Chapter : Respiration and Energy transfer

Neet cet [ swapnil sonawane]

1. Respiration:

Respiration is the biochemical process by which cells break down glucose (or other organic
molecules) to release energy, typically in the form of ATP. It is essential for all living organisms.

There are two main types of respiration:

 Aerobic Respiration (with oxygen):

 Takes place in the mitochondria of the cell.
 The chemical reaction involves glucose and oxygen, which produce carbon
dioxide, water, and ATP.
Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) + Oxygen (O₂) → Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) + Water (H₂O) + Ene
rgy (ATP)\text{Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) + Oxygen (O₂) → Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) +
Water (H₂O) + Energy
(ATP)}Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) + Oxygen (O₂) → Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) + Water (H₂
O) + Energy (ATP)
 This process releases a large amount of energy.
 Anaerobic Respiration (without oxygen):
 Takes place in the cytoplasm.
 In the absence of oxygen, glucose is partially broken down to release energy. In
humans, this leads to the production of lactic acid, whereas in yeast, it results in
alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) → Lactic Acid (C₃H₆O₃) + Energy (ATP)(in humans){Glucose
(C₆H₁₂O₆) → Lactic Acid (C₃H₆O₃) + Energy (ATP)}(in
humans)}Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) → Lactic Acid (C₃H₆O₃) + Energy (ATP)(in humans
)
Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) → Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) + Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) + Energy (ATP
)(in yeast){Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) → Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) + Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) +
Energy
(ATP)}(Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) → Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) + Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) + Ener
gy (ATP)(in yeast)
 Anaerobic respiration releases much less energy than aerobic respiration.

2. Energy Transfer (ATP):

ATP is the "energy currency" of the cell. It is used to power various cellular activities such as
muscle contraction, protein synthesis, and active transport.

 ATP consists of three phosphate groups, a ribose sugar, and adenine (a nitrogenous base).
 When a cell needs energy, it breaks the high-energy bond between the second and third
phosphate groups of ATP to form ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a free phosphate
group, releasing energy in the process.
 Cells regenerate ATP by using the energy released in respiration to add a phosphate
group to ADP.

3. Importance of Respiration:

 Energy Production: It ensures that cells have a continuous supply of ATP for their
metabolic activities.
 Maintenance of Homeostasis: The by-products of respiration (like CO₂ and H₂O) are
important for maintaining proper cellular conditions and pH balance.
 Survival of Organisms: All organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, depend on
respiration to meet their energy requirements for growth, reproduction, and repair.

Stages of Aerobic Respiration:

Aerobic respiration occurs in three main stages:

1. Glycolysis (Occurs in the Cytoplasm):

 What happens:
Glycolysis is the first step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. It doesn't require
oxygen and occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.
o A molecule of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate
(C₃H₄O₃).
o In the process, 2 ATP molecules are used to start the reaction, but 4 ATP
molecules are produced, giving a net gain of 2 ATP. Additionally, 2 NADH
molecules (which are used later in the electron transport chain) are produced.

Overall Reaction of Glycolysis:

Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)→2Pyruvate (C₃H₄O₃)+2ATP+2NADH{Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)}

{Pyruvate (C₃H₄O₃)} + 2{ATP} + 2
{NADH}Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)→2Pyruvate (C₃H₄O₃)+2ATP+2NADH

 Key Point: Glycolysis happens in the cytoplasm and doesn't need oxygen, but it sets up
the next stage for energy production.

2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) (Occurs in the Mitochondria):

 What happens:
The pyruvate molecules produced in glycolysis are transported into the mitochondria,
where they are further broken down in the presence of oxygen.
o Each pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA, which then enters the Krebs Cycle.
o In the cycle, acetyl-CoA is combined with oxaloacetate to form citric acid, which
undergoes a series of reactions that produce carbon dioxide (CO₂), NADH,
FADH₂, and ATP.

Key Products:

o For each glucose molecule (which produces two pyruvate), the cycle occurs
twice.
o Each cycle produces:
 3 NADH
 1 FADH₂
 1 ATP
 2 CO₂ molecules (which are exhaled as waste)

Overall Reaction for 1 Glucose (2 Pyruvate):

2Acetyl-CoA+6NAD++2FAD+2ADP+2Pi→4CO₂+6NADH+2FADH₂+2ATP2 {Acetyl-
CoA} + 6 {NAD}+ 2{FAD} + 2{ADP} + 2{Pi}4 {CO₂} + 6{NADH} + 2 {FADH₂} +
2{ATP}2Acetyl-CoA+6NAD++2FAD+2ADP+2Pi→4CO₂+6NADH+2FADH₂+2ATP

 Key Point: The Krebs cycle is crucial for producing electron carriers (NADH and
FADH₂) that are used in the final stage (Electron Transport Chain).

3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Oxidative Phosphorylation (Occurs in the Inner
Mitochondrial Membrane):

 What happens:
The NADH and FADH₂ produced in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle carry high-energy
electrons to the inner mitochondrial membrane, where the Electron Transport Chain
takes place.
o In the ETC, electrons are passed through protein complexes in the membrane,
releasing energy. This energy pumps protons (H⁺ ions) across the membrane,
creating a proton gradient.
 o The protons flow back through a protein called ATP synthase, which uses the
energy to produce ATP.
o Oxygen plays a critical role here—it acts as the final electron acceptor,
combining with electrons and protons to form water (H₂O).

Key Products:

o ATP: The majority of ATP is produced in this stage—about 32-34 ATP

molecules.
o Water (H₂O): Oxygen combines with electrons and protons to form water, which
is then exhaled.

Overall Reaction for Electron Transport Chain:

10NADH+2FADH₂+6O₂→28−32ATP+6H₂O10 {NADH} + 2 {FADH₂} + 6[O2]28-32

{ATP} + 6{H₂O}10NADH+2FADH₂+6O₂→28−32ATP+6H₂O

Total ATP Yield in Aerobic Respiration:

 Glycolysis: 2 ATP
 Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP
 Electron Transport Chain: 28-32 ATP

Total ATP per molecule of glucose: About 36-38 ATP molecules.

Why is Aerobic Respiration Efficient?

 High ATP Yield: Aerobic respiration produces a large amount of ATP compared to
anaerobic respiration (which only produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule).
 Oxygen as the Final Electron Acceptor: Oxygen enables the efficient transfer of
electrons in the electron transport chain, leading to maximum ATP production.

Importance of Oxygen:

Oxygen is essential for the final stage of aerobic respiration, the electron transport chain.
Without oxygen, the entire process would back up, and the cell would have to rely on anaerobic
respiration, which produces much less energy.

Anaerobic Respiration:

Anaerobic respiration occurs when oxygen is not available. While it's much less efficient than
aerobic respiration, it still allows cells to produce some energy, especially during short bursts of
intense activity or in environments where oxygen is scarce.

There are two main forms of anaerobic respiration:

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation (in Animals and Some Bacteria):

 What happens:
In the absence of oxygen, the pyruvate produced during glycolysis is converted into
lactic acid (lactate), and NADH is oxidized back to NAD⁺, which is essential for
glycolysis to continue. This ensures that glycolysis can keep producing a small amount of
ATP.

Reaction:
 Glucose→2Lactic Acid+2ATP\text{Glucose} \rightarrow 2 \text{Lactic Acid} + 2
\text{ATP}Glucose→2Lactic Acid+2ATP

 Key Points:
o This process produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
o Lactic acid builds up in muscles, leading to fatigue and soreness after intense
exercise.
o After exercise, oxygen is used to convert lactic acid back into pyruvate in the liver
through a process called lactic acid cycle (or Cori cycle).

2. Alcoholic Fermentation (in Yeast and Some Bacteria):

 What happens:
In yeast cells (and some types of bacteria), pyruvate is converted into ethanol (alcohol)
and carbon dioxide. Again, NADH is oxidized back to NAD⁺ to allow glycolysis to
continue.

 Key Points:
o This also produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
o Alcoholic fermentation is used in the production of alcoholic beverages and in
baking (where the carbon dioxide causes dough to rise).

Efficiency of Anaerobic Respiration:

 Less Efficient: Anaerobic respiration produces only 2 ATP per molecule of glucose,
compared to the 36-38 ATP produced in aerobic respiration. This is because the glucose
is not fully oxidized in the absence of oxygen.
 Short-Term Solution: While it provides quick energy in oxygen-deprived conditions, it
can't sustain energy production for long periods. Once lactic acid accumulates or ethanol
levels rise, the process can't continue effectively.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

The Electron Transport Chain is the final stage of aerobic respiration and occurs in the inner
mitochondrial membrane. It's where the majority of ATP is generated, and it's a key player in
converting the energy stored in glucose into usable energy (ATP).

1. How the ETC Works:

 Electron Carriers (NADH and FADH₂):

After the Krebs cycle, electrons are transferred from NADH and FADH₂ to the Electron
Transport Chain. These molecules donate high-energy electrons to the chain.
 Complexes of the ETC:
The Electron Transport Chain is made up of several protein complexes (Complex I, II,
III, IV) embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. As electrons pass through these
complexes, they release energy.
o Complex I: NADH drops off electrons here, and protons (H⁺) are pumped into
the intermembrane space.
o Complex II: FADH₂ also drops off electrons here, but fewer protons are pumped
than at Complex I.
o Complex III and IV: More protons are pumped into the intermembrane space as
electrons continue to pass through these complexes.
 Proton Gradient:
The pumping of protons (H⁺) into the intermembrane space creates an electrochemical
gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This is known as the proton motive
force.
 ATP Synthesis (ATP Synthase):
Protons flow back into the matrix through ATP synthase, a protein that acts like a
turbine. As protons pass through ATP synthase, the energy is used to phosphorylate ADP
and Pi to form ATP.
  Oxygen as the Final Electron Acceptor:
Oxygen is the final electron acceptor in the chain. It combines with the electrons and
protons to form water (H₂O). Without oxygen, the electron transport chain would back
up, and ATP production would stop.

2. Summary of the ETC Process:

 Location: Inner mitochondrial membrane

 Input: NADH, FADH₂, O₂
 Output: ATP, H₂O (water)
 ATP Produced: About 32-34 ATP molecules

3. Why Oxygen is Crucial in the ETC:

Oxygen is necessary because it is the final electron acceptor in the chain. Without it, electrons
would not be able to continue moving through the chain, and the entire process would halt. This
is why aerobic respiration is so much more efficient—it relies on oxygen to allow the full
oxidation of glucose to happen, producing much more ATP.

Key Differences Between Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration:

 Oxygen Requirement:
o Aerobic Respiration: Requires oxygen to fully oxidize glucose.
o Anaerobic Respiration: Occurs without oxygen and produces much less ATP.
 ATP Yield:
o Aerobic Respiration: About 36-38 ATP per glucose.
o Anaerobic Respiration: About 2 ATP per glucose.
 End Products:
o Aerobic Respiration: CO₂, H₂O, and ATP.
o Anaerobic Respiration: Lactic acid (in animals) or ethanol + CO₂ (in yeast and
some bacteria), and ATP.

The C₄ pathway (also known as the C₄ photosynthetic pathway) and the Hatch-Slack
pathway (HSK pathway) are two closely related concepts in plant physiology that describe how
some plants, particularly those in hot, dry climates, minimize photorespiration and maximize
efficiency in photosynthesis.

C₄ Pathway (C₄ Photosynthesis):

The C₄ pathway is a type of photosynthesis found in plants adapted to hot and arid environments,
such as corn, sugarcane, and maize. The main advantage of C₄ photosynthesis is its ability to
efficiently fix carbon dioxide (CO₂) while minimizing photorespiration (a wasteful process that
occurs in some plants, especially under high temperatures).

Key Steps of the C₄ Pathway:

1. CO₂ Fixation:
In the mesophyll cells of C₄ plants, CO₂ is initially fixed by the enzyme PEP
carboxylase (phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase) rather than by RuBisCO, the enzyme
that usually fixes CO₂ in the Calvin cycle.
o PEP carboxylase combines CO₂ with phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form a 4-
carbon compound (oxaloacetate), which is then converted to malate or aspartate.
2. Transport to Bundle Sheath Cells:
The 4-carbon compounds (malate or aspartate) are transported from the mesophyll cells
to the bundle sheath cells, which surround the vascular tissue (xylem and phloem).
3. Decarboxylation:
In the bundle sheath cells, the 4-carbon compounds are decarboxylated (CO₂ is released),
and the CO₂ is then used in the Calvin cycle (the same cycle as in C₃ plants) to form
glucose.
 o The released CO₂ is fixed by RuBisCO in the Calvin cycle, but the high
concentration of CO₂ in the bundle sheath cells reduces the chances of
photorespiration.
4. Regeneration of PEP:
The remaining 3-carbon molecules (after CO₂ release) are transported back to the
mesophyll cells, where they are converted back to PEP to continue the cycle.

Why C₄ Photosynthesis is Efficient:

 Photorespiration Reduction: By concentrating CO₂ in the bundle sheath cells, C₄ plants

can keep RuBisCO from fixing oxygen (which leads to photorespiration). This is
especially important in hot environments where photorespiration is a major issue in C₃
plants.
 Better Water Use Efficiency: C₄ plants are able to fix CO₂ more efficiently, which helps
them conserve water, an advantage in arid regions.

Hatch-Slack Pathway (HSK Pathway):

The Hatch-Slack pathway is essentially a detailed explanation of the C₄ pathway, describing

the biochemical steps involved in this form of photosynthesis. It was proposed by scientists
Hatch and Slack in the 1960s.

In this pathway, the steps of CO₂ fixation, transport, and decarboxylation of C₄ compounds are
outlined in detail:

1. CO₂ is first fixed by PEP carboxylase in the mesophyll cells to form a 4-carbon
compound (usually oxaloacetate).
2. Oxaloacetate is converted to malate or aspartate, which are then transported into the
bundle sheath cells.
3. In the bundle sheath cells, malate is decarboxylated to release CO₂, which is used in the
Calvin cycle for sugar production.
4. The remaining 3-carbon compounds return to the mesophyll cells, where they regenerate
PEP.

The Hatch-Slack pathway and the C₄ pathway are, in essence, the same process but viewed from
different perspectives: one as a biochemical pathway (Hatch-Slack) and the other as the broader
process of photosynthesis (C₄).

Key Differences Between C₃ and C₄ Photosynthesis:

Feature C₃ Photosynthesis C₄ Photosynthesis

CO₂ is fixed by RuBisCO in CO₂ is fixed by PEP carboxylase into 4-
CO₂ Fixation
the Calvin cycle carbon compounds
Location of Calvin Occurs in the stroma of Calvin cycle occurs in bundle sheath cells,
Cycle chloroplasts after CO₂ is concentrated
Reduced, due to CO₂ concentration in
Photorespiration High in hot, dry conditions
bundle sheath cells
Plants in hot, dry climates (e.g., maize,
Plants that use it Most plants (e.g., wheat, rice)
sugarcane)
Higher energy cost (ATP used for CO₂
Energy Cost Lower energy cost
transport and fixation)
Water Use Lower, due to more stomatal Higher, due to better CO₂ fixation under
Efficiency opening drought conditions

Why C₄ Plants are Special:

 Adaptation to Hot, Dry Climates: C₄ plants are more efficient at photosynthesis in hot
climates because they can maintain a high rate of CO₂ fixation without losing excessive
water through transpiration.
  Reduced Photorespiration: Since the enzyme RuBisCO only acts on CO₂ in the bundle
sheath cells, photorespiration is minimized.

C₄ Pathway and the Hatch-Slack Pathway:

As mentioned, the Hatch-Slack pathway simply describes the C₄ pathway in greater

biochemical detail. The major steps involved in the Hatch-Slack pathway are:

1. CO₂ fixation by PEP carboxylase to form oxaloacetate.

2. Conversion of oxaloacetate to malate (or aspartate).
3. Transport of malate to bundle sheath cells.
4. Decarboxylation of malate to release CO₂ in the bundle sheath.
5. CO₂ is fixed in the Calvin cycle by RuBisCO in the bundle sheath cells.
6. Regeneration of PEP in the mesophyll cells.

The Hatch-Slack pathway is critical to understanding how C₄ plants efficiently manage carbon
fixation and reduce photorespiration.

Would you like to explore any particular part of the C₄ pathway or the Hatch-Slack pathway in
more detail?

You said:

c3 pathway
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

The C₃ pathway, also known as C₃ photosynthesis, is the most common form of photosynthesis
and is used by many plants, including most trees, grasses, and crops like wheat and rice. In this
pathway, carbon dioxide (CO₂) is directly fixed into a 3-carbon molecule, making it the
simplest form of photosynthesis. Let's break down the key steps of the C₃ pathway and how it
works.

Key Steps of the C₃ Pathway:

The C₃ pathway takes place in the chloroplasts of plant cells, specifically in the mesophyll cells,
which are the primary site of photosynthesis.

1. CO₂ Fixation (Carbon Fixation):

o CO₂ from the atmosphere enters the plant through the stomata (tiny pores on the
leaf surface).
o Inside the leaf, CO₂ diffuses into the mesophyll cells and reaches the stroma of
the chloroplasts.
o The enzyme RuBisCO (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) fixes CO₂
by attaching it to a 5-carbon molecule called ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP),
resulting in an unstable 6-carbon intermediate.
o This intermediate immediately splits into two 3-carbon molecules called 3-
phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).

Overall Reaction for CO₂ Fixation:

CO₂+RuBP→RuBisCO23-PGA\text{CO₂} + \text{RuBP}
\xrightarrow{\text{RuBisCO}} 2 \text{3-PGA}CO₂+RuBPRuBisCO23-PGA

o 3-PGA is the first stable product of the C₃ pathway, hence the name "C₃
photosynthesis."
 2. Reduction (Calvin Cycle or Light-Independent Reactions):
o The 3-PGA molecules are then phosphorylated (using ATP) and reduced (using
NADPH) to form glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), a 3-carbon sugar.
o This step requires energy in the form of ATP and reducing power from NADPH,
both of which are produced during the light-dependent reactions (photosystem I
and II) of photosynthesis.
3. Regeneration of RuBP:
o Some of the G3P molecules are used to regenerate RuBP (the molecule that
accepts CO₂), allowing the cycle to continue. This regeneration also requires
ATP.
o The rest of the G3P molecules are used to synthesize sugars like glucose, which
the plant can use for energy or store as starch.

Overall Reaction for the Calvin Cycle:

3CO₂+9ATP+6NADPH→1G3P+9ADP+8Pi+6NADP+3 \text{CO₂} + 9 \text{ATP} + 6

\text{NADPH} \rightarrow 1 \text{G3P} + 9 \text{ADP} + 8 \text{Pi} + 6
\text{NADP}^+3CO₂+9ATP+6NADPH→1G3P+9ADP+8Pi+6NADP+

o This process must repeat multiple times to produce one molecule of glucose
(C₆H₁₂O₆) from carbon dioxide.

Diagram of the C₃ Photosynthesis Process:

1. CO₂ enters the leaf through stomata.

2. In the mesophyll cells, CO₂ is fixed by RuBisCO into 3-PGA.
3. ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions reduce 3-PGA to G3P.
4. Some G3P is used to regenerate RuBP, and the rest is used to synthesize sugars.

Why the C₃ Pathway is Important:

 The C₃ pathway is essential for the majority of plants, including most food crops, trees,
and flowering plants.
 It is the basis for the Calvin cycle, which is central to how plants convert light energy
into chemical energy stored in sugars.

However, the C₃ pathway has some limitations, particularly in hot, dry environments.

Limitations of the C₃ Pathway:

1. Photorespiration:
o RuBisCO is not a perfect enzyme. It can also bind to oxygen (O₂), leading to
photorespiration, a process that wastes energy and carbon.
o Photorespiration occurs more frequently in hot and dry conditions when plants
close their stomata to conserve water, limiting the amount of CO₂ entering the leaf
and increasing the concentration of O₂ inside the leaf.
o This reduces the overall efficiency of photosynthesis because the energy used for
photorespiration could have been used to produce sugars.
2. Water Loss:
o To take in CO₂, plants must open their stomata, which also results in water loss.
In hot and dry conditions, this can be a significant disadvantage, leading to
dehydration.

Comparison of C₃, C₄, and CAM Pathways:

Feature C₃ Photosynthesis C₄ Photosynthesis CAM Photosynthesis

CO₂ fixed directly by CO₂ fixed initially by PEP CO₂ fixed at night by
CO₂ Fixation
RuBisCO carboxylase PEP carboxylase
End Product of 3-carbon molecule (3- 4-carbon molecule (malate 4-carbon molecule
CO₂ Fixation PGA) or aspartate) (malate)
Location of CO₂ Mesophyll cells Mesophyll cells (initial Mesophyll cells
 Feature C₃ Photosynthesis C₄ Photosynthesis CAM Photosynthesis
Fixation fixation), bundle sheath (nighttime CO₂
cells (Calvin cycle) fixation)
Low, due to CO₂
High, especially in Very low, due to
Photorespiration concentration in bundle
hot/dry conditions nighttime CO₂ fixation
sheath cells
Low, due to stomata High, due to spatial High, due to temporal
Water Use
opening for CO₂ separation of CO₂ fixation separation of CO₂
Efficiency
uptake and Calvin cycle fixation
Plants in hot, dry Plants in arid
Most plants (e.g.,
Typical Plants environments (e.g., maize, environments (e.g.,
wheat, rice, trees)
sugarcane) cacti, succulents)

Advantages of the C₃ Pathway:

 Simplicity: The C₃ pathway is less energy-intensive compared to the C₄ and CAM

pathways, as it does not require additional steps or energy to concentrate CO₂.
 Common in Many Plants: It is the most common and widespread pathway, used by a
variety of plants, including major crops like rice, wheat, and soybeans.

Would you like to explore any specific aspects of the C₃ pathway in more detail, such as its role
in different plants or its comparison to C₄ and CAM pathways?

You said:

c2 pathway or photorespiration
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

The C₂ pathway, also known as photorespiration, is a process that occurs in plants during
photosynthesis, particularly when RuBisCO, the enzyme responsible for fixing carbon dioxide
(CO₂) in the Calvin cycle, also binds to oxygen (O₂). This leads to a less efficient pathway that
produces wasteful by-products instead of the desired sugars. Let's dive deeper into what
photorespiration is and how the C₂ pathway works.

What is Photorespiration?

Photorespiration is a metabolic process that occurs when RuBisCO (ribulose bisphosphate

carboxylase/oxygenase) fixes oxygen (O₂) instead of carbon dioxide (CO₂) during the Calvin
cycle, leading to the production of 2-phosphoglycolate (a toxic compound). This is an
inefficient process for plants because it consumes energy and releases carbon dioxide instead of
producing sugars.

 Why does it happen?

Photorespiration is more likely to occur when:
1. High oxygen concentration: When the oxygen concentration inside the leaf is
higher than the CO₂ concentration, RuBisCO is more likely to bind with O₂ (a
process called oxygenation).
2. Hot and dry conditions: Under such conditions, plants often close their stomata
to conserve water. This reduces the intake of CO₂ and increases the internal
concentration of O₂, promoting photorespiration.

In summary, photorespiration is an oxygen-consuming process that competes with

photosynthesis and reduces the overall efficiency of carbon fixation.

The Process of Photorespiration (C₂ Pathway):

 1. Initial Carbon Fixation:
o In the first step of the Calvin cycle, RuBisCO typically catalyzes the reaction
between CO₂ and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), leading to the production of
two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), which are used to synthesize
sugars.
o However, when the concentration of CO₂ inside the leaf is low and the
concentration of O₂ is high (such as during hot, dry conditions or when the
stomata are closed), RuBisCO also fixes oxygen instead of CO₂. This is known as
the oxygenation reaction, resulting in the formation of 2-phosphoglycolate.
2. Formation of 2-Phosphoglycolate:
o 2-Phosphoglycolate is a by-product of the oxygenation reaction. Unlike the
products of normal photosynthesis, 2-phosphoglycolate cannot be used directly in
the Calvin cycle, making it a wasteful product.
3. Conversion of 2-Phosphoglycolate:
o The plant has to recycle 2-phosphoglycolate to avoid its toxic effects. This
involves a series of reactions in the peroxisomes, mitochondria, and
chloroplasts:
 The 2-phosphoglycolate is converted into glycolate in the peroxisome,
then into glycine (an amino acid) in the mitochondria.
 Two molecules of glycine are converted into serine in the mitochondria,
and serine is then converted back into glycolate, completing the cycle.
 During this process, CO₂ is released, which is wasted because it was
originally captured by RuBisCO.
4. Energy and Carbon Loss:
o This entire cycle requires the plant to expend ATP and NADH (produced in
earlier stages of photosynthesis), and results in the release of CO₂, which is a
significant loss of carbon for the plant.

Why is Photorespiration Wasteful?

 Energy Consumption: Photorespiration consumes energy (ATP and NADH) without

producing any useful sugars or organic molecules.
 Carbon Loss: CO₂ is released as a by-product, reducing the efficiency of photosynthesis,
as the plant loses fixed carbon.
 Reduces Sugar Production: Since the carbon fixation process is interrupted, fewer
sugars are produced, limiting the plant’s growth and productivity.

When Does Photorespiration Occur?

 Hot and Dry Conditions: Under these conditions, plants tend to close their stomata to
prevent water loss, which also limits CO₂ intake. This increases the internal concentration
of O₂, triggering photorespiration.
 High Oxygen Concentrations: When the oxygen concentration in the leaf is high
relative to CO₂ (such as during periods of excessive light), photorespiration is more
likely.

Photorespiration vs. Photosynthesis:

 Photosynthesis: Involves the fixation of CO₂ by RuBisCO to form 3-PGA, which is then
used to form sugars.
 Photorespiration: Involves the fixation of O₂ by RuBisCO, leading to the production of
2-phosphoglycolate, which is inefficient and requires energy to be recycled.

Why Do Plants Have Photorespiration?

 Photorespiration is believed to be a biological remnant from when the atmosphere had

lower oxygen levels. RuBisCO evolved to fix CO₂, but it also has the ability to fix O₂,
which is a disadvantage in modern, oxygen-rich environments.
 RuBisCO's Dual Function: RuBisCO evolved in an atmosphere with higher CO₂ and
lower O₂, making the oxygenation reaction a minor issue. However, as atmospheric
 oxygen levels increased and CO₂ levels decreased, photorespiration became more of a
problem.

How Do Plants Minimize Photorespiration?

To reduce photorespiration, plants have developed specialized pathways, such as the C₄

pathway and CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) pathway, which concentrate CO₂ around
RuBisCO to minimize its interaction with oxygen:

 C₄ Pathway: In C₄ plants, CO₂ is initially fixed into a 4-carbon compound in the

mesophyll cells, which is then transported to the bundle sheath cells, where RuBisCO
fixes CO₂ in the Calvin cycle, effectively increasing the CO₂ concentration around
RuBisCO and reducing photorespiration.
 CAM Pathway: In CAM plants, CO₂ is fixed at night when stomata are open, storing it
as malate. During the day, when the stomata are closed to conserve water, the stored CO₂
is released and used in the Calvin cycle, again reducing photorespiration.

Summary of Photorespiration:

 Process: RuBisCO fixes O₂ instead of CO₂, leading to the production of 2-

phosphoglycolate, which is toxic and must be recycled using energy.
 Effect on the Plant: Photorespiration reduces the efficiency of photosynthesis, causing a
loss of carbon and energy.
 Conditions that Favor Photorespiration: High O₂ concentration, low CO₂
concentration, hot and dry conditions.
 Plant Adaptations: C₄ and CAM plants have evolved mechanisms to minimize
photorespiration.

kranz anatomy

Kranz anatomy is a specialized leaf structure found in C₄ plants, which plays a crucial role in
their efficient photosynthesis. It is the anatomical feature that enables these plants to minimize
photorespiration and maximize the fixation of carbon dioxide (CO₂) by separating the steps of
photosynthesis into different cells.

The term "Kranz" comes from the German word for "wreath" or "crown," referring to the
arrangement of the tissues in C₄ plants, where the bundle sheath cells form a ring around the
vascular tissue (xylem and phloem).

Key Features of Kranz Anatomy:

1. Distinct Arrangement of Mesophyll and Bundle Sheath Cells:

o Mesophyll Cells: These cells are located on the outer part of the leaf, near the
surface. They are responsible for the initial fixation of CO₂ using the enzyme
PEP carboxylase (phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase). In C₄ plants, CO₂ is first
fixed into a 4-carbon compound (usually oxaloacetate), which is then converted
to malate or aspartate.
o Bundle Sheath Cells: These cells surround the vascular tissue (xylem and
phloem) and are tightly packed. In the bundle sheath cells, the 4-carbon
compounds (malate or aspartate) are decarboxylated (CO₂ is released), and the
CO₂ is then fixed by RuBisCO in the Calvin cycle to produce sugars. The high
concentration of CO₂ in these cells reduces the chances of photorespiration.
2. The "Wreath" Structure:
o The bundle sheath cells are arranged in a wreath-like structure around the
vascular bundle (which contains the xylem and phloem). This anatomical
arrangement is unique to C₄ plants and ensures that CO₂ released from the 4-
carbon compounds is kept in close proximity to RuBisCO. This structure
effectively creates a high-CO₂ environment around RuBisCO, minimizing its
interaction with oxygen (O₂), thus reducing photorespiration.
3. Role of Kranz Anatomy in C₄ Photosynthesis:
 o The spatial separation of CO₂ fixation into two distinct cell types (mesophyll
and bundle sheath cells) is a key feature of C₄ photosynthesis.
o In the mesophyll cells, CO₂ is initially fixed by PEP carboxylase, which has a
high affinity for CO₂ and doesn’t fix O₂ (unlike RuBisCO). The fixed carbon is
transported to the bundle sheath cells, where it is decarboxylated to release CO₂.
This concentrated CO₂ is then used by RuBisCO in the Calvin cycle to produce
sugars.
o By concentrating CO₂ around RuBisCO in the bundle sheath cells, the plant
reduces the amount of O₂ that RuBisCO encounters, thus minimizing
photorespiration, which is wasteful.

Importance of Kranz Anatomy in C₄ Plants:

 Minimizes Photorespiration: The primary advantage of Kranz anatomy is the

concentration of CO₂ in the bundle sheath cells, which reduces photorespiration. Since
RuBisCO works more efficiently when it has access to high levels of CO₂ (rather than
O₂), the risk of photorespiration is minimized.
 Efficient Photosynthesis in Hot, Dry Conditions: C₄ plants thrive in environments
where temperatures are high and water is limited, as Kranz anatomy allows them to fix
CO₂ more efficiently, even when stomata are partially closed to prevent water loss. This
makes them more water-use efficient than C₃ plants, which are more prone to
photorespiration under similar conditions.
 Increased CO₂ Fixation: By separating CO₂ fixation and the Calvin cycle in different
cells, C₄ plants effectively increase the concentration of CO₂ around RuBisCO, ensuring
that more CO₂ is used for sugar production rather than being wasted in photorespiration.

Example of C₄ Plants with Kranz Anatomy:

 Maize (corn)
 Sugarcane
 Sorghum
 Millets
 Switchgrass

These plants have evolved Kranz anatomy as part of their adaptation to hot and dry climates,
where maximizing CO₂ fixation is crucial for survival.

Comparison: Kranz Anatomy in C₄ vs C₃ Plants:

Feature C₃ Plants C₄ Plants (with Kranz Anatomy)

Fixed directly by
Fixed initially by PEP carboxylase in mesophyll
CO₂ Fixation RuBisCO in the Calvin
cells
cycle
Location of Calvin Occurs entirely in the
Calvin cycle occurs in bundle sheath cells
Cycle mesophyll cells
High, especially in hot, Low, due to high CO₂ concentration in bundle
Photorespiration
dry conditions sheath cells
Lower, due to more Higher, due to more efficient CO₂ fixation and
Water Efficiency
stomatal opening reduced photorespiration
Kranz anatomy: bundle sheath cells surround
Single layer of
Leaf Anatomy vascular bundle, mesophyll cells surround bundle
mesophyll cells
sheath

Summary of Kranz Anatomy:

 Kranz anatomy is the specialized leaf structure found in C₄ plants, consisting of

mesophyll cells that fix CO₂ and bundle sheath cells where the CO₂ is used by RuBisCO
in the Calvin cycle.
  This anatomical feature helps C₄ plants concentrate CO₂ around RuBisCO, minimizing
photorespiration and increasing the efficiency of photosynthesis, especially in hot and dry
environments.
 The wreath-like arrangement of bundle sheath cells around the vascular bundles is what
gives Kranz anatomy its name.

Would you like to dive into more details about how C₄ plants use this anatomy to adapt to
extreme environments, or compare Kranz anatomy to other types of leaf anatomy?