Chapter 5

States of Consciousness

Chapter 5 Overview
 Levels of Consciousness
 Sleep Stages
 Sleep Deprivation
 Sleep Disorders
 Dreams
 Biofeedback
 Hypnosis
 Meditation
 Drugs and Altered Consciousness

Levels of Consciousness

 Consciousness: general state of being ___________ and ____________ to events in the

environment, as well as one’s own mental processes
 Freud: divided consciousness into levels (conscious vs. unconscious)
 Behaviorists: avoided the study of consciousness
 Cognitive revolution: consciousness reconsidered

 Theories of consciousness attempt to explain the underlying basis of self-awareness,

some by relying on philosophy and others by relying on neuroscience.
 Descartes’s mind-body dualism vs. modern materialist viewpoints among psychologists &
neuroscientists

 Consciousness may be viewed as a continuum

 ___________ states: any state of consciousness that differs from ordinary awareness and
responsiveness (awake/alert)
 The most common example is sleep.

 _____________ rhythm: internally-generated patterns of body functions that vary over a

24-hour cycle (e.g., sleep, body temperature, blood pressure)
 Light is the primary stimulus that cues such rhythms by synchronizing our biological clock
(suprachiasmatic nucleus).

 What happens when our biological clocks are disturbed?

 Examples?

 Even small adjustments to our sleep schedule can produce negative effects.
 What can be done to reduce the negative effects of shift work or jet lag?

Stages of Sleep

 The sleep-wakefulness cycle

 Researchers studying EEG patterns in the 1950s discovered several levels of
consciousness during sleep (REM sleep and several NREM stages)
 Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep
o Decreased activation and arousal in the brain and body
o Stages of NREM sleep:
 N1: light sleep; low-amplitude, non-rhythmic brain waves
 N2: low-amplitude brain waves; deeper sleep
 N3: lower frequency and higher amplitude brain waves (delta waves);
lowest level of arousal (deepest sleep)

 Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep

o The brain and body experience high levels of arousal, similar to when awake
(paradoxical sleep)
 rapid eye movements
 increased breathing and heart rate
 high frequency, low amplitude brain-waves.
 paralysis of postural muscles
o REM sleep occurs after we go through stages of NREM sleep.
o Each cycle takes about 90 minutes, with an average of 5 cycles per night.
Sleep Deprivation

 Randy Gardner (1964): age 17; set the world record – 264 hours w/out sleep
 William Dement (sleep researcher) recorded his progress after the first two days, and he
experienced significantly worsening symptoms each day.
 Went to research facility (EEG monitoring) and slept for only 14 hours.

 Common effects of sleep deprivation (even short-term):

 Sleepiness
 Difficulty concentrating
 Slower reaction time
 Poorer decision making
 REM Sleep Rebound: our brains attempt to make up for lost REM sleep first after a period
of sleep deprivation
 ____% of adults in the U.S. do not get the recommended 7 hours or more of sleep/night
o may cause problems in work, social, and family life, as well as safety risks (e.g.,
driving)

 Why do we sleep?
 Competing theories with no clear answer
o Restorative theory
o Evolutionary approach
o Circadian theory
o Benefits of REM sleep (learning & memory)

 We maintain sleep/waking rhythms even in the absence of day/night cues, clocks, etc.
o suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
o ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO)
o orexin (neuropeptide) in the hypothalamus and locus coeruleus
Sleep Disorders

 ______________: experience of sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep

 Experience muscle weakness as they fall asleep
 Affects approximately 1 in 2,000 people.
 Attacks are unpredictable
 Risk comes from potential for accidents/injury
 Has a genetic component
 Drug treatments are available

 ______________: disorder causing airflow to the lungs to stop during sleep for at least
10 seconds
 may occur as many as 100 times per night
 excessive snoring is common
 poor-quality sleep  daytime sleepiness
 may cause memory loss, severe headaches, and work-related accidents
 in rare cases, may be fatal
 prevalence: 2-4% (but many are undiagnosed)
 treatments: weight loss (if overweight), avoiding alcohol, special airway/pressure
machines

 _________: the inability to fall asleep or remain asleep

 Everyone experiences this occasionally, and 10% of population experiences significant
insomnia at some point, often due to anxiety and depression
 poor quality of sleep  do not feel rested; daytime sleepiness
 modern sleep meds safe for short-term use only
 behavioral methods (relaxation and thought-restructuring) and environmental changes
recommended over drug treatments

 ______________: a high degree of arousal and symptoms of panic that occur 60 – 90

minutes after falling asleep
 may sit up abruptly, scream, breathe rapidly, and appear to be in a state of total fright,
yet not fully awake
 not associated with nightmares
 occur during NREM sleep (N3/deep sleep)
 more common in children ages 3 – 8
 cause not fully established; linked to stress, interruption of sleep schedules, and fever;
not linked to mental illness

 _______________
  more common among children than adults, and runs in families
 occurs during N3 (deep sleep); person appears both asleep and awake at the same time
 motor areas of the brain are active, but not higher-level cognitive areas
 episodes not remembered
 only risk is falling/injury; not dangerous to awaken them

Dreams

 __________: a state of consciousness that occurs during sleep and is usually

accompanied by vivid visual imagery, although the imagery may also be tactile or
auditory.
 more common during REM sleep, but also occur in other stages; REM dreams tend to be
more vivid and memorable
 most common topics relate to person’s daily events; also includes anxiety-provoking
experiences, familiar people
 external sounds/sensory experiences may be incorporated
 ________ dreams: dreams during which individuals are aware they are dreaming; more
common during REM sleep

 Psychodynamic Theories of dreaming

 Sigmund Freud
o Dreams express desires, wishes, and unfulfilled needs that exist in the
unconscious.
o Manifest Content: obvious storyline, characters, and settings.
o Latent Content: deeper, hidden meaning, usually symbolic
 Carl Jung
o accepted that a dream is nature’s way of allowing humans to access their own
unconscious, but viewed dreams as more complex than Freud
o dreams give visual expression to shared instincts from our
_____________unconscious: a storehouse of primitive ideas and images in the
unconscious that are inherited from our ancestors and that all humans share

 Cognitive Theories of Dreaming

 Dreams have meaning but no hidden (latent) content
 Content is connected to the thoughts and issues we have while awake.
 Creation of a dream depends on active, integrative cognition.
 Cross-cultural research suggests that life events do affect dream content.

 Biological Theories of Dreaming

  Dreams have a physiological basis and no hidden meaning.
 “Activation-Synthesis” theory: dreams are produced by the cerebral cortex in an attempt
to synthesize brain stimulation
o REM sleep activates parts of the brain responsible for long-term memory, vision,
audition, and perhaps even emotion.
 Evolutionary Theories: dreaming evolved to help humans process and rehearse handling
threatening situations

Biofeedback

 Biofeedback: a process through which people receive information about the status of a
physical function and use this feedback to learn to _________ that function.
 researchers once believed autonomic (automatic) processes could not be consciously
controlled
 since the 1960s, has been used as a therapeutic technique, especially to control chronic
headaches
• also useful for muscle tension, back pain, and temporary reduction in blood pressure

Meditation

 Meditation: a variety of techniques used to produce a state of consciousness

characterized by a sense of __________ and deep ______________
 directs focus away from outside world via intense concentration
 _______________ meditation reduces a person’s need to react/overreact to thoughts
 _______________ meditation involves focus on a visual image or mantra
 may provide physical and mental health benefits, similar to other forms of relaxation

Hypnosis

 Hypnosis: a state of consciousness during which a person’s sensations, perceptions,

thoughts, or behaviors change because of ____________ made to the person
 controversial; even the definition is debated.
 can produce effects such as relaxation, increased concentration, and pain reduction
(similar to meditation)
 Posthypnotic Suggestion – despite claims and media portrayals, no more effective for
altering behavior than placebo
 can distort rather than enhance memory

Drugs and Altered Consciousness

 Terminology:
 Drug: any chemical substance that alters biological or mental processes, or both
 Psychoactive Drug: any drug that alters behavior, thought, or perceptions, and thus
consciousness, by crossing the blood-brain barrier and affecting biochemical reactions in
the nervous system.
 _____________: condition in which higher and higher doses of a drug are required to
produce the same effect
 _____________: condition that occurs when a drug becomes part of the body’s
functioning in such as way that the user suffers with withdrawal symptoms when the
drug is discontinued

 Sedative-Hypnotics (also called sedatives or depressants): drugs that reduce brain

activity; relax and calm users (short-term); produce both tolerance and dependence
o most commonly used is __________  dampens arousal, decreases inhibitions,
impairs coordination, reaction time, motor skills
o Barbiturates/tranquilizers  induce sleep, may lead to unconsciousness or even
death; each one has medical uses (w/prescription)
o ___________: derived from opium poppy
 examples: morphine, hydrocodone, heroin
 prescribed for pain relief, mimicking effects of endorphins
 potential for misuse and abuse  opioid epidemic (since the 1990s) 
stricter control of prescription opiates
 ___________ is a street drug; considered one of the most addictive
substances

 Stimulants: drugs that increase alertness, reduce fatigue, and elevate mood; can produce
both tolerance and dependence
o ___________: most commonly used drug; can produce dependence; socially
acceptable drug, even for children
o ___________: the addictive drug in tobacco, leading to health risks of smoking;
strong dependence but not tolerance
o ______________: used for appetite suppression and treatment of ADHD; potential
for misuse/abuse; may produce psychosis; can produce both tolerance and
dependence
o ___________: also used as an anesthetic; crack is an affordable form that can be
smoked; produces fast dependence
  Psychedelics (also called hallucinogens): consciousness-altering drugs that affect mood,
thoughts, memory, judgment, and perception and are consumed solely for the purpose
of producing these results
o not as likely to produce tolerance or dependence, but they are subject to abuse
o health and safety risks are noted for these drugs
o ___________ can produce ‘trips’ that last for many years
o ___________ can produce long-lasting effects in the brain
o ______________ can impair judgment and perception; may produce psychological
dependence; laws changing in some states to allow both medical & recreational
usage

 Substance Use, Abuse, and Dependence

 Not all drug users are drug abusers, and not all drug abusers are dependent (addicted).
 Substance Abuse: __________ of and _________ on a drug to deal with everyday life
 A person is a substance abuser if he/she:
o has used a drug for at least one month;
o experiences legal, personal, social, or vocational problems as a result of drug use;
and
o uses the drug in situations when doing so is hazardous.
 Regular drug abuse  drug usage causes them to miss work/school, spend money they
cannot afford, or have relationship or legal problems.
 Drug abusers are dependent on the drug when they experience withdrawal symptoms if
they reduce or try to stop using the drug.
 The DSM-5 (2013) combined substance abuse and substance dependence diagnoses 
“Substance Use Disorders”
 Risk factors for substance use/abuse:
o stress and/or psychological problems (coping/self-medication)
o family members’ drug use (parent models)
o peer usage
o inaccurate beliefs about the risks
o sex (men>women)
o ethnicity (highest among Native Americans, lowest among Asian Americans)
o genetic factors (inherited metabolism or control of GABA)
o cultural factors (influence both perception & usage)