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Control System
Analysis
and Design
Control System
Analysis
and Design
(SECOND EDITION)

A K TRIPATHI
Senior Lecturer
Department of Electronics Engineering
Institute of Engineering and Rural Technology
Allahabad, INDIA

DINESH CHANDRA
Head
Department of Electrical Engineering
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology
Allahabad, INDIA

New Academic Science Limited

27 Old Gloucester Street, London, WC1N 3AX, UK
NEW
www.newacademicscience.co.uk
ACADEMIC
SCIENCE
e-mail: [email protected]
Copyright © 2014 by New Academic Science Limited
27 Old Gloucester Street, London, WC1N 3AX, UK
www.newacademicscience.co.uk • e-mail: [email protected]

ISBN : 978 1 781830 65 9

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm,
xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or
mechanical, without the written permission of the copyright owner.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Every effort has been made to make the book error free. However, the author and publisher have no
warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to the documentation contained in this book.
 PREFACE
Stepping into modern technological developments requires that the future engineers be aptly equipped
with knowledge of fundamental concepts and techniques which will enable them to be at natural ease in
analysing and designing the control systems. In fact, the control system is an extraordinarily rich subject
of Electronics, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering with diverse applications. Keeping this in view,
this book is intended to be used as text for an introductory course in Control Systems with the prerequisite
that the reader should have an introductory knowledge of differential equations, matrix algebra and
Laplace transform.
The book starts with an introduction to the basic concepts of control systems in Chapter 1. System,
system classification, system modeling and need for the control in a system, have been discussed. This
chapter also familiarises the reader with evolution of transfer function model and establishing the
correspondence of time functions with individual partial fraction terms of transfer function. Chapter 2
identifies the standard test signals and applies them to the system of order one, order two and higher
order to evaluate responses both in transients and steady state.
Chapter 3 is designed to familiarise the reader with block diagram manipulation, signal flow graphs
and use of Mason’s gain rule. Chapter 4 discusses system stability. The determination of root distribution
through Routh’s test, testing of adjustable systems and axis shift to evaluate relative stability are thoroughly
treated.
Chapter 5 aims at thorough understanding of root locus for positive parameter variation, negative
parameter variation and multiple parameter variation. The root locus for systems of forms other than
those with unity subtractive feedback type, is also discussed.
Chapter 6 is devoted to all important frequency response analysis. There is wide speculation among
students that Nyquist plot and Bode plot are the most tedious segments of control system analysis to
learn. Considerable thought and effort have been devoted to ease out learning them. The step-by-step
approach for sketching Nyquist plot for minimum phase systems, non-minimum phase systems and
those with poles on imaginary axis, is expected to fascinate the reader. A similar approach is demonstrated
to treat Bode plots as well. Interpreting stability from Nyquist and Bode plots is still more dexterously
treated. This chapter begins with identifying the strengths and weaknesses of frequency response approach
and culminates in finding the transfer function model from Bode plot. The frequency response plots for
systems with delay, are also well treated. In fact, the entire text has been developed exactly in the manner
in which the author has learnt and has been teaching in class.
Chapter 7 is entirely devoted to state space analysis including asymptotic stability, controllability
and observability. The state space design including pole placement and observer design is also covered.
Finding transfer function and time response through state space approach, are also included.
Chapter 8 covers the analysis and design of industrial controllers: P, PI, PD and PID. The step-by-
step procedure is used while treating the design of these controllers from root locus perspective. The
analysis of phase lag, phase lead and lag-lead compensators is included. The design of these compensators

(v)
(vi) Preface

through root locus and Bode plots is thoroughly treated using step-by-step approach. Evolution of design
strategies has been categorically explained with manual sketches. The abstraction through computer
computations is avoided.
On successive demand of students, Chapter 9 lays stress on Control System Components of wider
applications including stepper motors and encoders that are quite pervasive in robotics and design of
digital control systems.
The idea of writing a textbook on control systems, was conceived when Dr. H. Kar and we were
enjoying a cup of tea in department of electronics, MNNIT Allahabad. It is he who gave me a tip of
developing the text exactly in the manner we teach in the class. Probably our classroom teaching, for
which he would have got feedback from students, fascinated him. The text development begins with aim
to bring even the challenging control concepts within grasp of average students. Step-by-step approach
is adapted throughout the text. All significant points concerning a particular concept have been put
together in the form of tables and ‘note the following’. A potential care has been exercised in developing
the example problems. Each chapter includes sufficient number of multiple-choice questions designed
to test the student rigorously on the material covered.
The authors would like to express their sincere appreciation to professors, Rajeev Tripathi (Dean
Academic, MNNIT, Allahabad), Neeraj Shukla (Academic Coordinator, IERT, Allahabad), S.K. Shukla
(Department of Mathematics, IERT) and Vikash Choubey (Department of IP, IERT) who made valuable
suggestions and constructive comments in revision routine. Appreciation is also due to my students
Anand Agrawal, Nishu, Rupam and Sarala who helped in identifying the corrections in first edition and
made significant contribution in revising, identifying corrections and adding the problems at the end of
the chapters.
The authors are pleased to acknowledge their indebtedness to Dr. H. Kar and Dr. M.M. Dwivedi
who reviewed the entire script. Their most gracious encouragements and valued constructive criticism
are most sincerely appreciated. Sincere thanks is due to Mr. Satya Prakash for his invaluable contribution
towards reading some portion of text and consistent encouragement to complete the task.
The authors express deep appreciation and thanks to Kailash Nath Prajapati for his most skillful
services in the preparation of script. He tirelessly typed the manuscript multiple times and developed the
figures with keen interest and utmost care. The authors would like to thank Mr. Bhupendra Pandey, an
educator and motivator for his consistent persuasion to complete the task. Authors also thank all
colleagues and students for their assistance.
The encouragement, patience, technical support and enthusiasm provided by the publishers have
been, in deed, crucial in making this text a reality.
The authors highly appreciate your comments and suggestions so as to upkeep the vision to the goal
of producing best possible text on Control System.
A.K. Tripathi
Dinesh Chandra
 Introductor
Introductoryy Control Concepts vii

CONTENTS
PREFACE v

1 Introductory Control Concepts 1–52

1.1 Introduction 1
l Open loop control system 2
l Closed loop control system (feedback control system) 2
1.2 Effects of Feedback 3
1.3 Systems Modelling 10
l Electrical systems 10
l Mechanical system 11
1.4 Mathematical Modelling of Translational/Rotational Mechanical System 13
1.5 Analogous Systems 18
l Force-voltage (f-v) analogy 18
l Procedure to construct analogous electrical system using
f-v analogy 20
l Procedure to construct analogous electrical system using
f-i analogy 21
1.6 Gear Train and its Electrical Analog 22
l Electrical analog of gear train 24
1.7 Transfer Function 26
l Transfer function model of system 27
l Zero state response 29
l Zero input response 30
l Transfer function of a system with multi inputs and multi outputs 30
1.8 Classification of Systems 32
l Linear and non-linear systems 32
l Time varying and time invariant systems 32
l Continuous and discrete systems 33
l Deterministic and stochastic systems 33
l System with memory and without memory 33
l Causal system 33
Problems and Solutions 34

(vii)
(viii) Contents

Drill Problems 41
Multiple Choice Questions 43
Answers and Hints to Multiple Choice Questions 50

2 Control System Analysis in Time Domain 53–114

2.1 Introduction 53
2.2 Standard Test Signals 54
2.3 First Order System 55
l Unit step response of first order system 55
l Unit ramp response of first order system 57
l Unit impulse response of first order system 58
l Illustrative examples 59
2.4 Second Order System 60
l Unit step response of a general second order control system 60
l Transient response specifications 62
l The characteristic equation roots and corresponding time response 65
l Unit impulse response of a general second order system 70
2.5 Steady State Performance of Linear Control System 72
l Type number of a system 73
l Steady state error due to step input 74
l Steady state error due to ramp input (velocity input) 75
l Steady state error due to parabolic input (acceleration input) 76
l Drawbacks of approach based on error constant evaluation 78
2.6 The Error Series 78
2.7 Higher Order Systems 79
l Technique to cast away insignificant poles 80
2.8 Effect of Adding Poles and Zeros to Transfer Functions 81
l Addition of a zero to closed loop transfer function 81
l Addition of a zero to open loop transfer function 82
l Addition of a pole to open loop transfer function 82
l Addition of pole to closed loop transfer function 83
Problems and Solutions 84
Drill Problems 95
Multiple Choice Questions 97
Answers and Hints to Multiple Choice Questions 110

3 Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graph 115–162

3.1 Block Diagrams 115
l Block diagram development 116
l Block diagram reduction 117
 Contents (ix)

3.2 Signal Flow Graph 119

l Important definitions 120
l Construction of signal flow graph from block diagram 123
l Construction of signal flow graph for electrical network 123
l Mason’s gain rule 124
Problems and Solutions 125
Drill Problems 148
Multiple Choice Questions 154
Answers and Hints to Multiple Choice Questions 160

4 System Stability 163–205

4.1 Introduction 163
l Asymptotic stability 163
l Impulse response stability 163
l Bounded input bounded output (BIBO) stability 164
4.2 Coefficient Test for Stability 166
4.3 Routh’s Stability Test 167
4.4 Left Column Zero of Array 169
4.5 Premature Termination of Array 171
4.6 Relative Stability Analysis 175
4.7 Routh’s Stability Test in Control System Analysis 176
Problems and Solutions 177
Drill Problems 194
Multiple Choice Questions 197
Answers and Hints to Multiple Choice Questions 202

5 Root Locus 206–277

5.1 Introduction 206
5.2 Root Locus for Feedback Systems 208
l Graphical evaluation of angle and magnitude of G(s) H(s) 210
5.3 Root Locus Construction 213
l Some root locus plots 226
5.4 Root Loci for Systems with Other Forms 228
5.5 Root Loci for Systems with Positive Feedback 230
5.6 Root Locus of a G(s) H(s) Product with Pole-zero Cancellation 234
5.7 Effects of Adding Poles and Zeros to the Product G(s) H(s)
on Shape of Root Locus 235
l Addition of poles 235
l Addition of zeros 236
5.8 Effects of Delay on Root Locus 237
(x) (x)
Contents

5.9 Root Contours (Multiple Parameter Variation) 239

Problems and Solutions 241
Drill Problems 265
Multiple Choice Questions 268
Answers and Hints to Multiple Choice Questions 275

6 Frequency Response Analysis 278–438

6.1 Introduction 278
l Strengths of frequency response approach 278
l Weaknesses of frequency response approach 279
6.2 Frequency Response 279
l Steady state sinusoidal response 279
l Frequency response evaluation 281
l Graphical evaluation of frequency response 281
6.3 Correlation between Time Response and Frequency Response 282
l Frequency response specifications 283
6.4 Graphical Representation of Frequency Response 287
l Polar plots 287
l Polar plot construction 287
l Effects of addition of poles and zeros to G(s) on the shape of
polar plots 302
l Addition of poles at origin 302
l Addition of finite non-origin poles 304
l Addition of zeros at origin 305
6.5 The Nyquist Stability Criterion 305
l Mapping 306
l Nyquist stability criterion 310
l Nyquist procedure for minimum phase system 312
l Relative stability using Nyquist procedure 313
l The measures of relative stability: Gain margin and phase margin 315
l Generating complete Nyquist plot and interpretting stability 321
6.6 Bode Plot 327
l The product terms of G( jω) H( jω) 327
l Poles and zeros at origin of s plane 328
l Real axis poles or zeros 331
l Complex conjugate poles or zeros 336
l Sketching magnitude (dB) plot 336
l Sketching phase plot 337
l Gain margin and phase margin from Bode plot 339
l Relationship between Bode magnitude (dB) plot and number
type of a system 341
l Evaluation of Kp from Bode plot 341
 (xi)
Contents (xi)

l Evaluation of Kv from Bode plot 342

l Evaluation of Ka from Bode plot 343
l Irrational transmittances 349
l All pass systems 349
l Effect of variation in gain K on Bode plot 350
l Effect of presence of delay in system on Bode plot 351
l Finding transfer function models 352
l Imaginary axis zeros and poles 354
6.7 Closed Loop Frequency Response of Unity Feedback System 355
l Constant magnitude loci (M circles) 357
Problems and Solutions 364
Drill Problems 406
Multiple Choice Questions 411
Answers and Hints to Multiple Choice Questions 431

7 State Space Analysis and Design 439–531

7.1 Introduction 439
7.2 State Space Representation 440
l State 440
l State vector 440
l State space 440
l Phase variable form of state model 445
l Dual phase variable form of state model 447
l State model for systems with single input and multiple outputs 448
l State model for systems with multiple inputs and single output 449
l State model for systems with multiple inputs and multiple outputs 451
l Other ways of modelling 451
l State space model using canonical variables 455
7.3 Modelling Electrical and Mechanical Systems 459
7.4 Finding Transfer Function from State Space Model 461
7.5 Finding Time Response from State Model 464
l First order systems 464
l State transition matrix 465
l Properties of STM 466
l Higher order systems 467
7.6 Controllability and Observability 468
l Test of state controllability for diagonal systems 469
l Test of output controllability 472
l Test of observability for diagonal systems 472
l Causes of uncontrollability and/or unobservability 473
l Principle of duality 475
(xii) (xii)
Contents

7.7 Finding Decoupled State Equations (Diagonalisation) 476

7.8 State Feedback and Pole Placement 481
7.9 Observer Design 484
Problems and Solutions 488
Drill Problems 517
Multiple Choice Questions 522
Answers and Hints to Multiple Choice Questions 528

8 Control System Design 532–635

8.1 Introduction 532
8.2 Controller Configurations 532
8.3 Industrial Automatic Controllers 534
l Two position/on-off control 534
l Proportional control 535
l Integral control 536
l Proportional plus Integral control (PI) 537
l Proportional plus Derivative control (PD) 539
l Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative control (PID) 541
8.4 Generating Hardware for Industrial Controllers 543
l PI controller 543
l PD controller 545
l PID controller 545
8.5 The Compensator Elements 546
l Phase lead compensator 546
l Phase lag-compensator 551
l Lag-lead compensator 555
8.6 Root Locus Design 557
l Cascade compensator design for improving steady state performance 559
l PI compensator design 559
l Lag-compensator design 561
l Cascade compensator design for improving transient response 564
l PD compensator design 565
l Lead compensator design 568
l PID controller design 571
l Lag-lead compensator design 574
8.7 Frequency Response Design 577
l Lag-compensator design 578
l Lead compensator design 582
l Phase lag-lead compensator design 586
8.8 Rate Feedback Compensator Design 590
l Minor loop feedback compensation 593
 (xi)
Contents (xiii)

Problems and Solutions 596

Drill Problems 626
Multiple Choice Questions 629
Answers and Hints to Multiple Choice Questions 634
9 Control System Components 636–698
9.1 Introduction 636
9.2 Potentiometer 637
l Potentiometer performance indices 641
l Merits and demerits of potentiometer 642
l Types of potentiometer 642
9.3 Synchros 643
l Synchro construction and operation 643
l Synchro transmitter (ST) 643
l Synchro control transformer (CT) 644
9.4 Servo Motor 647
l DC servo motor 647
l Armature controlled DC servo motor 647
l Field controlled DC servo motor 651
l Comparing armature controlled and field controlled DC servo motors 653
l AC servo motor 653
9.5 AC Tachometer 657
l DC tachometer 657
l AC tachometer 658
9.6 Servo Amplifier 659
l Amplidyne 660
9.7 Stepper Motor 663
9.8 Optical Encoder 673
l Incremental encoder 673
l Absolute encoder 675
9.9 Mechanical Arrangements to Convert Rotational Motion into
Corresponding Linear Motion 676
9.10 Belt or Chain Drive and Lever System 677
Problems and Solutions 678
Drill Problems 690
Multiple Choice Questions 694
Answers and Hints to Multiple Choice Questions 698
Index 699–705
 1
INTRODUCTORY CONTROL CONCEPTS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the control systems have greatly influenced the development and advancement of
modern life and technology. They have become an integrated part of our everyday life too. Some of
the widely pervasive examples in day to day life, are automatic washers and dryers, microwave ovens,
pollution controls and economic regulation. The control systems appear in almost everything, right
from simple electronic household products to aeroplanes and spacecrafts. They have significantly
advanced into robotics, space vehicle systems including successful lunar soft landing, intercontinental
missile guidance systems, high speed rail systems and most recently magnetic levitation rail systems.
They have also become essential in industrial operations in the sense of controlling pressure,
temperature, humidity, viscosity and flow in process industries. Thus the control systems have become
interdisciplinary today cutting across all specialized engineering fields.
The current chapter is devoted to understand a system, need for control in a system and
mathematical modelling of systems. The system is any interconnection of components to achieve
desired objective. A system is called so provided it produces response of particular interest or
delivers energy in some useful form. It is well known that any system cannot create energy by itself.
The energy must either be inherent in the system itself or be supplied by an external source. The
energy inherent in the system is modelled as initial condition (I.C.) thereof. A typical system with
input, output and initial condition is shown in Fig. 1.1.

I.C.

Input/Excitation System Output/Response

Fig. 1.1: A system

A system excited by only initial conditions is said to be autonomous and a system having
external input together with or without initial condition is said to be non autonomous.
Experimental investigation and engineering work often involve forcing a parameter which is
otherwise undetermined or does not have the desired value, to track a reference to a specified degree
of accuracy. Here a common approach is to use a controller to manipulate response of system as
desired. Some physical process takes place in the system of interest. Under ideal conditions, in
1
2 Control System Analysis and Design

absence of control, response of system would be constant. However, in reality, because of external
disturbances like change in temperature and other environmental parameters, because of noise
intrinsic to the system and because of changes in internal parameters of the system, the response
changes with time. The overall response is sum of pure (steady) response and disturbances. Because
of fluctuating nature of disturbances, the system response becomes free running.
The system together with appropriate control strategy constitutes a control system. Although a
control system can assume different shapes depending on control situation but common to them all is
their function to manage the system’s operation so that the overall response approximates the
commanded behaviour. The controller generates actuating signals to be inputed to the system to
produce desired output as shown in Fig. 1.2. Some of the system inputs are accessible and some are
generally not available. The inaccessible inputs are often disturbances to the system. The double
lines in the figure indicate that several signals of each type are involved. Systems with one input and
one output are called single input single output (SISO) systems and those with more than one input
and one output, are called multi input multi output (MIMO) systems.
Disturbance signal

Reference Actuating
Controlled
Controller Controlled
input system
r(t) signal variable y(t)
u(t)
Fig. 1.2: Open loop control system

The control systems are broadly classified into the following:

Open loop control system
The control system wherein the control inputs are not influenced by system outputs is termed as
open loop control system as shown in Fig. 1.2. Such systems have no feedback around them. The
open loop control system are the simplest and economical. Yet they are not generally preferred
because they are usually inaccurate and unreliable. Such systems are unable to adapt to variations
in response that might occur due to variations either in internal behaviour of system or in
environmental conditions i.e. external disturbances. The Control adjustment of open loop control
system is shown in Fig. 1.2. The reference input r(t) or command is given to controller to generate
actuating signal u(t) which in turn controls the system’s operation so as to enable it to produce the
response that is required to follow certain prescribed standards.
The fact that output has no effect upon control action eases out the identification of open loop
control system. Some examples of open loop control system are as follows:
(i) Execution of programme on computer.
(ii) Separately excited d.c. generator.
(iii) Washing machine
(iv) Toaster to produce desired darkness of toasted bread.
(v) Traffic Control System.
Closed loop control system (feedback control system)
A link or feedback path established between input and output provides more satisfactory control.
Note that such a link is absent in open loop control system.
 Introductory Control Concepts 3

Closed loop control systems are class of control systems wherein, for an accurate control, the

CHAPTER 1
actual output y(t) is fedback, compared with reference input r(t) or set point (desired output) and
error signal proportional to difference between these two, is sent to the controller to correct the error
e(t). The functional layout of closed loop control system is shown in Fig. 1.3.
Error
detector
Reference + e(t)
Controller System y(t) Output
input r(t) –
Error signal

Feedback
signal Feedback
element
Fig. 1.3: Closed loop control system

Some examples of closed loop control systems are as follows:

(i) Human being (biological system).
(ii) Automobile driving system.
(iii) Constant d.c. voltage generator.
(iv) Automatic editing of text by computer.
The feedback action introduced in control system makes the response of the system relatively
insensitive to external disturbances or internal variations in system parameters. It is therefore possible
to use relatively less accurate and inexpensive components to achieve the desired result. This is
impossible in case of open loop configuration. From the view point of stability (to be discussed in
detail in chapter 4) the open loop systems are easier to build since stability does not pose any big
problem. But stability is always a major problem in closed loop case since such systems sometimes
tend to overcorrect the error that might result in instability.
Open loop systems are advised in cases where input signals are known ahead of time and where
there is no unpredictable variations in system parameters. The closed loop systems become
advantageous in a situation where unpredictable external disturbances are anticipated.
A feedback control system where controlled outputs are mechanical positions are derivatives
thereof is called servo system.

1.2 EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK

A feedback appropriately established in a control system, brings about improvement in system
performance. Some of the significant changes that are brought about by feedback in performance
characteristics of the system, are as follows:
(a) Overall gain
(b) Stability
(c) Sensitivity
(d) Disturbances.
4 Control System Analysis and Design

(a) Overall gain

Consider a model of feedback control system shown in Fig. 1.4 where R(s) is input, C(s) is
output, E(s) is error variable and β(s) is feedback variable, all are transform variables. (The term
transfer function is dealt in detail in section 1.8 of this chapter and block diagram algebra is
discussed in detail in chapter 2).
+ E(s)
R(s) G(s) C(s)
–

β(s)
H(s)

Fig. 1.4: Feedback control system

From Fig. 1.4, we have
C(s) = E(s) ⋅ G(s)
where E(s) = R(s) – β(s)
and β(s) = C(s) H(s)
then C(s) = [R(s) – C(s) H(s)] G(s)
C(s ) G(s )
and = = T(s) ...(1.1)
R(s ) 1 + G(s ) H(s )
G(s) = C(s)/E(s) is called forward path transfer function, H(s) feedback path transfer function,
G(s)H(s) = β(s)/E(s) open loop transfer function and T(s) = G(s)/[1 + G(s)H(s)] closed loop transfer
function.
The configuration of Fig. 1.4 has negative feedback. It is obvious from (1.1) that generally gain
of closed loop configuration is reduced by a factor of (1+ G(s)H(s)) as compared to open loop
system as shown in Fig. 1.5 where G(s) = C(s)/R(s). However, depending on whether feedback is
negative or positive in nature (1 + G(s)H(s)) may be greater than one or less than one and overall
gain may decrease or increase. Since G(s) and H(s) are frequency dependent, it is also possible that
overall gain may increase in a particular range of frequencies and decrease in some other range of
frequencies.
(b) Stability
In a non rigorous sense, a system is said to be stable if it provides finite response for finite input.
Any system providing infinite response for finite input, is said to be unstable. An unstable system is of
no practical interest. In the expression for overall gain (1.1) if G(s) H(s) = – 1, the overall gain will
turn out to be infinite, meaning infinite response and original stable system might turn out to be
unstable. Stability in detail will be discussed later in chapter 4.
(c) Sensitivity
The prime objective of feedback in control system is to reduce sensitivity of system to parameter
variations or to improve accuracy of system. The term sensitivity is truly the measure of effectiveness
of feedback in reducing the influence of parameter variations on system performance.
 Introductory Control Concepts 5

R(s) G(s) C(s)

CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1.5: Open loop system

Consider open loop configuration as shown in Fig. 1.5, where

C(s) = R(s) G(s)
Due to parameter variation let G(s) change to G(s) + ∆G(s) where it is assumed that
|∆G(s)| << |G(s)|. Correspondingly let C(s) change to C(s) + ∆C(s), then
C(s) + ∆C(s) = [G(s) + ∆G(s)] R(s) = G(s).R(s) + ∆G(s) R(s)
and ∆C(s) = ∆G(s) ⋅ R(s) ...(1.2)
Now consider closed loop configuration of Fig.1.4 let G(s) change to G(s) + ∆G(s) again due to
parameter variation and correspondingly C(s) to C(s) + ∆C(s). Assuming |G(s)| >> |∆G(s)| and
ignoring change ∆G(s) in denominator, equation (1.1) takes the form as follows:
G(s ) R(s ) ∆G(s ) ⋅ R(s )
C(s) + ∆C(s) = +
1 + G(s) H(s ) 1 + G(s ) H(s )
∆G(s ) R(s )
and ∆C(s) = ...(1.3)
1 + G(s ) H(s )
Comparing (1.2) and (1.3) it is obvious that change in response ∆C(s) for the same change in
G(s) in closed loop system is reduced by a factor of (1 + G(s) H(s)) as compared to change in
response in open loop system. Note that the factor 1 + G(s) H(s) is much greater than unity in most
practical systems.
Recalling equation (1.1) as
C G
T = = ; (the variable s is omitted for ease)
R 1 + GH
the sensitivity of T to variation in G is designated as STG and defined as:

∆ % change in T ∂T/T ∂T G
STG = = = ×
% change in G ∂G/G ∂G T

∂T (1 + GH) – GH 1
where = =
∂G (1 + GH) 2
(1 + GH)2
1 G (1 + GH)
So, STG = 2
×
(1 + GH) G
1
or STG = ...(1.4)
1 + GH
Similarly, the sensitivity of open loop system where T = G, is
∂T G
STG = × =1 ...(1.5)
∂G T
Note (1.4) and (1.5) to conclude that sensitivity is reduced by factor of (1 + GH) in closed loop
compared to open loop. But this improvement in sensitivity is achieved at the cost of loss in system
gain by the same factor.
6 Control System Analysis and Design

Similarly, sensitivity of T to variation in H is designated as STH and defined as;

∆ % change in T ∂T/T ∂T H
STH = = = ×
% change in H ∂H/H ∂H T

∂T ∂ G2
where = [G (1 + GH) –1 ] = – G (1 + GH)–2 G = –
∂H ∂H (1 + GH)2
– G2 H
So, S T
= 2
× × (1 + GH)
H (1 + GH) G

– GH
STH = ...(1.6)
1 + GH
Note (1.4) and (1.6) to conceive the following significant points
(i) For large values of GH, STH approaches unity whereas large GH is desirable so as to keep STG
small.

(ii) Since STH → 1, variation in H directly affects the response of the system and in general
GH >> 1
more than that due to variation in G, there stands a need to choose accurate feedback components
that do not vary with environmental changes. In closed loop systems, H(s) is usually a sensor and
constituted of elements operating at low power. G(s) is constituted of high power operating
elements. Therefore, selection of accurate H(s) at low power is far less costly than selection of
G(s) at high power to meet prescribed system specifications.
In order to have still more insight into what has been explained just above, consider the feedback
system representing an amplifier over certain range of frequencies as shown in Fig. 1.6.
+
R(s) G = 20 Y(s)
–

1
H=–
2
Fig. 1.6: Finding S GT and SHT of feedback system

Use (1.1), (1.4) and (1.6) to get the following

G 20 20
T = = 1 = 11
1+GH
1 + 20 ×
2
1 1
STG = =
1 + GH 11
– GH – 10
STH = =
1 + GH 11
 Introductory Control Concepts 7

This is to say that, with feedback, the closed loop transfer function T changes only 1/11 as much

CHAPTER 1
with small changes in G as it would without feedback.
Also changes in T with changes in H is much more than that with changes in G. The minus sign in
T
SH indicates that T increases with decrease in H and vice versa.
The sensitivity of T to variations in any other system parameter can also be computed using
exactly similar computational routine for example, consider the configuration shown in Fig. 1.7.

+ K1
R(s) G(s) = C(s)
+ s + K2

E(s) = –K3

Fig. 1.7: Finding sensitivity of feedback system to changes in system parameters

Let us evaluate, STK1 , STK 2 and STK3 i.e., sensitivities of T = C/R to small changes in K1, K2 and K3
about their nominal values K1 = 1, K2 = 2 and K3 = 3.
Use (1.1) to compute
C(s ) G K1
T(s) = = =
R(s ) 1 + GH s + K 2 + K1K 3
∂T K s + K2
STK1 = × 1 =
∂K1 T s + K 2 + K1K 3

– K2
STK 2 =
s + K 2 + K1K 3

– K1K 3
and STK3 =
s + K 2 + K1K 3
Substituting nominal values of K1, K2 and K3, we have
s+2
STK1 =
s+5
–2
STK 2 =
s+5
–3
STK3 =
s+5
Note that sensitivities are, in general, functions of complex variable s. So, there stands a need to
compute sensitivities over entire frequency range in which the input has significant frequency components.
For example,
2
STK 2 =
25 + ω2
monotonically decreases from 0.4 at ω = 0 to 0 at ω = ∞.
8 Control System Analysis and Design

(d) Disturbances
The control systems are often subjected to unwanted inaccessible disturbance signals. For
example, sudden gusts of wind tending to change dynamics of radar antenna, noise generated in
electronic amplifiers, etc. Let us investigate how feedback assists in mitigating the effect of these
disturbances on system response. Consider the system of Fig. 1.8.

Amplifier D(s) System

+ + + 1
R(s) K G(s) = Y(s)
– s+1

Fig. 1.8: Effect of disturbance on feedback system

Using the procedure as explained to derive equation (1.1), the transfer function relating Y(s) to
D(s) assuming R(s) = 0, is as follows:
1
Y(s ) (s + 1) 1
TD(s) = = = ...(1.7)
D(s ) K s+1+K
1+
s+1
The response Y(s) is related to D(s) as
D(s )
Y(s) =
s+1+K
It is easy to see that system response due to disturbance can be made arbitrarily small by choosing
K sufficiently large.
Consider the following illustrative examples for exposure to computational routine of sensitivity.
Example 1: A negative feedback control system has forward path transfer function
K
G(s) = and feedback path transfer function H(s) = 5. Determine sensitivity of closed loop
s (s + 1)
transfer function with respect to G and H at ω = 1 rad./sec. Assume K = 10 (nominal value).
1 1 s (s + 1)
Solution: STG = = = 2
1 + GH 5K s + s + 5K
1+
s (s + 1)

– ω 2 + jω
STG (jω) =
– ω 2 + jω + 5K

ω2 + ω4
STG ( jω) =
K = 10 (50 – ω2 ) 2 + ω2
 Introductory Control Concepts 9

STG ( jω) = 0.02885

CHAPTER 1
ω=1
5K
–
– GH s ( s + 1) – 5K
STH (s) = = = 2
1 + GH
1+
5K s + s + 5K
s (s + 1)
– 5K
STH (jω) =
(5K – ω 2 ) + jω

STH ( jω) 50
ω=1 = = 1.020196.
K = 10 (50 – 1) 2 + 12

Example 2: A closed loop configuration is given in Fig. 1.9 where β1 = 4 and β2 = 9. Calculate
Y(s )
STα ; T = . Find α such that STα equals 0.2 in steady state.
X(s )
+ β2
X(s) α Y(s)
– (s 2 + β 1 s + β 2 )

0.2

Fig. 1.9: Closed loop configuration

αβ 2
( s + β1s + β 2 )
2
αβ 2
Solution: T(s) = = 2
0.2 αβ 2 s + β1s + β 2 + 0.2 αβ 2
1+ 2
( s + β1s + β 2 )
Substituting given values of β1 and β2 ;
9α
T(s) =
s + 4s + 9 + 1.8α
2

∂T α
STα = ×
∂α T
9 (s 2 + 4s + 9 + 1.8α ) – 9α × 1.8 α (s 2 + 4s + 9 + 1.8)
= ×
( s 2 + 4s + 9 + 1.8α ) 2 9α

(s 2 + 4s + 9)
=
( s 2 + 4s + 9 + 1.8α )
10 Control System Analysis and Design

Under steady state conditions (s = 0)

9
STα = = 0.2 (given)
s =0 9 + 1.8α
So, α = 20.

1.3 SYSTEMS MODELLING

The first step involved in design and analysis of a continuous dynamical system is to develop
differential equation model for the system. The Laplace transform of differential equation (explained
little later) will yield transfer function model of system, of course all initial conditions are assumed to
be zero therein. The components of which the control system is constituted, are usually electrical,
electronic, mechanical or electromechanical in nature.
Electrical systems
It is deemed that the reader is well conversant with Kirchoff’s two laws: KCL and KVL by which
models of electrical networks are governed. So, electrical networks are not dealt in detail here.
However for the sake of review, consider the electrical network shown in Fig 1.10 where loop
currents i1(t), i2(t) and voltage v(t) across inductor have been defined.
2F 4Ω

5Ω i (t)
+ sin t
3Ω i1(t)
2 –
+

+
6H v(t)
7 v(t) – –

Fig. 1.10: Electrical network

The simultaneous loop equations obtained using KVL are as follows:

t
1 d
2 ∫0
7 v(t) – 3i1(t) – i1 (t ) dt – 5[i1 (t ) – i2 (t )] – 6 [i1 (t ) – i2 (t )] = 0; (i1 loop)
dt
d
6 [i1(t) – i2(t)] – 5 [i2(t) – i1(t)] – 4i2(t) – sin t = 0 (i2 loop)
dt
d
6 [i (t) – i2(t)] = V(t)
dt 1
The Laplace transform of above equations while initial conditions assumed to be zero, are as
follows:
 1
7V(s) – 6 s + 8 + I (s) + 6(s + 5) I2(s) = 0
 2s  1
1
6 (s + 5) I1(s) – 6 (s + 9) I2(s) – 2 = 0
s +1
6sI1(s) – 6sI2(s) – V(s) = 0
The electrical system models are, in general constituted of resistors, inductors capacitors, current
sources and voltage sources. These elements together with voltage current relations therein are listed
in Table 1.1.
 Introductory Control Concepts 11

TABLE 1.1: Electrical elements and voltage current relations

CHAPTER 1
Electrical elements Symbol Voltage-current relation

Independent voltage source v(t) is expressed as a function of time

Independent current source i(t) is expressed as a function of time

v(t) is expressed as a function of other

Dependent voltage source voltage or current in the network

Dependent current source i(t) is expressed as a function of other

voltage or current in the network

Resistor v = iR

di
v= L
Inductor dt
1
L∫
i= v dt

1
C∫
v= i dt
Capacitor
dv
i=
dt

Mechanical system
The dynamics of a mechanical system may be translational or rotational or both. The variables
C CC
that describe translational dynamics are displacement (x), velocity ( x ) and acceleration ( x ). Mass,
spring and damper are three mechanical elements whose symbols and force position relationships are
as given in Table 1.2.
12 Control System Analysis and Design

TABLE 1.2: Mechanical elements and force-position relationship

Mechanical elements Symbol Force-position relationship

Mass Inertial force Fm = M CC

x
M = mass

C
Damper/Dashpot Damping force FB = B x
B = Damping coefficient

Spring Spring force Fk = kx

k = Spring constant

Similarly rotational dynamics is characterised by three variables θ (angular displacement),

θ (angular velocity) and θCC (angular acceleration). The torque-angular position relationship and
symbols of these three elements are given in Table 1.3.

TABLE 1.3: Mechanical elements and torque-position relationship

Mechanical elements Symbol Torque-angular position relation

CC
Inertial torque τJ = J θ
Moment of Inertia J = moment of inertial
(MI)

C
Damper/Dashpot Damping torque τB = B θ
B = Damping coefficient

Spring Spring torque τk = kθ

k = Spring constant
 Introductory Control Concepts 13

1.4 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF TRANSLATIONAL/ROTATIONAL

CHAPTER 1
MECHANICAL SYSTEM
A differential equation or a set of differential equation(s) characterising the translational/rotational
dynamics of systems is/are called Mathematical model. The steps involved in modelling mechanical
system are outlined below.
1. Identify various displacements (linear/angular) from equilibrium position in mechanical
system. Each displacement corresponds to a node in mechanical network. All points on a
rigid mass are considered as same node and one terminal of mass is always connected to
the ground, reason being the velocity (or displacement) of a mass is always referred to
earth.
2. Draw mechanical network by connecting together terminals of elements which change the
same displacement.
3. Write force/torque balance equations for each node by applying D′ Alembert’s principle of
mechanics. The D′ Alembert’s principle of mechanics equates the algebraic sum of forces at
a node to zero in mechanical network and is analogous to KCL that equates algebraic sum
of currents at a node to zero in electrical network.
4. The corresponding algebraic equations as a function of complex variable s are obtained by
taking Laplace transform of differential equations obtained using steps 1 to 3. By little
manipulation of algebraic equations so obtained, one can easily develop transfer function
model of system relating output variable to input variable.
The following examples will illustrate the procedure.
Example 3: Write simultaneous differential equations for the translational mechanical system of
Fig. 1.11 and Laplace transform the equations assuming all initial conditions to be zero.

3
x1

2
x2
f = 10
5

4
x3
Fig. 1.11: Mechanical system

Solution: Use the procedure outlined in section 1.4 to draw mechanical network as shown in
Fig. 1.12 by first choosing three nodes x1, x2, x3 and connecting the masses between ground and the
corresponding node. Fit the mechanical elements interconnecting two nodes in the network for
example damper (B = 7) between x1 and x2 and spring (K = 5) between x2 and x3. Then fit the
remaining elements between ground and corresponding node.
14 Control System Analysis and Design

x1 7 x2 5 x3

6 3 2 4
f = 10

Fig. 1.12: Mechanical network of system of Fig. 1.11

While equating the algebraic sum of internal forces to that of externally applied forces, write
differential equations describing the system dynamics as follows.
CC C C
3 x1 + 6x1 + (7 x1 – x 2) = 0; (node x1)
CC C C
or 3 x1 + 7 x1 + 6x1 – 7 x 2 = 0 ...(1.8)
CC C C
2 x 2 + 7 ( x 2 – x1) + 5 (x2 – x3) = 10; (node x2)
CC C C
or 2 x 2 + 7 x 2 + 5x2 – 7 x1 – 5x3 = 10 ...(1.9)
CC
and 4 x3 + 5(x3 – x2) = 0; (node x3)
CC
or 4 x3 + 5x3 – 5x2 = 0 ...(1.10)

Laplace transform of (1.9), (1.10) and (1.11) yields respectively

2
(3s + 7s + 6) X1(s) – 7s X2(s) = 0 ...(1.11)

2 10
(2s + 7s + 5) X2(s) – 7s X1(s) – 5X3(s) = ...(1.12)
s
2
(4s + 5) X3(s) – 5X2(s) = 0 ...(1.13)
Example 4: Develop differential equation model for mechanical system shown in Fig. 1.13.

x1 x2
m1 K2=2 m2 f =sin t
K1=7
4 5
B=6 K3=3

Frictionless
Fig. 1.13: Mechanical system

Solution: Choose two nodes x1 and x2 as depicted in Fig. 1.13 to draw the mechanical network as
shown in Fig.1.14. The mass (m1 = 4) is connected between node x1 and ground. Similarly, the mass
(m2 = 5) is connected between node x2 and ground. The elements B = 6 and K2 = 2 are connected
between nodes x1 and x2. The remaining elements K3 = 3, K1 = 7 and f = sin t are connected between
ground and corresponding nodes.
 Introductory Control Concepts 15

K2 = 2

CHAPTER 1
x1 x2

B=6
K1 = 7 m1 = 4 m2 = 5 f = sin t

K3 = 3
Fig. 1.14: Mechanical network of system of Fig. 1.13

While equating the algebraic sum of internal forces to that of externally applied forces the
differential equations for nodes x1 and x2 are written as follows:
CC C C
m1 x1 + B( x1 – x 2) + K2 (x1 – x2) + K1x1 = 0 (node x1)
CC C C
and m2 x 2 + B( x 2 – x1) + K2 (x2 – x1) + K3x2 = sin t (node x2)
Substitute given values to get
CC C C
4 x1 + 6 x1 + 9x1 – 6 x 2 – 2x2 = 0
CC C C
and 5 x 2 + 6 x 2 + 5x2 – 2x1 – 6 x1 = sin t
Example 5: The human body is often modelled by springs, masses and dampers. For the model
of seated body with applied force f, Fig. 1.15, find the system equations.

Head
m1 = 1.2 x1

K1 = 0.3 B1 = 0.8

Upper torso
m2 = 14 x2

K2 = 8 B2 = 10
B3 = 12
K3 = 3

Arms
x3 m3 = 3.2

Lower body
x4 m4 = 24

2
f = 5t
Fig. 1.15: Model of seated human body

Solution: Having identified four displacements of head, upper torso, arms and lower body in
mechanical system of Fig. 1.15, four nodes x1, x2, x3 and x4 are correspondingly chosen and the
mechanical network as explained in example 4 is drawn in Fig. 1.16. The system equations can be
now written as follows:
CC C C
m1 x1 + B1( x1 – x 2) + K1 (x1 – x2) = 0 (node x1) ...(1.14)
16 Control System Analysis and Design

CC C C C C C C
m2 x 2 + B2( x 2 – x 3) + K2(x2 – x3) + B3( x2 – x 4) + K3(x2 – x4) + B1( x2 – x1) + K1(x2 – x1) = 0
(node x2) ...(1.15)
CC C C
m3 x3 + B2( x 3 – x 2 ) + K2(x3 – x2) = 0; (node x3) ...(1.16)
CC C C
m4 x 4 + B3( x 4 – x 2 ) + K3(x4 – x2) = f ; (node x4) ...(1.17)

B3

K1 K2 K3
x1 x2 x3 x4

B1 B2
m1 m2 m3 m4 f

Fig. 1.16: Mechanical network of system of Fig. 1.15

Fitting element values and rearranging (1.14), (1.15), (1.16) and (1.17), the following equations
result respectively.
CC C C
1.2 x1 + 0.8 x1 + 0.3 x1 – 0.8 x 2 – 0.3x2 = 0 ...(1.18)
C CC C C C
– 0.8 x1 – 0.3x1 + 14 x 2 + 22.8 x 2 + 11.3x2 – 10 x 3 – 8x3 – 12 x 4 – 3x4 = 0 ...(1.19)
C CC C
– 10 x 2 – 8x2 + 3.2 x3 + 10 x 3 + 8x3 = 0 ...(1.20)
C CC C 2
– 12 x 2 – 3x2 + 24 x 4 + 12 x 4 + 3x4 = 5t ...(1.21)

Example 6: Find the system equations characterising the mechanical system shown in
Fig. 1.17.
B3 = 2

K1 = 8 K2 = 2
J1 = 4 J2 = 6
φ1 φ2 φ3
B1 = 3 B2 = 5
–t/2
τ = 10 e
Fig. 1.17: Mechanical system of example 6

Solution: For the system shown in Fig. 1.17, the corresponding mechanical network is drawn in
Fig. 1.18. φ1, φ2 and φ 3 identified as three nodes in mechanical network are three angular
displacements from equilibrium. J1, J2 are connected between ground and corresponding nodes φ2 and
φ3 respectively. The remaining self explanatory connections are also shown in Fig. 1.18.
 Introductory Control Concepts 17

B3
φ1 K1 φ2 φ3

CHAPTER 1
τ J1 J2 K2
B1 B2

Fig. 1.18: Mechanical network for system of Fig. 1.17

Use mechanical network to write system equations as follows:

K1(φ1 – φ2) = τ; (node φ1) ...(1.22)
CC C C C
J1 φ2 + B1 φ2 + B3( φ2 – φ3) + K1(φ2 – φ1) = 0; (node φ2) ...(1.23)
CC C C C
J2 φ3 + B2 φ3 + K2φ3 + B3( φ3 – φ2 ) = 0; (node φ3) ...(1.24)
Fit the values of elements and rearrange to get the following equations describing the dynamics
of given system.
–t/2
8φ1 – 8φ2 = 10 e ...(1.25)
CC C C C
– 8φ1 + 4 φ2 + 3 φ2 + 2 φ2 + 8φ2 – 2 φ3 = 0 ...(1.26)
C CC C C
– 2 φ2 + 6 φ3 + 5 φ3 + 2φ3 + 2 φ3 = 0 ...(1.27)
Example 7: Write simultaneous equations in s domain for rotational system shown in Fig. 1.19.
Assume all initial conditions to be zero.

B1 = 7
8 φ1

9 φ2

B2 = 6

5 φ3
–t
τ = 7e

Fig. 1.19: Mechanical system

Solution: Using the procedure as explained in previous examples, three angular displacements
φ1, φ2 and φ3 have been identified as depicted in Fig. 1.19 and the corresponding network is drawn in
Fig. 1.20.
18 Control System Analysis and Design

φ1 φ2 φ3
4 6
–t
8 9 5 τ=7e
7

Fig. 1.20: Mechanical network for system of Fig. 1.19

The differential equations are as follows

CC C
8 φ1 + 7 φ1 + 4 (φ1 – φ2) = 0 ...(1.28)
CC C C
9 φ2 + 4 (φ2 – φ1) + 6 ( φ2 – φ3) = 0 ...(1.29)
CC C C
5 φ3 + 6 ( φ3 – φ2) = 7e
–t
...(1.30)
The Laplace transform (with zero initial conditions) of (1.28), (1.29) and (1.30) gives system
equations in s domain as follows.
2
(8s + 7s + 4) φ1 (s) – 4 φ2 (s) = 0 ...(1.31)
2
– 4φ1 (s) + (9s + 6s + 4) φ2 (s) – 6s φ3 (s) = 0 ...(1.32)
2 7
– 6s φ2 (s) + (5s + 6s) φ3(s) = ...(1.33)
( s + 1)

1.5 ANALOGOUS SYSTEMS

Numerous electromechanical devices are often encountered in engineering applications. Some of the
examples are solenoids, actuators, motors, generators, gyroscopes, accelerometers and loud speakers.
In analysis of linear systems, the mathematical routine to obtain solution to given set of equations,
does not depend upon what physical systems, the equations represent. The two different physical
systems (for example one mechanical and other electrical in nature) which can be described by same
set of differential equations are called analogous systems and will produce same response to a given
excitation.
While dealing with the systems other than electrical we have following distinct advantages if we
transform the system under consideration into an analogous electrical network.
1. Electrical network theory such as impedance concept and various network theorems can be
applied to study and predict the system behaviour such as resonance, pass band, damping
coefficient, time constant, etc.
2. This technique becomes still more vulnerable when we deal with electromechanical
systems wherein phenomena are interrelated.
3. In general, electrical systems are easier to deal with experimentally.
Force-voltage (f-v) analogy
Consider a mechanical system and an electrical system shown in Figs. 1.21(a) and 1.21(b)
respectively. The corresponding mechanical network for mechanical system of Fig. 1.21(a) is drawn
in Fig. 1.21(c) where node x represents displacement of mass.
 Introductory Control Concepts 19

CHAPTER 1
f k
C x
L
m f
+ i m B k
x R
B v
–

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.21: (a) Mechanical system, (b) Analogous electrical system, (c) Mechanical network

The differential equation describing the dynamics of mechanical system can be written as
CC
m x + B xC + kx = f ...(1.34)
where x is displacement
and that for electrical system as
di 1
dt C ∫
L + i dt + Ri = v ...(1.35)

where i = current. The charge q and current i bear the relationship

C
i = q using which (1.35) takes the following form.
C 1
L qC C + R q + ·q = v ...(1.36)
C
Compare (1.34) and (1.36) to note that they are of identical form. Therefore the mechanical and
electrical systems as shown in Fig. 1.21 (a) and 1.21 (b) respectively are analogous to each other. The
quantities in corresponding position of equations (1.34) and (1.36), termed as analogous quantities are
given in Table 1.4.

TABLE 1.4: Analogous quantities in force voltage analogy

Translational mechanical Rotational mechanical Electrical system

system system

Force ( f ) Torque (τ) Votlages (v)

Mass (m) Moment of inertial (J) Inductance (L)

Damping coefficient (B) Damping coefficient (B) Resistance (R)

Spring constant (k) Spring constant (k) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1/C)

Linear displacement (x) Angular displacement (θ) Charge (q)

C C
Linear velocity ( x ) Angular Velocity ( θ ) Current (i)
20 Control System Analysis and Design

Procedure to construct analogous electrical system using f-v analogy

The construction of analogous electrical system is explained in following steps with the help of a
mechanical system shown in Fig. 1.22 for which the corresponding mechanical network is drawn in
Fig. 1.23.

1
K
x1 B1 x2
m2

B1 x1
1 m2 m1 f
m1 B2
K
x2
f
B2

Fig. 1.22: Mechanical system Fig. 1.23: Mechanical network of system of Fig. 1.22

1. Each node in mechanical network of Fig. 1.23 corresponds to a loop in electrical system.
The nodes x1 and x2 correspond to loop 1 and loop 2 respectively as demonstrated in
Fig. 1.24.
2. Identify the mechanical elements connected to each node. The corresponding loop will
contain their electrical analogs, for example loop 1 will contain three electrical analogs R1,
L2 and C for their mechanical counter elements B1 , m2 and 1/k respectively. Similarly, loop
2 will contain R1, R2, L1 and voltage source v for B1, B2, m1 and force f respectively.
3. Identify those mechanical elements interconnecting two nodes. The respective electrical
analogous will be connected in series while being common to the two loops corresponding
to these two nodes for example R1 analogous to B1 will be common to loop 1 and loop 2.
4. Identify those mechanical elements connected distinctly to each node. The respective
electrical analogous will be connected in series and will constitute a distinct segment of
corresponding loop for example C and L2 are in series and are part of only loop 1.
Similarly L1, R2 and v are in series and appear in only loop 2.
The complete analogous electrical system is shown in Fig. 1.24.

L2 R2 L1

Loop 1 R1 Loop 2 + v
–
C

Fig. 1.24: Electrical (f – v) analog

 Introductory Control Concepts 21

Force-current (f-i) analogy: Consider the electrical system shown in Fig. 1.25.

CHAPTER 1
i1 +
i2 i3

R L
i C v

–
Fig. 1.25
KCL yields
i = i1 + i2 + i3 ...(1.37)
which in terms of node voltage v takes the following form.
v 1 C
+ ∫ v dt + C v = i ...(1.38)
R L
It is known that voltage v and magnetic flux φ are related as:
C
v = φ ...(1.39)
use equation (1.39) to arrange equation (1.38) as follows:
CC1 C 1
Cφ + φ + φ = i ...(1.40)
R L
Compare (1.34) and (1.40) to note that both have identical form and therefore mechanical
system of Fig. 1.21 (a) and electrical system of Fig. 1.25 are analogous. The analogous quantities
therein are listed in Table 1.5.

TABLE 1.5: Analogous quantities in force current analogy

Translational mechanical Rotational mechanical Electrical system

system system

Force ( f ) Torque (τ) Current (i)

Mass (m) Moment of inertial (J) Capacitance (c)

Damping coefficient (B) Damping coefficient (B) Conductance (G)

Spring constant (k) Spring constant (k) Reciprocal of inductance (1/L)

Linear displacement (x) Angular displacement (θ) Magnetic flux (φ)

C C
Linear velocity ( x ) Angular velocity ( θ ) Voltages (v)

Procedure to construct analogous electrical system using f-i analogy

Consider mechanical system as shown in Fig. 1.22. The current interest is to construct analogous
electrical system. Each node in mechanical network as shown in Fig. 1.23 drawn for mechanical
system of Fig. 1.22, corresponds to a junction/node in electrical analog as well. Mere replacement of
excitation sources and passive elements in mechanical network by their analogous electrical
22 Control System Analysis and Design

counterparts, will yield analogous electrical system. For example Analogous electrical system for
mechanical system of Fig. 1.22 is drawn in Fig. 1.26.
G1

G2
L C2 C1 i

Fig. 1.26: Electrical system using f-i analogy

1.6 GEAR TRAIN AND ITS ELECTRICAL ANALOG

Gear Trains: The gear train plays similar role of exchanging energy from one part to another in
mechanical system as a transformer does in electrical system. A situation is usually experienced in
mechanical systems where a servo motor operating at high speed but low torque is to drive a load with
high torque and low speed. Then the requirement of torque magnification and speed regulation is met
by gear train. The two gears labelled primary and secondary coupled together are shown in
Fig. 1.27.
θ1 N1 Primary gear
τ

J1
B1 θ2

J2
Secondary gear B2
N2
Fig. 1.27: Coupled gears

The free body diagram for the mechanical system of coupled gears shown in Fig 1.27, is drawn in
Fig. 1.28.
In order to establish relationships between torque τ1 and τ2, angular displacements θ1 and θ2,
number of teeth N1 and N2, angular velocities θ1 and θ2 and radii r1 and r2 of primary and secondary
gears respectively, the following assumptions are made.
1. The number of teeth on the surface of gears is proportional to radii so that
r1 N2 = r2 N1 ...(1.41)
2. The distance travelled along the surface of each gear is same so that
θ1 r1 = θ2 r2 ...(1.42)
3. Assume no loss so that work done by each gear is same and
τ1 θ1 = τ2 θ2 ...(1.43)
 Introductory Control Concepts 23

The equations (1.41), (1.42) and (1.43) yield the following relationship

CHAPTER 1
τ1 θ2 N1 ω2 r1
= = = = ...(1.44)
τ2 θ1 N2 ω1 r2
θ1
τ

θ2
B1 θ1
J1 θ1
τ1
B2 θ2
τ2 J 2 θ2
Fig. 1.28: Free body diagram

The rotational dynamics of mechanical network of Fig. 1.28 is described by following equations:
CC C
J1 θ1 + B1 θ1 + τ1 = τ ...(1.45)
CC C
J2 θ2 + B2 θ2 + τ2 = 0 ...(1.46)
use (1.44) to have gear relations as
N2 N1
τ2 = τ1 and θ2 = – θ1 ...(1.47)
N1 N2
Substitute these values in equation (1.45) to get
2
 N1  CC C
τ1 =   (J2 θ1 + B2 θ1)
 2
N

Substitute this value of τ1 in (1.46) to get

2
CC C N1  CC C
J1 θ1 + B1 θ1 +   [J2 θ1 + B2 θ1 ] = τ ...(1.48)
 2
N
CC C
or τ = Je θ1 + Be θ1 ...(1.49)
2
 N1 
where Je = J1 +   J2
 N2 
2
 N1 
and Be = B1 +   B2
 N2 
Je and Be may be regarded as equivalent inertia and friction referred to primary gear. An
equivalent mechanical network satisfying (1.48) is shown in Fig. 1.29.
24 Control System Analysis and Design

τ θ1

2
N1
B1 2 B2
J1 N1 N2
J2
N2
Fig. 1.29: Equivalent mechanical network

Electrical analog of gear train

The electrical network of an ideal transformer is shown in Fig. 1.30.
R1 L1 N 1 : N2

+
•• + R2
+
v(t) i1 v1 v2 i2
– L2

Primary Secondary
Fig. 1.30: Electrical network of an ideal transformer

The loop equations can be written as

di1
L1 + R1i1 + v1 = v
dt
di2
L2 + R2i2 + v2 = 0
dt
N2 N1
But v2 = v and i2 = – i
N1 1 N2 1
Substituting v2, i2 and eliminating v1, we get
 N 
2  di  N 
2 
 L1 +  1  L 2  1 +  R1 +  1  R 2  i2
  N2   dt   N2   = v ...(1.50)
   
The equations (1.49) and (1.50) are analogous with following equivalent quantities:
C
i1 ←
→ θ1
C
i2 ←
→ θ2
→ τ
v ←
L1 ←
→ J1
R1 ←
→ B1
L2 ←
→ J2
R2 ←
→ B2
 Introductory Control Concepts 25

The equivalent network with secondary load reflected to primary satisfying (1.50) is shown in

CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1.31. A careful observation of Fig. 1.29 and Fig. 1.31, reveals that the transformer is an electrical
analog of coupled gears.
R1 L1
2
N1
R2
+ N2
v(t) i1
2
N1
L2
N2

Fig. 1.31: Equivalent network with secondary load reflected to primary

Example 8: Write differential equations for rotational mechanical system shown in Fig. 1.32 (a)
and then Laplace transform them assuming zero initial conditions.
J1 No. of teeth
n1 = 3
K1
J2
3 n2 = 5
4

θ1
2 τ = 8 sin 5t

θ2
Fig. 1.32: (a) Rotational system

Solution: The equivalent rotational system with components K1 = 3 and J1 = 4 referred to side of
applied torque τ, is shown in Fig. 1.32 (b).
2
n2
J1
2 n1 J2
n2
K1
n1
100
75 49 2 τ = 8 sin 5t
9 θ1 θ2
Fig. 1.32: (b) Equivalent rotational system

Using d’Alembert’s Law, the differential equation describing the system dynamics is written as
follows:
2 2
 n2  CC  n2  C C
  K1θ2 + J2 θ2 +   J1 θ2 = τ
 n1   n1 
26 Control System Analysis and Design

Substitute the component values to get

CC 25 CC 25
2 θ2 + × 4 θ2 + × 3θ2 = 8 sin 5t
9 9
The Laplace transform of the equation just above with zero initial conditions, yields
 100  2 75 40
2 +  s θ (s) + θ (s) = 2
 9  2 9 2 s + 25

2 360
or (118s + 75) θ2 (s) = 2
s + 25
3
where θ2(s) = – θ (s)
5 1

1.7 TRANSFER FUNCTION

In preceding sections, it has been learnt that the continuous dynamical systems are characterized by
differential equations. The response of the system to an input may be determined by solving the
differential equation. One way to work out differential equation is through classical technique by
obtaining complementary function and particular integral and then summing them. But it involves
some what tedious mathematical routine. The Laplace transform is an easier tool to solve differential
equation while involving simpler algebraic manipulations.
The transfer function model which is obtained by Laplace transforming the differential equations,
becomes one of the most powerful tool of control system analysis and design.
For a system with single input r(t) and single output c(t), the transfer function is defined as

C(s )
G(s) = R(s ) ...(1.51)
all initial conditions = 0

where C(s) = L [c(t)] and R(s) = L [r(t)] ; symbol L stands for Laplace transform
For unit impulse input i.e. r(t) = δ(t) and R(s) = 1.
C(s) = G(s) and c(t) = g(t)
Thus, the system transfer function G(s) may also be regarded as the Laplace transform of impulse
response of system with zero initial conditions. The impulse response g(t) is also called as weighing
function in the sense that response of the system to any arbitrary input x(t) may be obtained by taking
convolution of g(t) with the input x(t). Thus,
∞
c(t) = g(t) * x(t) = ∫ g (t – τ) x(τ) d τ ; * stands for convolution ...(1.52)
0

Note the following important points regarding transfer function of a system:

1. The concept of transfer function applies to only linear time invariant systems. In general it
is not applicable to non linear systems, although it can be extended to certain class of non
linear control systems with certain assumptions made.
 Introductory Control Concepts 27

2. The transfer function is expressed in terms of system parameters and is property of system

CHAPTER 1
itself. It is independent of the input or driving function.
3. All initial conditions of system are set to zero i.e. the system is assumed to be in possession
of no energy inherent in itself.
4. The dynamics of continuous time system is described by algebraic equation in complex
variable s. The highest power of s in denominator of G(s) is equal to the order of highest
derivative term of output. If this highest power equals n, the system is said to be an
th
n order system. It is also worth noting that the discrete time systems are modelled by
difference equation(s). The transfer function of a discrete time system is function of z when
z transform is used.
5. In systems described by linear, constant coefficient integro differential equations, every
Laplace transformed signal is related to every other such signal by a transfer function. To
avoid confusion the term transfer function is reserved to describe input-output relation
and transmittance is used to denote the similar relation between a pair of signals other
than input and output.
6. The denominator polynomial of transfer function is called characteristic polynomial and
roots of characteristic polynomial i.e. solution of characteristic equation which is actually
characteristic polynomial equated to zero, are called system’s characteristic roots. Later
we shall see that these roots play an important role in determining the stability of system.
Transfer function model of system
In order to develop transfer function model of a given system, with input r(t) and output c(t), the
following steps are used.
1. Write differential equation of given system.
2. Laplace transform the system equations with zero initial conditions.
3. Obtain the ratio of output C(s) to input R(s) to get transfer function model.
For example, consider the system described by differential equation
CC C C
c (t) + 5 c (t) + 6c(t) = r (t) + 7r(t) ...(1.53)
The Laplace transform of (1.53) with zero initial conditions yields.
2
s C(s) + 5s C(s) + 6 C(s) = s R(s) + 7 R(s)
C(s ) s+7
and G(s) = = 2 ...(1.54)
R(s ) s + 5s + 6
The correspondence of time functions with individual partial fraction terms of transfer function
The nature of time function (exponential/sinusoidal) corresponding to each partial fraction
expansion term of G(s) depends upon location of characteristic root in s plane and upon whether or
not the characteristic root is repeated. These time functions may also be regarded as impulse
responses which are inverse Laplace transform of G(s) = C(s) for R(s) = 1. Table 1.6 shows typical
impulse responses associated with various root locations.
28 Control System Analysis and Design

TABLE 1.6: Impulse responses corresponding to various characteristic root locations

Roots locations(s) on Impulse response Nature of response
the complex plane

Constant K

Sinusoid with radian frequency

β, A cos(βt + θ)

–αt
Decaying exponential Ke

αt
Growing exponential Ke

Exponentially decaying sinusoid

–αt
Ae cos (βt + θ)
Exponential constant is α and
sinusoidal radian frequency is β

Exponentially growing sinusoid

αt
Ae cos (βt + θ)

(Contd.)
 Introductory Control Concepts 29

Roots locations(s) on Impulse response Nature of response

CHAPTER 1
the complex plane

Constant plus a constant times t,

K1 + K2t

Sinusoidal with radian frequency

β plus t times sinusoidal
A 1 cos (βt + θ 1 ) + A 2 t cos
(βt + θ2).

Decaying exponential plus t

times a decaying exponential,
–αt –αt
K1e + K2te

Growing exponential plus t

times, growing exponential,
αt αt
K1e + K2te

Zero state response

The zero state response is defined as the system output when all the initial conditions are zero for
example, consider system described by equation (1.54) where
–4t
6
r(t) = 6 u(t) e and R(s) = s + 4
6 (s + 7) α1 α2 α3
then C( s ) zero state = 2 = + +
(s + 5s + 6) (s + 4) ( s + 2) (s + 3) (s + 4)
6 (s + 7)
where α1 = (s + 4) (s + 3) = 15
s =–2

6 (s + 7)
α2 = (s + 2) (s + 4) = – 24
s =–3

6 (s + 7)
α3 = (s + 2) (s + 3) =9
s =–4
30 Control System Analysis and Design

–2t –3t –4t

and c(t ) zero state = 15e – 24e + 9e ...(1.55)

Zero input response

If the system is in possession of non zero initial conditions, an additional response component
called as zero input response will appear in overall response. For example, Laplace transform of
equation (1.53) with initial conditions included yields.
[s2C(s) – s C(0) – C′ (0)] + 5[s C(s) – C(0)] + 6C(s) = sR(s) + 7R(s)
( s + 7) ( s + 5) C ( 0) + C ′(0)
C(s) = R(s ) + ...(1.56)
(s + 2) (s + 3)
""" ( s +" s + 3) "
2) (""" !
""" """!
zero state component zero input component

Assuming c´(0) = 0 and c(0) = 1, (1.56) becomes.

bs + 7g Rbsg + bs + 5g
C(s) =
bs + 2gbs + 3g bs + 2gbs + 3g
– 4t
Now if r(t) = 6 u(t) e , then
b g + s+5
6 s+7
C(s) =
bs + 2gbs + 3gbs + 4g bs + 2gbs + 3g
15 e−2t − 24 e−3t + 9 e −4t + 3 e −2t − 2 e −3t
c(t) = """" """" ! " " "" ! ...(1.57)
zero state component zero input component

= 9 e −4 t + 18 e −2 t − 26 e −3t
! "" ""!
forced component natural component

In overall response c(t) of equation (1.57), the response component containing input is called
forced response and remainder of response is called natural response. It is obvious from equation
(1.57) that both the zero input and zero state response components generally contribute to natural
response of system.
It is important to note that the control engineer seldom explicitly computes natural response of
system due to their dependence on the specific initial conditions, which are often unknown or of little
concern. It is usually sufficient to know the nature of natural response and to know that the system is
stable as stability will guarantee the decay of these terms to zero with time. Also an unstable system
can never be made stable by any choice of initial conditions. However if desired, the initial conditions
may be considered to be system inputs and transfer functions can be found that relate the outputs to
initial condition inputs as illustrated just before.
Transfer function of a system with multi inputs and multi outputs
If a system has multiple inputs r1(t), r2(t) …. and multiple outputs c1(t), c2(t), ...., there is a transfer
function which relates each one of outputs to each one of inputs, while all other inputs are zero;
bg
Ci s
R b sg
Gij(s) =
j all initial conditions are zero and
all inputs except R j are zero
 Introductory Control Concepts 31

where i = output number

CHAPTER 1
j = input number.
In general for a system with p inputs and q outputs, the outputs are given by

C1(s) = G11 ( s ) R1 ( s ) + G12 ( s ) R 2 ( s ) + ......... + G1p ( s ) R p ( s )

C2(s) = G 21 s R 1 s + G 22 s R 2 s +.........+ G 2 p s R p s

Cq(s) = G q1 s R 1 s + G q 2 s R 2 s +.........+G qp s R p s

C1 s G 11 s G 12 s ............ G 1 p s R1 s
C2 s G 21 s G 22 s ............ G 2 p s R2 s
or : = : : ...(1.58)
: : :
Cq s G q1 s G q 2 s ............ G qp s Rp s

To illustrate, let a system with two inputs and two outputs be described by following differential
equations.
d 3 y1 d 2 y1 dy1 d 2 r1
+7 +6 + y1 = + 3 r1 + r2
dt 3 dt 2 dt dt 2
...(1.59)
d 3 y2 d 2 y2 dy dr
+7 + 6 2 + y2 = 4 2
dt 3 dt 2 dt dt
The Laplace transform of equations (1.59) with zero initial conditions gives
s 3 Y1 s + 7 s 2 Y1 s + 6sY1 s + Y1 s = s 2 R 1 s + 3R 1 s + R 2 s
...(1.60)
and s 3 Y2 s + 7 s 2 Y2 s + 6sY2 s + Y2 s = 4s R2(s)

Y1 s Y2 s
To get and set R2(s) = 0
R1 s R1 s
Y1 s s2 + 3
then =
R1 s s3 + 7 s2 + 6 s + 1
Y2 s
and = 0
R1 s

Y2 s Y1 s
To get and set R1(s) = 0
R2 s R2 s
Y1 s 1
then = 3 2
R2 s s + 7s + 6s +1

Y2 s 4s
and = .
R2 s s + 7 s2 + 6 s + 1
3
32 Control System Analysis and Design

1.8 CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

The systems are classified as follows:
1. Linear and non-linear systems
The mathematical model of a system is said to be linear if it obeys the laws of superposition
(additivity) and homogeneity (scalar multiplicativity). These laws imply that if system model has zero
state responses y1(t) and y2(t) for any two inputs x1(t) and x2(t) respectively, then the system response
to linear combination of these inputs α1 x1 (t) + α2 x2(t) is given by linear combination of individual
responses α1y1(t) + α2 y2(t) where α1 and α2 are constants. The systems which do not obey any or
both the laws are classified as non linear systems.
For example system of Fig. 1.33 described by mathematical model,
y = αx
is linear and system of Fig. 1.34 whose input-output relationship is given by
y = α1x + α2
is non-linear as one can verify that it does not obey the laws of superposition and homogeneity.
System

α
Input x × y Output

Fig. 1.33: Linear system

System

α1 α2
x × + y
Input Output

Fig. 1.34: Non-linear system

2. Time varying and time invariant systems

This classification is based on whether parameters of a system remain functions of time or
independent of time variable during operation. It is known that continuous dynamical systems are
characterised by differential equation(s). A dynamical system is classified as time invariant if
coefficients of differential equation(s) characterising the system, are constants and time varying if any
one or more than one or all coefficients are functions of time. For, example
bg
α1  bg
y t + α2 y t + α 3 y = x(t) is time invariant.
whereas,
bg bg bg bg bg bg
a t 
y t + b t y t + c t y t = x(t) is time varying.
 Introductory Control Concepts 33

3. Continuous and discrete systems

CHAPTER 1
If the signals at input terminal, output terminal and at all other points within the system are
functions of continuous time variable t, then system is said to be continuous and if these signals are
either a pulse train or a digital code, the system is referred to as discrete system. The discrete systems
are sub classified as sampled data systems and digital systems. Signals are in the form of pulses in
sampled data system and these are digitally coded (e.g.; binary code) in digital systems.
The continuous systems are characterised by differential equations and discrete systems are
characterised by difference equations. For example

y + α y + βy = x is continuous sytem
but y (k + 2) + α y (k + 1) + β y (k) = x(k) is discrete system.
4. Deterministic and stochastic systems
If the coefficients of differential/difference equations are deterministic in nature, the system is
said to be deterministic and if they are probabilistic in nature (random variable), it is said to stochastic
system.
5. System with memory and without memory
A system is said to be memoryless if its current response depends on only current excitation. If its
current response depends not only on current excitation to it but also on past history, then it is said to
be system with memory. For example ;
2
y (t) = r (t) + α1 r (t) is memoryless system.
A resistor is another example of memoryless system ; with x(t) and y(t) respectively considered as
input current and output voltage, the input output relationship is given by
y(t) = R x(t) where R = resistance
A memoryless system whose input and output are identical is called identity system. The input-
output relationship for a continuous identity system is y(t) = x(t)
2
y(t) = r(t) + α1 r (t – 2) is an example of system with memory. A capacitor C is another example
of this class as the voltage vc(t) in terms of current i(t) is given by

zbg
t
1
vc(t) = i τ dc
C
–∞

A system with memory, physically signifies that the system has capability of storing the energy.
6. Causal system
A system is said to be causal if its output at any time depends only on inputs at present time and
in the past. Causal systems are also called as non-anticipative systems in the sense that system output
does not anticipate future values of input. For example, RC circuit is causal as voltage across
capacitor depends on present and past values of source voltage whereas system described by equation
y(t) = x(t) + x(t + 1)
is not causal. While investigating the condition of causality, one is required to be bit careful in
checking the input-output relationship for all times. For example, consider a system
y(t) = x(t) cos(t + 1)
34 Control System Analysis and Design

One may be temped to conclude that it is not causal. But it is causal system as cos(t + 1) is only
a time varying function and if expressed as g(t) = cos(t + 1) then y(t) = g(t) x(t). Now it is obvious that
current output is influenced by only current input.

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

P1.1: Fig. P1.1 shows the block diagram of a x(t) + y(t)
Σ A B
control system. The system in block A has an impulse –
–t
response hA(t) = e u(t). The system in block B has an
–2t
impulse response h B (t) = e u(t). The block ‘k’
amplifies its input by a factor k. For the overall system
with input x(t) and output y(t), find k

b g when k = 1
Y s Fig. P1.1
X b sg
(a) the transfer function

(b) the impulse response when k = 0.

Solution:
1 1
(a) HA(s) = , HB(s) =
s+1 s+2
bg
Y s bg bg
HA s ⋅ HB s 1
X b sg k=1 1 + k H b sg H b sg
=
A B
=
s + 3s + 3
2
k=1

Y b sg H b sg ⋅ H b sg 1
X b sg 1 + k H b s g H b sg
A B
(b) = = HA(s)HB(s) =
k=0 A B ( s + 1) ( s + 2)
k=0

L
Impulse response = L MY( s)
OP = e
N Q
–1 –t –2t
–e
X( s ) = 1

P1.2: A speed control system of an engine is shown in Fig. P1.2. Determine:

(a) Sensitivity of closed loop system to changes in engine gain k1 and tachometer feedback
gain k2.
(b) Steady state speed for reference speed = 50 km/hr, k1 = 100, k2 = 1 and d(t) = 0
(c) Steady state speed when there is 5 % change in k1 and other values as in part (b).
(d) Steady state speed when there is 5 % change in k2 and other values as in part (b).
Disturbance
Throttle
controller D(s) Engine
Reference
speed + 12 + k1 Actual speed
r(t) – 1 + 3s + 1 + 20s c(t)

k2

Fig. P1.2
 Introductory Control Concepts 35

Solution:
bg =

CHAPTER 1
Cs 12 k 12 k 1
b g b1 + 3 sgb1 + 20 sg + 12 k k
T( s) D ( s ) = 0 = 1
(a) =
Rs 1 2 60 s + 23 s + 12 k 1 k 2 + 1
2

∂ T k1 60 s 2 + 23 s + 1
s kT1 = × =
∂ k1 T 60 s 2 + 23 s + 1 + 12 k 1 k 2

∂ T k2 − 12 k1 k 2
skT2 = × =
∂ k2 T 60 s + 23 s + 1 + 12 k1 k 2
2

12 k1 1200
(b) T( s) s = 0 = 1 + 12 k1k 2 = 1201

Steady state speed = c( ∞ ) = T(s) × R( s) s = 0

1200
= × 50 = 49.958 km/hr
1201
∆T sbg Tb s g ∆ k1
(c) Ts bg = S k1 × k
1

bg
T0
= T(0) ⋅ S k1 ⋅
∆ k1 1200
×
1
× 0 . 05
∆T( s) s=0 k1
=
1201 1201

1200 × 0 . 05
and ∆C( s) s = 0 = × 50 = 2.079 × 10–3 ≅ 0.002
1201 × 1201
c(∞) = 50 + 0.002 = 50.002 km/hr

∆T sbg Tb s g ∆ k2
(d) Ts bg = S k2 × k
2

bg
T 0
= T(0) ⋅ S k 2 ⋅
∆ k2 1200 − 1200
× × 0 . 05 = – 0.0499
∆T( s) s=0 k2
=
1201 1201

∆C( s) s = 0 = – 0.0499 × 50 = – 2.495

Steady state speed = C( s) s = 0 = 50 – 2.495 = 47.50 km/hr

P1.3: The forward path transfer function of a position control system with velocity feedback is
given by K
G(s) =
s s+ p b g
Determine the sensitivity of the transfer function of the closed loop system to changes in K, p and
α for transfer function of the feedback path H(s) = (1 + α s). The nominal values of the parameters are
K = 12, p = 3 and α = 0.14.
K
Solution: T(s) =
b
s + p+αK s+ K
2
g
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 The foreman turned and tiptoed off to find his wife. "Annie," said he, his
voice low and anxious, "try if ye can get the boss to bed, an' make him sleep
as long as ever he can. He's goin' off his head, an' talkin' like a fool.
Somethin's wrong here, that's sure! Hell's goin' to break loose, in yon
facth'ry some day. But whativer comes, the boss is crazy!"

CHAPTER IV
THE BAKER'S DAUGHTER

A large part of our ambitious American population is prone boastfully to

ascribe its origin to one or other of those highly respectable, if really little
known monarchs to whom is commonly accorded the foundation of Old
World nobilities. We have built up a pretty fiction regarding so-called blue
blood, on the flattering, but wholly unsupported supposition that royal
qualities are transmissible to the thirtieth and fortieth generation; so that 'tis
a poor American family indeed can not boast its coat of arms, harking back
to royal days of Charlemagne or William the Conqueror. It may be. Their
Majesties were active, morganatically at least no doubt, much-married men!

But continually there arise disturbing instances to upset us in our beliefs

regarding aristocracy. There are so very many worthless aristocrats, in
whom the theory of descent did not work out according to accepted
schedule; and there are so very many worthy but wholly disconcerting men
who are not aristocrats—so continually do Lincolns arise who, claiming
nothing of birth or breeding, show themselves to be possessed of manhood,
show themselves, moreover, masters of those instincts and practices which
go with the much-abused title of gentleman; a matter in which not all
descendants of Charles or William join them.
 II

It is well known among theatrical managers that no real lady can imitate
a real lady. The highest salaries in ladies' theatrical rôles are paid to ladies
who are not ladies, but who play the parts of ladies as they think ladies
really would act in actual life. If you seek a woman to carry off a gown, one
to assume such really regal air as shall bring the name of William or
Charlemagne impulsive to your lips, find one still owning not more than
one of the requisite three generations which are set as the lowest limit for
the production of a gentleman or a lady.

Continually in our American aristocracy—and in that, par consequence,

of Europe—we find ladies whose fathers were laborers, shop-keepers, soap-
makers, butchers, this or that, anything you like. So only they had money,
they did as well as any to wear European coronets, to assist at royal
coronations. And, having proved their powers in swift forgetfulness, they
offer as good proof as any, of the scientific fact that gentleness of heart and
soul and conduct are not things transmissible even to the third or fourth
generation, either in America or Europe. Your real aristocrat perhaps after
all, is made, not born.

As to Virginia Delaware, daughter of the baker, John Dahlen, in St.

Louis, she started out in life with the deliberate intent of being a lady,
knowing very well that this is America, where all things come to him or her
who does not wait. In some way, as has been said, she had achieved
graduation at a famous school where the art of being a lady is dispensed.
She had, indeed, even now and then seen a lady in real life; not to mention
many supposed ladies in theatrical life, playing the part as to them seemed
fit, and far better than any lady could.

III

The soul finds its outward expression in the body. The ambition shapes
the soul. It was wholly logical and natural that, having her particular
ambition—that of many American girls—Virginia Delaware should grow
up tall, dignified, beautiful, composed, self-restraining, kindly, gracious;
these being qualities which in her training were accepted as properly
pertaining and belonging to all aristocrats. We have already seen that, put to
the test, in the midst of our best aristocrats—those who frequent the most
highly gilded and glazed hotels in New York—she was accepted
unhesitatingly as of the charmed circle, even by the head waiters. Had you
yourself seen her upon the Chicago streets, passing to her daily occupation,
you also in all likelihood would have commented upon her as a rich young
woman, and one of birth, breeding and beauty. We have spoken somewhat
regarding the futility of mottoes and maxims in the case of an ambitious
man. As much might be said regarding their lack of applicability to the
needs of an ambitious woman. Virginia Delaware would have made her
own maxims, had she needed any; and had she been obliged to choose a
coat of arms, she surely would have selected the Christian motto of
"Onward and Upward."

IV

The best aid in any ambition lies in the intensity of that ambition. We all
are what we really desire to be, each can have what he really covets, if he
will pay the price for it. In her gentleness with her associates, in her dignity
and composure with her employer, in her conduct upon the street and in the
crowded car, in all situations and conditions arising in her life, Virginia
Delaware diligently played the part of lady as best she comprehended that;
because she had the intense ambition to be a lady. She continually was in
training. Moreover, she had that self-restraint which has been owned by
every woman who ever reached any high place in history. She kept herself
in hand, and she held herself not cheap. Likewise, after the fashion of all
successful politicians, she cast aside acquaintances who might be pleasant
but who probably would be of little use, and pinned her faith to those who
promised to be of future value. Such a woman as that can not be stopped—
unless she shall, unfortunately, fall in love.

If there was calumny, Virginia Delaware heeded it not. She accosted all
graciously and with dignity, as a lady should. And all this time her great
personal beauty increased to such point as to drive most of her fair
associates about the headquarters' offices to the verge of rage. To be
beautiful and aristocratic both assuredly is to invite hatred! It is almost as
bad as to be rich. Miss Delaware allowed hatred to run its course unnoted.
She needed no maxims over her desk, required no ancestral coat of arms.
She was an aristocrat, and meant to be accepted as such. In all likelihood—
though simple folk may not read a woman's mind—she saw further into the
future than did John Rawn himself.

There remained, then, as against the ambition of Virginia Delaware, the

one pitfall of love, and even this she easily avoided. Beautiful as she
unquestionably was, admired as she certainly was, if there had been fire in
this girl's heart for any man, she kept it either extinguished or well banked
for a later time. She had gently declined the heart and hand of every male
clerk in the office. She had chosen her own ways, and was not to be
diverted. Cool, ambitious, perfectly in hand, she went her way, and bided
her time.

Cool, ambitious, perfectly in hand, John Rawn also went his way in life.
Two more ambitious souls than these, or two more alike, you scarcely could
have found in all the descendants of the two bucaneer-monarchs we have
named.

And Rawn continually found something responsive in the soul of this

young woman, something that never found its way into speech on either
side. She was the type of devotion and of efficiency. Gently, without any
ostentation, she took upon herself a vast burden of detail; and she added
thereto an unobtrusive personal service upon which Rawn unconsciously
came more and more to depend. Did he lack any little accustomed
implement or appliance, she found it for him forthwith. Did he forget a
name, a date, a filing record, it was she who supplied it out of a memory
infallible as a fine machine. From this, it was but an easy step to the point
where the young woman's unobtrusive aid became useful even beyond
business hours. John Rawn had never studied to play in any social rôle. Did
he need counsel in any social situation, she, tactfully hesitant and modest,
always was ready to tell him what he should do, what others should do. Had
he an appointment, it was she who reminded him of it, and it was she who
had made it. Were there personal bills to pay, it was she who paid them. She
presided over his personal bank account, and there was no hour when she
could not have named the dollars and cents in his balance. Did he wish to
avoid an unwelcome visitor, it was arranged for him delicately and without
offense. Little by little, she had become indispensable, both in a business
and a social way—a fact which John Rawn did not fully realize, but which
she knew perfectly well. It had never been within her plan to be anything
less than that. She knew, although he did not, that John Rawn also was
indispensable to her.

Rawn came from no social station himself, and as we have seen, had
grown up ignorant of conventional life, so that now he remained careless of
it, as had he originally. He made it matter of routine now that this young
woman should attend in all his visits to the East in business matters—
where, in short, he could not have got along without her. There was talk
over this—unjust talk—and much amused comment on the fact that the two
seemed so inseparable. Rawn did not know or note it. They literally were
running together, hunting in couple in the great chase of ambition. Few
knew now what the salary of the president's private secretary represented in
round figures. Certainly she dressed as a lady. Certainly also she comported
herself as one. It was, in the opinion of John Rawn, no one's business that
he registered himself at the New York hotels, and either did not register his
companion at all, or else contented himself with the wholly descriptive
word "Lady" opposite the number of the room whose bills he told the clerk
to charge to his account.

VI

Never was there the slightest ground for suspicion of actual impropriety
between John Rawn and Miss Delaware. Abundance of bad taste there
certainly was, for Rawn, without explanation or apology to any, always ate
in company of his assistant, was constantly seen with her on the streets, at
the opera, the play. He showed, in short, that he found her society wholly
agreeable upon every possible occasion. If this was in bad taste, if many or
most, in the usual guess, put it at the point of impropriety, John Rawn gave
himself no concern. The Rawn aristocracy began in him. He founded it, was
its Charlemagne, its William the Conqueror, as ruthless, as regardless of
others, as selfish, as megalomaniac as the best of kings. Here, therefore,
were two aristocrats! They ran well in couple.

It is not to be supposed that a girl so shrewd as Virginia Delaware could

fail to realize the full import of all this. She let the slings and arrows fall
upon the buckler of her perfect dignity and her perfect beauty, but she felt
their impact. She was perfectly in hand, knew perfectly well her mind,
knew perfectly well the price she must pay. She let matters take their
course, knowing that they were advancing safely and surely in one
direction, that which she desired. She was more skilled in human nature
than her employer, saw deeper into a man's heart than he had ever looked
into a woman's!

And then, at last, the life schedule of Virginia Delaware was verified. At
last, the inevitable happened.

VII

On one of these many trips to New York, Miss Delaware had been alone
in her apartments at the hotel for most of the afternoon. In the evening,
before the dinner hour, she was summoned to meet Mr. Rawn in one of the
hotel parlors. At once she noted his suppressed excitement. He scarce could
wait until they were alone, in a far corner of the room, before explaining to
her the cause.

"I don't like to say this, Miss Delaware," he began, "but I've got to do it!"

"What do you mean, Mr. Rawn?" she replied in her usual low and clear
tones.
 "There's been talk!"

"Talk? About what?"

"Us!"

"About us? What can you mean, Mr. Rawn?" she asked.

"The world is so confoundedly small, my dear girl, that it seems

everything you do is known by everybody else. Of course, a man like
myself is in the public eye; but we've always minded our business, and it
ought not to have been anybody else's business beyond that."

"You disturb me, Mr. Rawn! What has happened?"

"—But now, to-night, now—just a little while ago—I met this fellow
Ackerman—you know him—big man in the company—used to be general
traffic manager down in St. Louis, on the old railroad where I began—well,
he was drunk, and he talked."

"What could he say?"

"He got me by the coat collar and proceeded to tell me how much—how
much—well, to tell the truth, he connected your name and mine. If he
wasn't drunk—and a director—I'd go down there yet and smash his face for
him! What business was it of his? Of course, men don't mind such things so
much. But when it comes to you—why, my dear girl!"

VIII

The truth has already been stated regarding John Rawn; that, batrachian,
half-dormant for almost half a century, and then putting into business what
energy most men put into love and sex, he had passed a life of singular
innocence, or ignorance, as to womankind. He had never countenanced
much gossip about women, because he had little interest in the topic. The
grande passion marks most of us for its own now and again, or is to be
feared now and again; but the grande passion had passed by John Rawn. He
was now approaching fifty years of age. Married he had been, and divorced;
but he had not yet been in love.

He now spoke to his like, his mate in the hunt, of the opposite sex, a
young woman who at that very moment was as beautiful a creature as might
have been found on all Manhattan, a woman known in all Manhattan now
as the mysterious "Lady of the Lightnings," the goddess of the stock
certificates of one of the most mammoth American corporations, a creature
over whom Manhattan's most critical libertines were crazed—and helpless;
moreover, a woman who, out of all those in the great caravanserai at that
moment, might as well as any have been chosen as the very type of gentle
breeding and of gentle womanhood alike. But she had not yet been in love.

IX

"I don't understand, Mr. Rawn," repeated she slowly. "What possible
ground could Mr. Ackerman have had? You surely don't think he could have
spoken to any one else?"

"I wouldn't put that past Ackerman when he's drunk. If he'd talk to me,
he would to others. And you know perfectly well that when talk begins
about a woman, it never stops!"

"No, that is the cruel part of it."

Her voice trembled just enough, her eyes became just sufficiently and
discreetly moist; she choked a little, just sufficiently.

"It is cruel," she said, with a pathetic little sigh, "but the hand of every
man seems to be against a woman. Did you ever stop to think, Mr. Rawn,
how helpless, how hopeless, we really are, we women?"

He flung himself closer upon the couch beside her, his face troubled, as
she went on with her gentle protest.
 "All my life I've done right as nearly as I knew, Mr. Rawn. Perhaps I was
wrong in coming to trust so much to you—to depend on you so much. It all
seemed so natural, that I've just let matters go on, almost without any
thought. I've only been anxious to do my work—that was all. But this cruel
talk about us—well—it can have but one end. I must go."

"Go? Leave me? You'll do nothing of the sort! I'll take care of this thing
myself, I say—I'll stand between you and all that sort of talk."

"Mr. Rawn, I don't understand you."

They sat close together on this brocaded couch among many other
brocaded couches. Crystal and color and gilt and ivory were all about them;
pictures, works of art in bronze and marble and costly porcelains. The air
was heavy with fragrance, dripping with soft melody of distant music. She
was beautiful, a beautiful young woman. He caught one glance into her
wide, pathetic eyes ere she turned and bent her head. He caught the
fragrance of her hair—that strange fragrance of a woman's hair. Dejected,
drooping as she sat, her hands clasped loosely in her lap, he could see the
bent column of her beautiful white neck, the curve of her beautiful
shoulders, white, flawless.

The flower on her bosom rose and fell in her emotion. She was a
woman. She was beautiful. She was young. Something subtle, powerful,
mysterious, stole into the air.

She was a woman!

Suddenly this thought came to John Rawn like a sudden blow in the
face. It came in a sense hitherto unknown to him in all his life. Now he
understood what life might be, saw what delight might be! He saw now that
all along he had admired this girl and only been unconscious of his
admiration. God! what had he lost, all these years! He, John Rawn, had
lived all these years, and had not loved!

He reached out timidly and touched her round white arm, to attract her
attention. She flinched from him a trifle, and he also from her. Fire ran
through his veins as from a cup of wine, heady and strong. He was a boy, a
young man discovering life. The glory of life, the reason, had been here all
this time, and he had not suspected it. What deed for pity had been wrought!
He, John Rawn, never before had known what love might be! He was the
last man on Manhattan to go mad over Virginia Delaware.

She drew back from, him, seeing the flush upon his face, color rising to
her own. Indeed, the power of the man, his sudden vast passion, were not
lost upon her, different as he was from the idol of a young girl's dreams. But
Virginia Delaware saw more than the physical image of this man beside her.
She knew what he had to share, what power, what wealth, what station. She
knew well enough what John Rawn could do; and she gaged her own value
to him by the flush on his face, the glitter in his eye.

For one moment she paused. For one moment heredity, the way of her
own people, had its way. For one moment she saw another face, different
from this flushed and corded one bent near. It was for but a moment; then
ambition once more took charge of her soul and her body alike.

XI

The net was thrown. Silently, gently, she tightened its edges with the
silken cords. He loved her. The rest was simple. She saw the world
unrolling before her like a scroll. All else was but matter of detail. Above
all, she exulted in her strength at this crucial moment. She knew that love is
dangerous for a woman, always had feared, as any woman may, that love
might sweep her away from her own safe moorings. She rejoiced now to
see this danger past, rejoiced to find her pulses cool and even, her voice
under control, herself mistress of herself. She did not love him.
 But she drew back now apparently startled, apprehensive. "We must go,
Mr. Rawn," she said; and would have risen.

He put out a hand, almost rude in its vehemence. "You shall not go! I've
got to tell you. Sit down! Listen! We'll separate in one way, yes. You're done
now with your clerking days for ever. But you're going to be my wife. I
want you; and, by God, I love you!"

His voice rose until she was almost alarmed. She looked about in real
apprehension. She turned, to see John Rawn's face convulsed, suffused, his
protruding lower lip trembling, his eyes almost ready to burst into tears. She
might almost have smiled, so easily was it all done for her. Yet this baker's
daughter dared to make no mistake in a situation such as this!

"Mr. Rawn," she began, casting down her eyes, although she allowed
him to retain her hand, "what can you mean? Surely you must be in jest.
Have you no regard for a poor girl who is trying to make her way in the
world? I've done my best—and now—"

"Make your way in the world! What do you mean? It's made now! Look
down the list as far as you like. Is there anywhere you want to go? Is there
anything you want to do? Can you think of anything I'll not get for you?
Look at your neck, your hands—you've worn those jewels almost ever since
you selected them, and no one else has, though I told you once there was a
string to them. There's no string to them now. The first time you wore them,
down there in the dining-room, below, I told you they were not yours, that
they were only loaned to you for one night, that we were only both of us
masquerading, trying ourselves out! I told you then you'd do; but I didn't
know what I meant. I don't believe I loved you then, although now it seems
I always have. I know I always will. Those things are nothing—you shall
have everything you want—handfuls of jewels. There's nothing you want to
do that you shall not do. You can't dream of anything that I'll not get for
you! You were made for me in every way in the world—every little way, as
I've come to know, little by little, all this time. But now, to-night, it's all
come over me at once. I don't know that I planned, when I came here, to do
more than to stand between you and talk! But—this—caught me all at once,
I don't know how. It's the truth before God! I never loved a woman before
now—I didn't know what it was. Virginia—Jennie—girl—I love you! We're
going to be married to-morrow!"

"Mr. Rawn," she said, her voice trembling, "I must ask you to consider
well before you make any mistake—a mistake which would mean
everything for—for me. You have no right to jest."

"I'll show you who's in earnest!" he retorted, his hand cruelly hard on her
wrist as he forced her back into the seat. "We'll go home from here as man
and wife, that's what we'll do. We'll go from the train, not to the office, but
to Graystone Hall. I'll find a preacher in the morning here. It's wonderful! I
love you! If they want to talk, we'll give them something to talk about! Let
them come to the Little Church Around the Corner—to-morrow—and see
us, you and me!"

He had both her hands in his large ones now, and was looking into her
eyes, intoxicated, mad. She leaned just gently toward him. Forgetful of their
situation, he caught her in his arms, and kissed her full.

XII

"Mr. Rawn, how could you!" she said at last, softly, seeking to disengage
her hand. "It's like a dream! I have worked so hard, so long. Life has had so
little for me!"

"But you love me—you can?" he demanded.

"Oh, Mr. Rawn!" she said, lifting her eyes to his face, then gently turning
them aside.

"You do—you have—tell me! Confess it!"

She laughed now, ripplingly, her color rising, and at least was spared that
instance of her perjury. John Rawn accepted it as her oath.
 They parted after a time, she scarce remembered how, he to a couch
which knew no sleep, she to one that long remained untouched.

In her own room Virginia Delaware stood for a long time before her
mirror, in silent questioning of herself, her brows just drawn into a faint
vertical frown. At last she nodded approvingly, satisfied that she would do.
A wave of sensuousness, of delight in her own triumph, swept across her.
She stood straight, swung back her shoulders, gazed at the superb image in
the glass through half-shut eyes. There was no question of it! She was a
very beautiful woman, stately, gracious—and aristocratic. So. It was done.
She had won. She caught glimpses of the jewels blazing at her throat. She
removed them and tossed them lightly on the dresser top as she turned to
call for her maid.

"Madam is very beautiful to-night," ventured that tactful creature when

at last she had performed her closing duties for the day.

Virginia Delaware looked down upon her with the amused tolerance of
the superior classes.

"You may perhaps find a little silver on the dresser, maid," said she
graciously.

END OF BOOK THREE

 BOOK FOUR

CHAPTER I
THE ROYAL PROGRESS OF MR. AND MRS. RAWN

So they were married. Graystone Hall at last had a mistress worthy of its
architect and decorator when—love and affection and other good
considerations moving thereto, as the law hath it—the new Mrs. Rawn
moved into the place of the old Mrs. Rawn. Thereafter matters went at least
as merry as most marriage bells celebrating the nuptials of middle age and
youth, of wealth and beauty.

As Mr. Rawn had spent a million dollars to free himself from one wife,
he seemed willing to spend much more in the process of taking on another.
It became current rumor that the one great diamond show of the western
city was Virginia Rawn. The sobriquet, "The Lady of the Lightnings,"
passed from New York to Chicago and became permanent there. Not that
that lady delighted in display; but there were occasional operatic or
theatrical events which demanded compliance with her husband's wishes, in
which event she blazed almost better than the best.

But, gradually, she showed the tastes of the aristocrat, as alien to vulgar
display as to crude manners. Gradually the tone, color, atmosphere, of
Graystone Hall began to change. The porcelains which Virginia Rawn
purchased were not large and gorgeous, but a connoisseur would have
called them worthy. The vast and brilliantly framed paintings came down
one by one, and one by one masterpieces went up, selected by one who
knew. The walks, the grounds, took on simpler and cleaner lines. Rawn of
the International got a new credit as a person of taste. He was accepted as a
collector, a patron of the arts, a connoisseur, in fact, yet more a worthy and
a rising citizen.

The hospitality of Mr. Rawn's mansion house also now increased

perceptibly, and, delighted that at last numbers came to see him, Mr. Rawn
at first did not analyze those numbers very closely. Even the fastidious,
many of whom came to be amused, were unanimous in the feeling that Mr.
Rawn's house, its furnishings, its decorations, its pictures, its works of art,
its hospitality also, were beyond reproach. The trace of gaucherie was gone.
The spirit of the place was delicately reserved, dignified, yet well assured.
The seal of approval was placed upon Graystone Hall. Who, indeed, should
smile at the man who had made so meteoric a rise, who had by a few years
of labor become master of this mansion, its furnishings and its mistress?
Who, upon the other hand, might smile at that mistress, whose appearance
upon the front page of the leading journals of the city became now a matter
of course—a lady of such reserved tastes as led her to forsake the larger
marts, and to set the seal of fashionable approval upon a little florist, a little
modiste, a little milliner all her own—even a little surgeon hither-to
unknown, who honored a little hospital and made it fashionable, by taking
there this distinguished patient for a little operation?

II

Rawn himself expanded in all this social success. He saw doors hitherto
closed, opening before him, saw his future unrolling before him also like a
scroll. A hundred times a week he walked to his young wife, caught her in
his arms, uxoriously infatuated with her youth, her beauty, her aplomb, her
fitness for this life which he had chosen. For once he almost forgot to
regard himself as a collector of beautiful objects, although the truth was that
his wife, Virginia, became more beautiful each day, more superb of line,
more calmly easy in air, more nearly faultless of garb and demeanor. She
took her place easily and surely among the young matrons of the wealthier
circles of the western city. Whereas thousands of auto-cars had passed by
Graystone Hall and only a dozen stopped, scores now, of the largest, drove
up its winding walks and halted at its doors. The dearest dream of both
seemed realized. The hunt in couple had won! They had gained what they
desired; that is to say, self-indulgence, ease, idleness, adulation, freedom
from care. What more is there to seek? And is not this America?

Gradually John Rawn had been losing the rusticity which had
accompanied him well up to middle age. The city now began to leave its
imprint. The waistcoat of Mr. Rawn gradually attained a curve unknown to
it in earlier years, so that his watch fob now hung in free air when he stood
erect. His face was perhaps more florid, his hair certainly more gray. His
skin remained fresh and clean, and always he was well-groomed, having the
able assistance of his wife now in the selection of his tailoring, as well as
her coaching in social usage. They always looked their part. At morning, at
noon, or at dewy eve, in any assemblage or any chance situation, they both
played in the rôle assigned to them in their own ambitions. Born of
environment wholly unconventional, they now took on that of
conventionality as though born to that instead. You could not have found a
more perfect type of respectability than John Rawn, a more absolutely valid
exemplar of good social form than his wife, Virginia. All things prospered
under their magic touch, the genii of the lamp seemed theirs. No problems
remained for them to solve. They had in their own belief attained what may
be attained in American life, and they were happy. Or, that is to say, they
should at least have been happy, if their theory of life and success, and of
those like to theirs, be correct. At least they were what they were—products
of a wonderful country which makes millionaires overnight and produces
out of bakeries women of one generation fit to be the wives of princes born
of forty kings.

III

We are, some of us at least, accustomed to worship such as these as they

ride by upon the high car of success, accustomed to envy and to emulate
them. If that vehicle be the car of Juggernaut, crushing under its wheels
multitudes of those who worship, it is no concern of those who sit aloft. For
a long time Mr. Rawn and his wife remained ignorant of the fact that one
victim under the wheels of their success was none other than Mr. Rawn's
daughter, Grace.

Alas! for that young lady. She unfortunately had been now for almost a
year an aspirant in her own right to a seat upon the car of ease and luxury;
yet here she saw herself swiftly supplanted, and worse than that, swiftly
forgotten! Her year of quasi-place and power had left her unwilling to
return to her own humble home. She remained on at Graystone Hall, now
rarely visited by her husband. She found herself calmly accepted, yet
calmly neglected as well. Very naturally she hated the new Mrs. Rawn with
all her soul; a hatred which that lady repaid with nothing better than a
straight look into Grace's dark eyes, a look innocent, calm, and wholly
fearless. Grace must now see the very jewels her own mother should have
worn, blazing at the neck and hands of her stepmother; must see that lady
taking assuredly and as of right, what Grace could now never ask or expect
for herself. With an unapproachable and wholly hateful air of distinction
and good breeding which rankled most of all in crude Mrs. Halsey's heart,
Virginia Rawn sat high on the car of Juggernaut; and the car of Juggernaut
passed on. In pride and delight over his young wife, John Rawn really
forgot his daughter. The young new wife did the same, or appeared to do so.

IV

John Rawn had told the truth to his wife when first he had declared his
sentiments toward her—he never before that time really had known love, or
at least had not known infatuated love such as that he felt for her. He
exulted in the vistas of delight which he saw before them, fancying them
endless. The very sight of his wife, cool, faultless, self-possessed, haughty,
filled him with a sense of his own importance, making him feel that he was
one of God's chosen. She was his, he had found her, discovered her,
collected her. She was his to put upon a pedestal, to admire, to display, to
worship, to load down with jewels. He had something now which other men
coveted and envied. He flaunted his ownership of such a woman in their
faces. What more can a rich man do than that same? Is that not the dream
and test of power—to secure what others may not have, to secure special
privileges in this life? And is not the quest of beauty the first business of
him who has attained power? Of all these special privileges which had
come to John Rawn so swiftly in these late rapid years, none so delicately
and warmly filled his heart as that of being able to call Virginia Rawn his
own. Why blame him? The sultans of thirty or forty generations have
devised nothing better than this test of power.

John Rawn, with all properly aristocratic leanings toward sultanry,

lacked certain elements of sultanhood in strength, but had others in
weakness. He did not know that in reality he was in the hands of a stronger
nature than his own. "She's got him jumping through hoops," was the
comment of one young man. "He'll sit up and bark whenever she gives the
word!" But Rawn did not know that he was barking and jumping, his
tongue hanging out excitedly. In all his mental pictures of himself he
fancied himself to be a figure of dignity, of strength, indeed of majesty.

CHAPTER II
FOUR BEING NO COMPANY

Happy in his newly-found domestic delights, Mr. Rawn was perhaps

more careless than otherwise he would have been regarding business
affairs, and that at a time when they needed care. The truth was that matters
still lagged at the factory, as Rawn ought to have known. Indeed, he did
know; but always his curious helplessness in regard to Halsey—who alone
knew the last secrets of the most intricate devices of the company's property
—continued to oppress him. And always here was his wife to console him
and to interest him.

The distance between Graystone Hall and the factory apparently was
becoming greater from month to month. Sometimes Halsey came to visit
his wife, but these visits of late became fewer and fewer, as that lady
became more and more discontented, less and less eager to receive the
attentions of him who had so signally failed to place her where Virginia sat
in power. This alone left Halsey none too happy himself at the prospect of
any of his perfunctory calls; and moreover, he found himself expected now
to be more careful in his attire, in his conduct about Graystone Hall, where
full evening dress tacitly was desired at dinner, and where an aristocratic
chill was habitual at any hour; things not customary in Ann Sullivan's
household on the factory side of the city. Not that Halsey needed to excite
social misgivings. He was a clean-faced, manly chap, lean, sinewy and
strong, and might, save for his rather toil-marked hands, have passed for
any of the throng of young men who at times came under one pretense or
other to visit Mr.—and Mrs.—Rawn.

II

These, in company with Grace, he one evening found alone, seated on

the wide gallery that overlooked the lake front. He did notice then, as he
never before at any time had noticed, a singular truth—Virginia Rawn's
eyes seemed almost reluctant to leave him. He was half her husband's age.
Moreover, there was something in the somber glow of his eye, in the
occasional look of his face—rapt, absorbed, remote, pondering on things
not made patent to all about him—which held for her ever a stronger
fascination. She wondered if things were known in his philosophy no longer
reckoned in her own; but which once might have been germane to her as
well. She often looked at him.

The evening was clear and cool, the lake stirred with no more than a
gentle breeze. The silver ladder of the moon's light was flung down across
the gently moving waters. The breath of flowers was all about. Calm, ease,
assuredness were here. The voice of the hostess was delightfully low and
sweet. All things seemed in keeping.

Rawn welcomed his son-in-law with his customary largeness of air.

"Come on out, Charles," said he, "join us; the evening is pleasant. Won't
you have a cigar?" He fetched with his own hands the box of weeds—"Take
several, my boy, take as many as you like. I give two dollars apiece for
these by the box at my club, and you can't beat them in the city or anywhere
else."

Halsey listened almost absent-mindedly, and Rawn returned to his seat

near his wife, a little apart on the gallery. The master of Graystone Hall was
intoxicated more than usually this evening with her. She sat now in the dim
light, a cool, dainty and beautiful picture, in blue and ivory Duchesse satin
and filmy laces, gowned fit for a wedding or a ball, as she always was of an
evening at home, with just a gem gleaming here and there in the occasional
glimpse of light which broke through the windows at the back of the gallery
as their curtains shifted in the breeze. At that moment John Rawn would
have been glad to have the entire world share boxes of cigars with him.
John Rawn, collector—what man on all the North Shore Drive at that
moment could claim such surroundings as these?

"I thank you, Mr. Rawn," said Halsey, taking a single cigar from the box
which his host had placed upon the near-by tabouret. "I think I'll be content
with one. I mustn't get into bad habits; I'm afraid Jim Sullivan and I can't
afford them at two dollars apiece just yet!"

III

He moved now quietly and dutifully apart toward the end of the gallery
where sat a less resplendent figure, that of his wife, Grace. She had not
risen to meet him.

"Well," said he, as he sank into a seat beside her.

"Well, then?" she answered, and turned upon him a face dour,
inexpressive, pasty, almost frowning.

"Is that all you have to say to me?" she began later, as he sat smoking.

"I haven't had much chance yet," he commented.

 "No, I should say not! This is the first time you've been here for four
weeks! Have you stopped to think of that? You seem to care little enough
how I get on!"

Halsey paused for a moment before replying. "That hardly seems fair to
me."

"Why isn't it fair? It's the truth."

"Well, I've been busy all the time, as you know. Besides again, when it
comes to that, it doesn't seem to me that you've been altogether anxious to
have me come."

"You talk as though you worked day and night and had nothing else to
do."

"Well, I suppose I could come over—every night after dinner—wash the

soot and the cinders from me, get out my four-hundred-dollar go-cart, and
come over here to call on my wife in my thirty-dollar evening togs, couldn't
I? She lives in Graystone Hall. Where do I live? What do I get out of life,
when it comes to that, Grace? When I do come here, you begin to nag me
before I get settled down. I always used to say when I was a young man,
that if I ever found myself married to a nagging woman, I'd just quit her!"

"What do you mean by that?" she demanded imperiously.

IV

Again Halsey was deliberate, although he half sighed as he replied:

"Pretty much what I say, Mrs. Halsey, since you ask me. The truth is, you
quit me when I needed you. I have had worry enough from this business at
the factory. I don't particularly care to have all other kinds of worry on top
of that. You had all this place to fall back on. Your father's taken care of
you. But he hasn't taken care of me very well. The fact is, I've been
scapegoat about long enough!"
 "You seem to have learned the factory ways of talking!"

"Yes, I don't know but I am getting rather plain, and common, and
vulgar. It's a little different here—even from Kelly Row, let alone our place
on the West Side. I fancy you're getting the North Shore accent, along with
other things.—It all only means that we're that much further apart, Grace.
Did you ever stop to think of that?"

"I've had time to think of plenty of things," she answered bitterly.

"You had plenty of time to think of some of them before you came over
here," he rejoined. "You didn't like what your husband could offer you, and
you chose something better which your father did offer you. You've quit me,
practically. You've not been in our home twice since you came to live here.
I've seen that poor baby of ours only once in a while since you left our
home for this. You've not been a wife to me. That's the truth about it—I
might as well not be married! That comes mighty near being the situation,
since you put it up to me to answer."

"Then what do you mean?"

"The courts would make it a case of desertion, if you force me to say

that," answered Halsey. "Now, I don't want to live on this way for ever! I'm
a young man, and my career's ahead of me! I've got to choose regarding my
life before long! And I'm going to choose. I'm not going to let things run on
in this way any further."

"That's what my father always said! Your career; your life! Where does
your wife come in?"

"You come in precisely where you say you want to come in, Grace. We
get what we earn in this world. If you leave me and take up a life which I
can't share, if you leave my house and don't care for what I can give you—
why there's not much left to talk about as to where you come in. You come
in here. I belong over there."

"You're selfish! All men are, I think."

 "I'm not going to argue about that in the least, Grace, except to say that
it's the Rawn half of you that said that. The Rawn half of you can't see
anything but its own part of the world. It wasn't the Rawn half of you that I
married. You were different, then. You're not much like your mother, Grace!
And I married the part of you that was like your mother. She was a good
woman, and a good wife."

"You must not speak of her!"

"Oh, yes, I must, and I shall when I like. It's all in evidence. There's the
record." He nodded toward the two dim figures at the other end of the
gallery. "She's very beautiful, yes, very beautiful!" His eyes lingered on the
figure of Virginia Rawn, faintly outlined, cool in satin and laces.

"She'd like to hear you say that!" sneered his wife.

"I perceive, my dear, that you two love each other very much. But as I
was saying, you don't seem to me, Grace, to be much like your own mother
—you're more like your stepmother, over there, in some ways. Your mother
didn't change. She made good—if you'll let me use some more factory slang
—on the old ways, on her own old lines. That's what I call class, breeding,
blood, if you like—just plain North American sincerity and simplicity. She
didn't pretend, she didn't try to climb where she knew she couldn't go.
That's what I call blood!"

"Thank you! You're sincere also, at least."

He seemed not to hear her. He went on. "But you've changed. You
dropped me. Your head was turned with all this sort of thing.... Since these
things are true, are you coming back to me?" He found himself wrenching
his eyes away from the cool dim figure far down the long gallery.
 She straightened up suddenly, pale. "Back!—to that? To live in that hole
—?"

"Yes, just back to that, Grace. It's all I have to offer you. Just that hole."

"I'm not happy here."

"Then why do you stay here? Why don't you come back to me?"

"Because I couldn't be happy over there any more, either! I know it. I
admit it. It's got me—I couldn't go back to the old ways, the ways we'd have
to live. Why can't you come here—why doesn't Pa give us money enough
—"

He turned to her now gravely. "I suppose it's the pace—yes, it's got you,
and a lot of others. But I'm not taking that sort of money just yet. And that
doesn't answer my question. I've come over to-night to arrive at some
understanding about us two. I want to know where I am. There are going to
be changes, one way or another."

She turned to him suddenly again. "What's wrong over at that factory,
Charley?" she asked. "Why haven't you made good before this? My father
has been on the point of tearing up things a dozen times! He's sore at you—
awfully sore."

"Yes? How do you know I haven't made good?"

"Then why has Pa talked so?"

"For the very good reason that he doesn't know any better than to talk
that way. He hasn't got any more sense. He didn't talk that way to me."

"Then you have got it—you've made the discovery—it'll work?"

"Our machines not only will work, but have been working," said he
calmly. "I haven't seen fit to tell your father. I'm going to tell you, however,
that all this was my idea from the first. If I haven't been a competent
manager, let him get some one more competent. I'll take what I know with
me in my own head. I'm saying to you, his daughter, that I worked out this
idea, myself, and all he did was to get the money in the first place for it. For
that reason I call this discovery mine, to do with as I like. I haven't been
bought and paid for, myself. I don't want money when it costs too much.
I've just begun to understand things lately."

"Yes, I've worked it out into practical form," he concluded, as she sat
silent. "Your father never did and never can. He's got to come to me, to me,
right here. Since you drive me to it, I'll just tell you one thing. I've had this
whole thing in my own hands for more than eight months! The company
doesn't know it, he doesn't know it, no one knows it. I've been just waiting
—to see whether I had a wife or not."

"You never told? Then you've been disloyal, you've been a coward! You
took his money—"

"All right," said Halsey suddenly, grimly, "that's all I need. I see, now. I
know what to do now."

"But you didn't tell father!" she went on fiercely. "And we all knew how
much has been depending on that factory. Weren't we all in that—didn't we
all help, from the very first? Didn't I?"

"Yes, you did, you and your mother," said Halsey. "You've had or will
have all you earned. She got divorced from her husband, you may get
divorced from me! It's a fine world, isn't it? We've all been chasing for more
money. Well, here we are! There's a couple over there, here's another one
here. Fine, isn't it?"

VI

"But, Charles!" She moved toward him and laid a hand on his arm. "You
don't stop to reflect on what you are saying! If you have that secret in your
hands, why, don't you see—don't you see—"

"What do you mean?"

 "Why, even Pa will have to come to you! You won't be poor then."

"I should say he would have to come to me!" said Charles Halsey slowly.
"Yes, I dare say. I dare say, also, I could make a lot of money whether he
did or didn't."

"Listen, Charley. He's got everything, and he wants everything. He's my

father, but he doesn't care. He—he sold me out. What do we owe to him and
her? What did he do to my mother? I tell you, he thinks of no one but
himself. Yet you and I—we who found that idea and worked it out, who
have it in our own hands now, as you say—you and I have got the whip in
our own hands now, it seems to me."

"You talk excellent business sense, Mrs. Halsey. I compliment you. It

seems that you begin to discover something in your husband and his
possibilities. It's a trifle late, but you delight me!"

"Well, I didn't know, you see," she murmured, pawing at him vaguely, in
a fitful and inefficient essay at some coquettish art, grotesque in these
conditions.

She was a woman of small feminine charm at best. She sat there now,
angular, stiff, unbeautiful, the sort of woman no clothes can make well-
dressed. Already she had disclosed somewhat of her soul. What appeal,
then, physical, emotional, moral, could she make to him—a student, a
visionary, an idealist—at such a moment? And did there not remain that
same cool distant figure from whom he had so constantly to wrench his
eyes—and his heart? Yes; and his heart! Halsey's face was dull red. He was
unhappy. The world seemed to him only a hideous nightmare, full of
disappointments, injustices, of wrongs that cried aloud for righting. Ah, the
comparison now was here, fair and full and unavoidable!

VII
 "No, you didn't know," said he slowly. "A lot of people don't. Now let
me tell you a few things more. You didn't know that something like a year
ago your father told me that he'd make me a present of fifty-thousand
dollars the day I could run a car from the factory to this place on a charge
taken from our own overhead receiver-motors."

"A start for a million dollars!" she murmured. "You get that—when you
succeed?"

"Yes, that is to say, I could have had that any day in the week these past
eight months—if he really has got that much left where he can realize on it.
He's pretty well spread out."

"Then you have had it—what have you done with the money?"

"I presume I look as though I'd spent or could spend a mere fifty
thousand dollars or so, don't I?" was his quiet answer. "No, I didn't have it,
and I haven't got it. I'll say this much to you, however, that I ran my little
old car over here to-night on a charge taken out of one of the overhead
receiver-motors of the International Power Company—a motor completed
on my own ideas, and by my own hands. It's mine, I tell you—mine!"

"Charley!" She caught him by the wrists, with both hands, eagerly. "You
can give me the things I've got used to having! I'll go back—oh! I'll go back
—we'll go on together! I hate her so—you don't know!"

"That's nice of you, Grace; but you've guessed wrong. I've not got that
fifty thousand yet."

"But you can have."

"Yes, I can. What could I buy with it? For one thing, I could buy back
my wife?"

"But Charley! We're rich! You've succeeded!"

"No, I am poor, I've failed. I'm just beginning to see how much I've
failed!"
 "If you don't tell me the truth about this I'll do it myself!" she exclaimed
fiercely. "You've not been loyal—you've taken pay!"

"Your father took his pay from me," was his half-savage answer. "He's
been paid enough! As for me, I don't want any more of this sort of pay."

"What are you going to do—you're not going to sell out to some one
else?"

"No, my dear, I'm not going to do precisely what you suggested I should
do just a moment ago. I'm not going to sell out. I could do that, too, and
make more than any fifty thousand. The foreman in our factory, who knows
very little, can sell out to-morrow morning for ten thousand dollars, maybe
double or treble that now. The watchman on our door can sell out when he
likes. We can all sell out, any of us sell out. But we haven't! If there has
been any selling out it has been done by those who built this place here—
the place which you found better than the best home I could offer you."

She sat back stiff, silent, somber. "You—you never mean that you are
going to throw this away, then!" she asked at length. "What earthly good
will that do? Pa'll have it out of you somehow! I'll—I'm going to tell him!"

"Try it," said Charles Halsey easily.

She had courage. "Father," she called out. "Pa! Come here—at once!"

VIII

Rawn rose suddenly up from his chair at the startling quality in her
voice. "What's that, Grace?" he called across the long gallery.

"Come here, I want you! We've got something to say to you."

Halsey sat motionless.

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