoyed all powers regardingthe village administration.
 There were twotypes of institutions working at village level.

 UR WAS THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE VILLAGE.

 The Ur consisted of all the taxpayingresidents of an ordinary village.

 The Ur wasopen to all the adult men but was dominatedby the older member of the village.
 The members of the executive committee of'Ur' were called 'SHASHAK GANA' OR 'GANAM'.

MAHASABHA
 This was a gathering of the adult men inthe Brahmana villages which were
calledAGRAHARAS.
 These were villages settled by theBrahmanas in which most of the land wasrent free.

THE GUPTA EMPIRE (320-550 AD)

THE GUPTA AGE IS ALSO CALLED AS THE CLASSICAL AGE. THE GUPTA EMPIRE CAME TO
POWER IN INDIA IN 320 AD AND RULED UNTIL 550 AD.

RISE OF THE GUPTAS

 Centre of their operation lying in the FERTILE LAND OF MADHYADESA, COVERING BIHAR AND UTTAR

PRADESH.

 They could exploit the iron-ores of Central Indiaand South Bihar.

 They 'took advantage of their proximity to the areas ofNorth India, which carried on a
prosperous silk trade with the Byzantineempire.
 The basic strength of the Guptas lay in the use ofhorses.
 They skilfully used matrimonial alliances toconsolidate their power.

SOURCES OF GUPTA RULE

 Sources of Gupta rule were as follows---
 It is speculated that KAMANDAKA NITISARAwas written in the time ofCHANDRAGUPTA II
by SIKHARA, Prime Minister of Chandragupta II.
 It isequivalent to Kautilya's Arthashastra. It gives us idea of polity andadministration of the
Guptas.
 The DEVICHANDRAGUPTAM is a political drama attributed to VISHAKHADATTA.
 The KAUMUDI MAHOTSAVAis a drama of five acts.

 PURANAS OCCUPY A VERY IMPORTANT PLACE AS A RELIGIOUS SOURCE.

 THE VAYU PURANA, MATSYA PURANA, VISHNU PURANA AND BHAGVATA
PURANASgive a full account to the Gupta Empire, its variousprovinces and their boundaries.
 The DHARMASHASTRAS also give us a lot of useful information of the Guptaperiod.
 A large number of seals have been found from Vaishali in the Muzaffarpurdistrict.

GUPTA EMPIRE COIN

 A lot of useful information for the history of Guptas is found in the coins of the Gupta
Emperors.

THE DYNASTIC HISTORY OF GUPTAS

SRI GUPTA
 The Gupta dynasty was founded by SRI GUPTA IN THE 3RD CENTURY AD.
 He usedthe title of MAHARAJA.
 THE POONA COPPER PLATE INSCRIPTION OF PRABHAVATI GUPTA DESCRIBES SRI GUPTA AS
THE ADIRAJA OF THE GUPTA DYNASTY.

POONA COPPER PLATE INSCRIPTION

 Sri Gupta hasbeen identified with the first Gupta king whose name is mentioned in
ALLAHABAD PILLAR INSCRIPTION.

GHATOTKACHA GUPTA
 He succeeded Srigupta, his father. He also took the title of MAHARAJA.

CHANDRAGUPTA I(319-335 AD)

 Chandragupta I was the real founder of the Gupta Empire.

 The year of hisaccession in 320 AD marks the beginning of the Gupta era.
 He assumed the title ofMAHARAJADHIRAJA.
 Like Bimbisara, he strengthened his position by matrimonialalliances with the LICHCHAVIS
(THEN CONTROLLING THE PORTIONS OF BIHAR AND NEPAL).
 He married the LICHCHAVI PRINCESS KUMARADEVI.
 Special Kumaradevi type coinswere minted to commemorate her marriage to Chandragupta I.

SAMUDRAGUPTA (335-375 AD)

 The Gupta empire was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta's son andsuccessor

Samudragupta.
 The basic information about his reign is provided by PRAYAGA PRASASTI, composed by his
court poet HARISENA AND ENGRAVED ON THE ASHOKAN PILLAR AT ALLAHABAD PILLAR INSCRIPTION.

--- PRAYAGA PRASASTI

 In Allahabad inscription hecalled himself LICHCHHAVIS-DAUHITRAi.e son of the daughter of

Lichchhavis.
 Samudragupta followed the policy of conquest for his military achievements.
 InNorth India, he followed the policy of PRASABHODDHARAN, which means hedefeated and
exterminated the kings. In South India, he followed the policy of (GRAHANA) (MOKSHA-

ANUGRAHA)where the defeated monarchs were released andreinstated after they accepted his
suzerainty.
 HE HAS BEEN COMPLEMENTED AS THE INDIAN NAPOLEON BY THE HISTORIAN VA SMITH .
 He has described Samudragupta as 'the hero of hundred battles'.
 HE IS MENTIONED AS GREAT MUSICIAN AND ISSUED COINS OF THE VEENA TYPE. HE IS ALSO
MENTIONED AS KAVIRAJA, I.E. KING OF POETS.

SAMUNDRA GUPTA PLAYING VEENA

CHANDRAGUPTA II(380-412 AD)

 Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandragupta II.

 However, some historiansput Ramagupta between Samudragupta and Chandragupta II.
 It was during the rule of Ramagupta that Shakas attacked the Gupta Empire.
 Samudragupta extended the limits of his empire by matrimonial alliancesand conquests.
 He married the NAGA PRINCESS KUBER NAGA and allied himselfwith the powerful
Vakatakas of the Deccan by marrying his daughter PRABHAVATI WITH THE VAKATAKA PRINCE
RUDRASENA. So, Chandragupta exercisedindirect control over the Vakataka kingdom.

 Chandragupta conqueredWestern Malwa and Gujarat from the Shaka Kshatriyas.

 CHANDRAGUPTA II ADOPTED THE TITLE OF VIKRAMADITYA AS A MARK OF VICTORY OVER THE SHAKA
KSHATRAPAS OF WESTERN INDIA.
 He is also known as Deva and is referred asDevagupta, Devaraja or Devashri.
 The court of Chandragupta II wasadorned by numerous scholars, whichwere known as
NAVRATNAS. These were:
KALIDASA,
VETALA BHATTA
VARAHMIHIR
VARARUCHI
 AMARSIMHA,
DHANVANTARI
KSHAPANAK
SHANKU
GHATKARPAR.

OBSERVATIONS OF FA-HIEN

 Fa-Hien was a Chinese Buddhist monk. Who visited lndia during 399-414AD. He visited
lndia during the reign of - CHANDRAGUPTA II.
 He wrote his experiences in his book named FU-KWO-KI.

‘The people were numerous and happy and moved about freely withouat any restrlctlons.
Most of the crimes were punished only by fines. The CHANDALASwere social outcastes and
lived separately, hunted animals and ate meat. There were two large monastries in
Pataliputra, one for the Hinayana faith and the other for Mahayana faith. He was impressed
by the city of Pataliputra and the palace of Ashoka.’

KUMARAGUPTA (415-455 AD)

 BILSADA EDICTprovides informationabout beginning of his reign.

 Towards theclose of his reign, the Gupta powerwas seriously menaced by the Hunas.
 He laid the foundation of the NALANDA UNIVERSITY.
 Kumaraguptaassumed the title of MAHENDRADITYA andis referred to as Shri - Mahendra-
Simha,Ashvamedha- Mahendra.

NALANDA UNIVERSITY

 There were 1500 teachers and 10000 students at a particular time.

 Student came from other nationIncludlngCHINA, SRL LANKA, MONGOLIA.
 Polltlcs, Law. Medicine, Literature and all used to be taught inNalanda
 HIEUN TSANG, the Chinese traveller was a student for about 2 years.

 Close to the end of twelfth century Nalanda was destroyed by Invaders.

SKANDAGUPTA (455-467 AD)

BHITTARI STONE INSCRIPTION

 He defeated the HunaArmies as indicated by the BHITTARI STONE INSCRIPTION.

 With hisdeath in 467 AD, the glory of Gupta empire fadedwith a rapid pace.
TITLES ADOPTED BY GUPTA KINGS
KINGS TITLES

SRIGUPTA MAHARAJA

GHATOTKACHA MAHARAJA

CHANDRAGUPTA I MAHARAJA DHIRAJ

SAMUNDRAGUPTA 1. KAVIRAJA (PRAYAG PRASASTI)

2. PARAM BHAGAVAT (NALANDA COPPER PLATE);
4. ALLAHABAD PILLAR INSCRIPTIONS MENTION THE TITLE ‘DHARMA PRACHAR
BANDU’ THAT IS HE WAS UPHOLDER OF BRAHMANICAL RELIGION.

CHANDRAGUPTA II 1. VIKRAMADITYA
2. SAKARI DEVAGUPTA/DEVASHRI/DEVRAJA
3. PARAM BHAGAVATA

KUMARGUPTA MAHENDRADITYA

SKANDGUPTA 1. VIKRAMADITYA
2. KURAMADITYA
3. PARAM BHAGVAT
4. DEVRAJA

THE GUPTA ADMINISTRATION

KlNG
All the powers were concentrated with the king. Often an element of divinity was attached to
the kings and they were looked upon as Gods. The king adopted pompous titles such as
PARAMESHVARA,MAHARAJA DHIRAJA AND PARAM BHATTARAKA. Kingship was hereditary.

PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

 The empire was divided into a number of PROVINCES CALLED BHUKTIS, DESAS AND BHOGAS.

 The provinces were subdivided into VISHAYAS.

 A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi.

 The village was the lowest unitof administration.
 BHUKTIS WERE GOVERNED BY UPARIKAS AND DESAS WERE UNDER GOPTRIS.
 THE VISHAYAS WERE RULED BY VISHYAYAPATIS.
 The district officials were assisted byGramikas (village headman) and Bhojakas.
 The main sources of royal revenue werevarious types of land taxes.
 CITY ADMINISTRATION
 PAURAWAS THE COUNCIL RESPONSIBLE FOR CITY ADMINISTRATION.
 It included ---
PRESIDENT OF THE CITY CORPORATION
CHIEF REPRESENTATIVE OF THE GUILD OF MERCHANTS
A REPRESENTATIVE OF THE ARTISANS
CHIEF ACCOUNTANT.
 Two new classes of officers were introduced by the Guptas.
SANDHIVIGRAHIKA-THE MINISTER OF PEACE AND WAR
KUMARAMATYAS- A INCHARGE OF DISTRICT

 ECONOMY IN GUPTA AGE

 Agriculture formed a significantpart of the entire economy.

 The BRIHAT SAMHITAand the AMARAKOSHA contain special chapters on the study of
plants and gardens, forest, crops etc.
 The merchant and other traders wereorganised into guilds.

MANDSOR INSCRIPTION
 TheMANDSOR INSCRIPTIONgives details about the guilds of silk,weaver and corporate
activities of the period.
 Some of the major items of produce included SILK, MUSLIN, CALICO; LINEN, WOOL AND
COTTON.
 The Gupta rulers issuedlarge number of GOLD COINS. These gold coins were known
asDINARS.
 GOLD COIN (DINAR)
 After the Saka kingdom of Gujarat was invaded, theGupta rulers also issued silver coins.
 Gupta Empire carried out trade withChina, Ceylon and other European countries.
IMPORTANCE OF LAND IN GUPTA PERIOD
LAND WAS CLASSIFIED INTO FIVE GROUPS
1. KSHETRA BHOOMI - CULTIVABLE LAND
2. KHILA - WASTELAND
3. VASTU BHOOMI - HABITABLE LAND
4. CHARAGAH BHOOMI - PASTURE LAND
5. APRAHATA BHOOMI - FOREST LAND

 BUREAUCRACY

 Though the king possessed extensive powers, he did not rule in a tyrannical manner.
 The most important officersin the Gupta Empire were the KUMARAMATYAS.
 A new office of SANDHIVIGRAHIKA fist appears under theGupta ruler Samudragupta.
 He was the minister of peaceand war.
 The royal seal bore theimprint of GARUDA.

 JUDICIARY
 For the first time, civil and criminal lawswere clearly defined and demarcated.
 The king acted as the fountain head ofjustice and decided all disputes ingeneral,
punishments were light andmild.
 The supreme judicial power wasvested to the king.
 He was assisted bythe MAHADANDANAYAKA (CHIEF JUSTICE).
  YAJNAVALKYA AND BRIHASPATI MENTIONSthree grades of local courts KULA, SHRENI, PUGA
(GANA).

 ARMY
 The Gupta rulers had organised a hugearmy.
 The king's standing army wassupplemented by the forces occasionallysupplied by the
feudatories.
 SENABHAKTAwas a form of tax i.e. thearmy was to be fed by the peoplewhenever it passed
through thecountryside.
 FORCED LABOUR OR VISHTIwasalso practiced in royal army.

 SOCIAL LIFE
 The BRAHMANAS claimed many privilegeson account of wealth accumulated byland grants.
 The position of SHUDRAS improved in the Gupta period.
 They werenow permitted to listen to the epics andPuranas.
 They could also worship LordKrishna and were also allowed to perform certain domestic rites.
 BUT THE PRACTICE OF UNTOUCHABILITY BECAME MORE INTENSE THAN BEFORE .
 The untouchablesespecially the CHANDALASincreased innumber.
 THE POSITION OF WOMEN DETERIORATED FURTHER.
 Polygamy was common.
 Thefirst example of sati appears in theGupta time in 510 AD in Eran inMadhya Pradesh. The
 Women lackedproperty rights. However, Stridhana wasconsidered her property.

 RELIGION

 Hinduism revivedBHAGAVATISM (VAISHNAVISM) CENTRED AROUND THE WORSHIP OF

VISHNU.
 Gupta kings were the followers ofVAISHNAVISM AND CALLED THEMSELVES PARAMABHAGAVATAS.
 WORSHIP OF SUN, SHAKTI, MOTHER GODDESS, YAKSHA, TREE ETC. WAS ALSO POPULAR.

 In South India, theVaishnava devotees were known as 'ALVARS'.

  This wasalso the period of EVOLUTION OF VAJRAYANISM AND BUDDHIST TANTRIC CULTS.
 ART AND ARCHITECTURE
The rock cut caves, mostly Buddhist, but also Hindu and Jaina, had following two conventional
parts
1. CHAITYA -- THE PRAYER HALL WHERE THE SHRINE IS LOCATED.
2. VIHARA -- THE MONASTERY OR THE DWELLING PLACE OF MONKS.

 It is in the domain of sculpture thatthe Gupta period marked greatdevelopment.

 The Gupta sculpturesuggests simplicity and serenity.
 The most notable of these are to befound in AJANTA, ELLORA, AURANGABADand BAGH AND
UDAYAGIRI CAVES OF ORISSA.

ELLORA BAGH

AJANTA UDAYAGIRI
  Two best examples of SHIKHARA TEMPLES ARE IN BHITARGOAN IN KANPUR AND
DASAVATARA TEMPLE AT DEOGARH.

BHITARGOAN IN KANPUR DASAVATARA TEMPLE AT DEOGARH

 The art of Gupta age isrepresented mainly in two schools, MATHURA AND BANARAS.

SHESHASHAYI VISHNU OF DEOGARH TEMPLE

,
 GUPTA PAINTINGS

 Remains of paintings of this period are found atAjanta, Bagh, Badami and other places.
 The art of Ajanta and Bagh shows theMADHYADESA SCHOOLof painting at its best.

 LITERATURE
  Brahmanical religiongave an impetus to the development of Sanskrit,which displaced Prakrit
as the popular language.
 Most of the inscriptions now began to be written inSanskrit, which became the official
language of theGupta Empire.
 The epics, Ramayana andMahabharata received their present shape during the Gupta age.
 Many Smritis like Narada Smriti,Brahaspati Smriti and different Dharmasastraswere also
written or compiled in this period.

 DRAMAS
NAME OF DRAMA AUTHOR
VIKRAMOVARSHIYA KALIDASA
MALAVIKAGNIMITRA KALIDASA
ABHIGYAN SHAKUNTALAM KALIDASA
MRICHCHHAKATIKA SHUDRAKA
SWAPNAVASAVADATTA BHASA
CHARUDATTA BHASA
PRATIGNAYAUGANDHARAYANA BHASA
MUDRARAKSHASHA VISHAKHADATTA
DEVICHANDRAGUPTAM VISHAKHADATTA

 EULOGY

 PRAYAGA-PRASASTI - HARISENA

 GRAMMAR
AMARAKOSHA – AMARSIMHA
CHANDRAVYAKARANA – CHANDRAGOMIN
KAVYADARSHA - DANDIN

 NARRATIVE STORY
PANCHATANTRA - VISHNU SHARMA
HITOPADESHA - NARAYAN PANDIT
 MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY
ARYABHATTIYAM – ARYABHATTA
BRAHMSIDDHANTA – BRAHMAGUPTA
PANCHASIDDHANTIKA - VARAHMIHIRA

 MISCELLANEOUS WORKS
NITISARA – KAMANDAKA
KAMASUTRA – VATSYAYANA
KAVYALANKARA – BHAMAH
BRIHAT SAMHITA – VARAHAMIHIRA
ASHTANGA SANGRAHA – VAGBHATA
ASHTANGA HIRDAYA-SAMHITA – VAGBHATA
ASVA SASTRA - SALIHOTRA

 DEVELOPMENTS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

 MATHEMATICS
 Indians made three distinct contributions—
NOTATION SYSTEM
DECIMAL SYSTEM
USAGE OF ZERO
 Indian Notation System It was adopted by Arabs and the numerals are called Arabic in
English. They are found in Ashokaninscriptions.

BRAHMAGUPTA
 Decimal System It was first used by Indians. The famousmathematician ARYABHATTA was
acquainted with it.
 Zero was discovered by Indians in 2nd century BC.
 Alberuni saysthat it was BRAHMAGUPTA, who gave zero its status in mathematics.
 GEOMETRY
 Knowledge of Geometry is reflected in the SULBASUTRAS of 5th century BC.
 ARYABHATTA (SURYA SIDDHANTA)formulated the rule for finding out thearea of a triangle
which led to the originof Trigonometry.

 ASTRONOMY
  JYOTISHA VEDANGA (500 BC) is theearliest source dealing exclusively with Astronomy.
 Aryabhatta explained the true cause ofsolar and lunar eclipses and stated thatthe Sun is
stationary and the Earthrotates around the Sun.
 He stated that theEarth was spherical.
 VARAHAMIHIRA IN HIS BOOK BRIHAT SAMHITA(6th century AD) stated thatthe Moon
rotates around the Earth andthe Earth rotates around the Sun.

 CHEMISTRY

The COPPER STATUE OF BUDDHA FROM SULTANGANJand IRON PILLAR OF MEHRAULLI AT

DELHIare the finest examples.

 MEDICINE

 CHARAKASAMHITA -- CHARAKA
  SUSHRUTA SAMHITA -- SUSHRUTA

 GRAMMAR AND LINGUISTICS

 Every vedic prayer and every mantrashould be recited with meticulouscorrectness, this led to
production ofSanskrit grammar as in ASHTADHYAYI OF PANINIin 400 BC and
MAHABHASYA OF PATANJALI in 2nd century BC.

PATANJALI

 DECLINE OF THE GUPTAS

 The Huna leader, Toramana challenged the Gupta power.

THE END