Physics II: Electromagnetism

PH 102

Lecture-4

January-May 2025
Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinate System
Before dealing with more examples of line, surface and volume integrals, it is better to
understand how to convert an integral from one set of coordinates to another

Why different set of coordinates are necessary?

In Physics, symmetry plays a big role and often the symmetry of a problem screams at
you to change the coordinate system to another one where the problem becomes much
easier to handle

• Likely to be Plane (Cartesian), Spherical or Cylindrical polar coordinates

• But can be something more general like (u1 , u2 , u3 ) Curvilinear coordinates

just 2 examples, there are more

✓
r s z

Cylindrical polar
Spherical polar
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 Applications
Cartesian Spherical Cylindrical

Mount Everest
Spiral galaxy Co-axial cable
• Cartesian : Very common. For describing linear paths, reading maps and graphs, and for systems of involving
linear momenta, acceleration etc.

• For describing curved paths, the Cartesian coordinates are very difficult.

• Spherical : For curved paths, like orbital motion, spiral motion, Very common use is in GPS. For extracting
underlying conserved quantities like angular momentum.

• Vast number of applications like in addressing the potential problems in EM theory, problems involving
orbital motion in QM, Atomic Physics, Nuclear Physics. e.g. Hydrogen atom problem. For problems
involving central forces like Gravitational forces etc.

• For helical paths, co-axial cables, fluid flows in pipes, deep bore wells including for those used for oil
extraction.

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Recap: Cartesian Coordinate
Recall Cartesian: ~r = xx̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ and d~r = dxx̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ, where x̂, ŷ, ẑ are
✓ ◆
constant unit vectors d~r =
@~
r
dx +
@~
r
dy +
@~
r
dz
@x @y @z
lines of constant x
Length scales properly match:pboth LHS and RHS has the
dimension of length: |d~r| = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2
ŷ
ŷ
x̂ Unit vectors in Cartesian Coordinates:
ẑ
x̂
ẑ
x̂, ŷ, ẑ: constant in direction (direction of increase of x, y and z) an
in magnitudeconstant in magnitude
(norm 1). (norm=1)
lines of constant y
Orthogonality: x̂i .x̂j = ij
Remember also: x̂i ⇥ x̂j = ✏ijk xk .

Suppose we want to go to curvilinear coordinates from Cartesian: (x, y, z) ! (u1 , u2 , u3 )

~r 6= u1 û1 + u2 û2 + u3 û3 Think about u1 = r, u2 = ✓, u3 = ,

d~r 6= du1 û1 + du2 û2 + du3 û3 then the LHS has dimension of length,
q but RHS does not have the proper
|d~r| 6
= du21 + du22 + du23 dimension.

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From Cartesian to Curvilinear: Transformations
Consider the position vector at some point P in space. In Cartesian coordinates:
~r = xx̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ z
u3-curve
Now assume, at this point, we have another orthogonal
coordinate system (u1 , u2 , u3 ), such that
u1 = c 1
x = x(u1 , u2 , u3 ), y = y(u1 , u2 , u3 ), z = z(u1 , u2 , u3 ) P
u2 = c 2
u3 = c 3 u2
Suppose, above eqns can be solved for u1 , u2 and u3 u1 -curve -curve
in terms of x, y, z: y

u1 = u1 (x, y, z), u2 = u2 (x, y, z), u3 = u3 (x, y, z) x

Given a point P with Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), we can associate a unique
set of coordinates (u1 , u2 , u3 ) called Curvilinear Coordinates of P .

The surfaces u1 = c1 , u2 = c2 and u3 = c3 where c1 , c2 , c3 are constants =)

Coordinate surfaces Coordinate Surfaces
Each pair of these surfaces intersect at Coordinate Curves/lines
If Coordinate surfaces intersect at right angles =) Orthogonal Curvilinear
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From Cartesian to Curvilinear: unit vectors
We have just seen x = x(u1 , u2 , u3 ), y = y(u1 , u2 , u3 ), z = z(u1 , u2 , u3 )
Therefore ~r = x(u1 , u2 , u3 )x̂ + y(u1 , u2 , u3 )ŷ + z(u1 , u2 , u3 )ẑ ...and d~
r = dxx̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ.
In order to de ne vector operators in this new coordinate system, we need to determine how the position
vector changes with a change in this new coordinate system.

@x @x @x @y @y @y @z @z @z
dx = du1 + du2 + du3 ; dy = du1 + du2 + du3 ; dz = du1 + du2 + du3
@u1 @u2 @u3 @u1 @u2 @u3 @u1 @u2 @u3

Hence,
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ⌘
◆
@x @x @x @y @y @y @z @z @z
d~r = du1 + du2 + du3 x̂ + du1 + du2 + du3 ŷ + du1 + du2 + du3 zẑ̂
@u1 @u2 @u3 @u1 @u2 @u3 @u1 @u2 @u3
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@x @y @z @x @y @z @x @y @z
= x̂ + ŷ + ẑ du1 + x̂ + ŷ + ẑ du2 + x̂ + ŷ + ẑ du3
@u1 @u1 @u1 @u2 @u2 @u2 @u3 @u3 @u3
@~r @~r @~r
du1 du2 du3
@u1 @u2 @u3

= h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3

where ê1 , ê2 , ê3 are unit vectors in the direction of increasing u1 , u2 , u3 .
h1 , h2 , h3 are called Scale Factors.
IIT Guwahati 6 PH102 (2025)
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From Cartesian to Curvilinear: unit vectors
✓ ◆
@~r @~r @~r d~r =
@~r
dx +
@~r
dy +
@~r
dz ê3
d~r = du1 + du2 + du3 @x @y @z z
@u1 @u2 @u3 u3
= h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3
u1 = c 1
@~r @~r @~r P ê2
) h1 ê1 = ; h2 ê2 = ; h3 ê3 = u2 = c 2
@u1 @u2 @u3 u3 = c 3 u2
u1 ê1
Note that a tangent vector to u1 curve at P (for which
@~
u2 , u3 are constants) is @ur
. Then a unit tangent y
1
@~
r @~
r
vector in this direction is eˆ1 = @u 1
/| @u1 |. x
@~
r @~
r @~
r @~
r
Similarly ê2 = @u2 /| @u2 | and ê3 = @u3 /| @u3 |
@~
r @~
r @~
r
The scale factors are therefore: h1 = | @u1
|; h 2 = | @u2 |; h 3 = | @u3 |
: relate the actual displacement in a given coordinate direction to the change
of that coordinate.
Unit vectors here are analogous to the unit vectors in cartesian coordinates but are unlike
them in that they may change directions from point to point.
In a orthogonal curvilinear coordinate the unit vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular) to
each other.
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Arc length, Volume element etc…
@~r @~r @~r u3
d~r = du1 + du2 + du3 = h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3
@u1 @u2 @u3

h3 du3 ê3
Di↵erential of arc length ds: ds2 = d~r.d~r (why?) P h2 du2 ê2

1
1 ê
Since êi .êj = ij , ds2 = h21 du21 + h22 du22 + h23 du23 . u2

du
u1

h1
Along a u1 curve, u2 and u3 are constants so that d~r = h1 du1 ê1 .
Hence, the di↵erential arc length ds1 along u1 curve at P is h1 du1 .

Similarly ds2 = h2 du2 and ds3 = h3 du3 along u2 and u3 at P.

Volume element:

Look at the parallelepiped formed out of the vectors h1 du1 ê1 , h2 du2 ê2 and
h3 du3 ê3 : the volume element is given by:

d⌧ = |(h1 du1 ê1 ).(h2 du2 ê2 ) ⇥ (h3 du3 ê3 )| = h1 h2 h3 du1 du2 du3 ,

since |ê1 .(ê2 ⇥ ê3 )|.

IIT Guwahati 8 PH102 (2025)

 Gradient operator in Curvilinear coordinate
We have already seen that d~r = h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3

The scalar function T is now a function of curvilinear coordinates (u1 , u2 , u3 ).

@T @T @T
But, dT (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = du1 + du2 + du3 .
@u1 @u2 @u3

~ (u1 , u2 , u3 ).d~r.
Therefore, dT (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = rT h3

@T @T @T @T
h1 ê3 du3 ) = du1 + du2 + du3 = ~
rT.(h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h1 ê3 du3 ) = du1 +
@u1 @u2 @u3 @u1

We need to find the operator ∇ ⃗

In general: ∇ ⃗ T = α1e1̂ + α2e2̂ + α3e3̂

@T @T @T
ê3 du3 ) =
@u1
du1 +
@u2
du2 +
@u3
du3 = α1 h1 du1 + α2 h2 du2 + α3 h3 du3

IIT Guwahati 9 PH102 (2025)

Gradient operator in Curvilinear coordinate
1 ∂T
After comparison, we get αi =
hi ∂ui
This implies
⃗
∇ = e1̂
1 ∂
+ e2̂
1 ∂
+ e3̂
1 ∂
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3

~ 1 @T 1 @T 1 @T
rT (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = ê1 + ê2 + ê3 .
h1 @u1 h2 @u2 h3 @u3

~ (u1 , u2 , u3 ) is curvilinear coordinates:

rT

The del operator can be used to write the Divergence, Curl and Laplacian in
Curvilinear Coordinates

In curvilinear coordinate a general vector can be written as

V ⃗ = V1e1̂ + V2e2̂ + V3e3̂

IIT Guwahati 10 PH102 (2025)

Divergence, Curl and Laplacian in Curvilinear Coordinates
Proceeding in a similar manner, one can check, after a few lines of calculations:

1 ⇣ @(h h V ) @(h h V ) @(h h V ) ⌘

~ ~ 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 3
Divergence: r.V = + +
h1 h2 h3 @u1 @u2 @u3

h1 ê1 h2 ê2 h3 ê3

~ ⇥V
~ = 1 @ @ @
Curl: r @u1 @u2 @u3
h1 h2 h3
h1 V 1 h2 V 2 h3 V 3
" #
1 @ ⇣h h @T ⌘ @ ⇣h h @T ⌘ @ ⇣h h @T ⌘
2 3 3 1 1 2
Laplacian: r2 T = + +
h1 h2 h3 @u1 h1 @u1 @u2 h2 @u2 @u3 h3 @u3

Quick Check
For Cartesian coordinates, h1 = h2 = h3 = 1 and ê1 = x̂, ê2 = ŷ, ê3 = ẑ. This
reduces the above expressions to the familiar expressions in Cartesian coordinate
where (u1 , u2 , u3 ) are replaced by (x, y, z).
IIT Guwahati 11 PH102 (2025)
 Speci c examples:
Spherical Polar and Cylindrical Polar
fi
Spherical Polar Coordinates
• Cartesian coordinate of P : (x, y, z) z

• Position vector of P : ~r P

• Length of ~r: r = |~r| ~r

u=✓
• Polar angle (angle between z axis and ~r): ✓
y
• Azimuthal angle (angle between x axis and v=
projection of ~r on xy plane):

• Spherical Polar Coordinate: (r, ✓, )⌘ (u1 , u2 , u3 ) x

• Range of r: 0  r < 1

• Range of ✓: 0  ✓  ⇡

• Range of : 0  
< 2⇡
• Transformations: x = r sin ✓ cos , y = r sin ✓ sin ,
and z = r cos ✓
• ~r = r sin ✓ cos x̂ + r sin ✓ sin ŷ + r cos ✓ẑ
p ⇣y⌘
p x2 + y 2
1 1
• Inverse transformations: r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , ✓ = sin p , = tan
2 2
x +y +z 2 x
IIT Guwahati 13 PH102 (2025)
Spherical Polar Coordinates
Coordinate Surfaces:
Recall: coordinate surfaces were defined as surfaces obtained by keeping one of
the coordinates (either u1 or u2 or u3 constant) constant. Here (u1 , u2 , u3 ) =
(r, ✓, ).

The coordinate surfaces are:

r = c1 , spheres having centre at the origin

✓ = c2 , cones having vertex at origin (line if c2 = 0 or ⇡, xy plane if c2 = ⇡/2)
= c3 , planes through z axis

z
P
~r
u=✓

y
v=

IIT Guwahati 14 PH102 (2025)

Spherical Polar Coordinates
z
Coordinate Curves:
Recall: coordinate curves were obtained by keeping two
coordinates fixed (intersection of u1 = c1 or u2 = c2 or
u3 = c3 surfaces).

Intersection of r = c1 and ✓ = c2 ( curve) is a circle

Intersection of r = c1 and = c3 (✓ curve) is a semi circlex y

Intersection of ✓ = c2 and = c3 (r curve) is a line

Constant
lines Constant
r lines

• Lines of constant : Longitude

• Lines of constant ✓ : Lattitude
Constant
✓ lines

IIT Guwahati 15 PH102 (2025)

Spherical Polar Coordinates: Unit vectors and Scale factors
z
• ~r = r sin ✓ cos x̂ + r sin ✓ sin ŷ + r cos ✓ẑ r̂
Recall that êi = 1 @~r @~
r
where hi = | @u |. ˆ
hi @ui , i

Hence h1 ⌘ hr = | @~@r
r
| = 1, h 2 ⌘ h ✓ = | @~
r
@✓ | = r, ✓ˆ
h3 ⌘ h = | @@~r | = r sin ✓ x

y
Unit vectors:
@~
r
@r
ê1 ⌘ r̂ = @~
r
= sin ✓ cos x̂ + sin ✓ sin ŷ + cos ✓ẑẑ
@r
@~
r
ê2 ⌘ ✓ˆ = @✓
@~
r
= cos ✓ cos x̂ + cos ✓ sin ŷ sin ✓ẑ
@✓
@~r
ˆ= @
ê3 ⌘ = sin x̂ + cos ŷ
@~r
@

This shows that the unit vectors in spherical polar coordinates are dependent on position

The unit vectors r̂, ✓ˆ and ˆ are in the directions of increasing r, ✓ and
respectively.
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 Spherical Polar: Line, Volume and Surface elements
@~r @~r @~r
d~r = du1 + du2 + du3 = h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3
@u1 @u2 @u3
Therefore, for spherical polar d~r = r̂dr + rd✓✓ˆ + r sin ✓d ˆ 6= drr̂ + d✓✓ˆ + d ˆ

r d~r Scale factors take care of

the length scale
Volume element: d⌧ = hr h✓ h drd✓d = r2 sin ✓drd✓d .

Surface element: No general expression. Depend on orientation of the surface:

2 ✓
dar = h✓ h d✓d r̂ = r sin ✓d✓d r̂ (r constant surface)
da✓ = hr h drd ✓ˆ = r sin ✓drd ✓ˆ (✓ constant surface)
da = hr h✓ drd✓ ˆ = rdrd✓ ˆ ( constant surface)

r sin ✓d

r rd✓ ✓ r
d✓ d
r sin ✓

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Cylindrical Polar Coordinates z
• Cartesian coordinate of P : (x, y, z)

• Distance of P from z axis: s s

• Height: z (same as Cartesian)

• Azimuthal angle: (same as spherical polar) x

y

• Cylindrical Polar Coordinate: (s, , z) ⌘ (u1 , u2 , u3 )

• Range of s: 0  s < 1
• Range of : 0  
< 2⇡
• Range of z: 1<z<1
• Transformations: x = s cos , y = s sin , z = z
p y
1
• Inverse transformations: s = x2 + y 2 , = tan x , z=z

• Coordinate surfaces and curves: Find out!

IIT Guwahati 18 PH102 (2025)

Cylindrical Polar Coordinates
ẑ
ˆ
ŝ As usual, the scale factors are given by:
h1 ⌘ hs = 1, h2 ⌘ h = s, h3 ⌘ hz = 1.

The unit vectors are:

ŝŝ =
= cos x̂ + sin
sin ŷŷ
ˆˆ =
= sin x̂ + cos
cos ŷŷ
ẑ = ẑ

Line element: d~r = hs ŝds + h ˆd + hz ẑdz = dsŝ + sd ˆ + dz ẑ

Surface element: d~as = h hz d dzŝ = sd dzŝ (for s constant surface)

Volume element: d⌧ = hs h hz dsd dz = sdsd dz

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 ∂x ∂y ∂z
Take home exercises !
∂vz ∂v y
" !
∂vx ∂vz
" !
∂v y ∂vx
"
Curl : ∇×v = − x̂ + − ŷ + − ẑ
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
Find out the expressions for the gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian in the
2 2 2
spherical polar coordinate
2 ∂ t
system∂ t ∂ t
Laplacian : ∇ t = 2
+ 2+ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
Use already discussed definitions of gradient, divergence and curl in terms of
(h1, h2 , h3) dl = dr r̂ + r dθ θ̂ + r sin θ dφ φ̂; dτ = r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ
Spherical.

∂t 1 ∂t 1 ∂t
Gradient : ∇t = r̂ + θ̂ + φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂vφ
Divergence : ∇ · v = 2 (r vr ) + (sin θ vθ ) +
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
# $
1 ∂ ∂vθ
Curl : ∇×v = (sin θ vφ ) − r̂
r sin θ ∂θ ∂φ
# $ # $
1 1 ∂vr ∂ 1 ∂ ∂vr
+ − (r vφ ) θ̂ + (r vθ ) − φ̂
r sin θ ∂φ ∂r r ∂r ∂θ
! " ! " 2
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂t 1 ∂ ∂t 1 ∂ t
Laplacian : ∇ t= 2 r + 2 sin θ +
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r 2 sin2 θ ∂φ 2

Cylindrical. dl = ds ŝ + s dφ φ̂ + dz ẑ; dτ = s ds dφ dz
IIT Guwahati 20 PH102 (2025)
Take home exercises
1
#
1 ∂vr ∂
$ #
1 ∂
$
∂vr
+ − (r vφ ) θ̂ + (r vθ ) − φ̂
r sin θ ∂φ ∂r r ∂r ∂θ
Find out the expressions for the gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian in the
! " ! " 2
cylindrical polar coordinate system
1 ∂ 2 ∂t 1 ∂ ∂t 1 ∂ t
2
Laplacian : ∇ t = 2 r + 2 sin θ +
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r 2 sin2 θ ∂φ 2
Use already discussed definitions of gradient, divergence and curl in terms of
(h1, h2 , h3)
Cylindrical. dl = ds ŝ + s dφ φ̂ + dz ẑ; dτ = s ds dφ dz

∂t 1 ∂t ∂t
Gradient : ∇t = ŝ + φ̂ + ẑ
∂s s ∂φ ∂z

1 ∂ 1 ∂vφ ∂vz
Divergence : ∇ · v = (svs ) + +
s ∂s s ∂φ ∂z
# $ # $ # $
1 ∂vz ∂vφ ∂vs ∂vz 1 ∂ ∂vs
Curl : ∇×v = − ŝ + − φ̂ + (svφ )− ẑ
s ∂φ ∂z ∂z ∂s s ∂s ∂φ
! " 2 2
2 1 ∂ ∂t 1 ∂ t ∂ t
Laplacian : ∇ t= s + 2 2+ 2
s ∂s ∂s s ∂φ ∂z

IIT Guwahati 21 PH102 (2025)

Summary:

Line element d~r = h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3

Spherical polar coordinate

h1 = hr = 1 , h2 = hθ = r , h3 = hϕ = r sinθ

Cylindrical polar coordinate

h1 = hs = 1 , h2 = hϕ = s , h3 = hz = 1

Del operator in curvilinear coordinate system

⃗
∇ = e1̂
1 ∂
+ e2̂
1 ∂
+ e2̂
1 ∂
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3

Symmetry of a problem decides what coordinate to choose.

IIT Guwahati 22 PH102 (2025)

Thank You

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