Research Methodology and

Management Decision

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Subject Code: S2C09

© Copyright 2019 Publisher

ISBN: 978-93-88425-33-9

This book may not be duplicated in any way without the express written consent of the
publisher, except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for the purposes of review.
The information contained herein is for the personal use of the reader and may not
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and publisher have used their best efforts in preparing this book and believe that the
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content is reliable and correct to the best of their knowledge. The publisher makes no
representation or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents
of this book.
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 MIT School of Distance Education, Pune

Academic Course Review Committee

Dr. Suresh Naik
Ex Group Director,
Indian Space Research Organisation, Bengaluru.

Dr. Vishal Talwar

Dean, School of Management,
BML Munjal University, Gurugram

Dr. Arvind Kulkarni

Ex Director, MIT School of Management, Pune

IT Reviewer Name
Dr. Avadhut Patwardhan
Faculty of Management, MIT Group of Institutions, Pune
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Prof. Venkatesan Sekhar
PGCGM, IIM Kolkata

Printed : 2019

This book is a distance education module comprising a collection of learning material for our
students. All rights reserved.

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Course Objective and Learning Outcome

The course “Research Methodology and Management Decision” helps you to understand the
basic concepts of research such as the research process, data collection, sampling and testing of
research hypothesis. The study and use of research has gained a lot of importance in the previous
few decades. It is used in various disciplines but with a few changes in the implementation
methodology.

After studying this subject, you should be able to:

€€ Describe the concept of research
€€ Explain the steps involved in the research process
€€ Define the types of research
€€ Explain the process of literature review
€€ Describe the concept of research problem
€€ Examine the process of formulating a research problem
€€ Outline the concept, need and features of research design
€€ Describe the various types of research design
€€ Explain the concept of sampling
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€€
€€
€€
Examine the errors in measurement and the sampling errors
State the types of non-sampling errors
Learn about the two types of sampling viz. probability sampling and non-probability
sampling
€€ Distinguish amongst the various types of measurement scales
€€ Elaborate the various techniques of scale construction
€€ Explain the concept and methods of data collection
€€ List the various types of data
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€€ Explain the concept and use of a questionnaire
€€ Outline the steps required for designing a questionnaire
€€ Describe the concept of data processing and data analysis
€€ Explain the three important measures of central tendency
€€ Examine the various measures of relationship
€€ Define what a hypothesis is
€€ Explain the two types of hypothesis viz. null and alternative hypothesis
€€ Distinguish between one-tailed and two-tailed tests
€€ Elaborate the steps involved in hypothesis testing
€€ Explain the concept of parametric tests
€€ Examine the different situations in which one sample test is used
€€ Describe the different situations in which two samples tests are used
€€ Outline the concept of non-parametric tests
€€ Explain the various types of non-parametric tests
€€ Explain the concept of research proposal
€€ Describe the research report
€€ Examine the various parts of a report

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Contents
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Research.......................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2
Defining and Formulating A Research Problem................................................................... 21

Chapter 3
Research Design......................................................................................................................... 41

Chapter 4
Sampling...................................................................................................................................... 65

Chapter 5
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Measurement and Scaling......................................................................................................... 85

Chapter 6
Data Collection Techniques.................................................................................................... 103

Chapter 7
Introduction to Questionnaire Designing............................................................................ 121
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Chapter 8
Data Processing and Analysis................................................................................................ 141

Chapter 9
The Concept of Hypothesis.................................................................................................... 177

Chapter 10
Parametric Tests........................................................................................................................ 195

Chapter 11
Non-Parametric Tests.............................................................................................................. 241

Chapter 12
Report Writing.......................................................................................................................... 271

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Curriculum
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT DECISION
Meaning of Research-General Characteristics of Research-Classification of Research-Concepts-
Constructs-Meaning of Literature Review-Need of Literature Review-Sources of Literature
Review-Research Design and Methodology-Meaning of Sampling-Methods of Sampling-
Determining Size of a Sample-Probability Sampling Methods-Non-Probability Sampling
Methods-Need of Sampling-Random Sampling-Simple and Stratified Random Sampling-Other
Types of Sampling-Sampling Error-Techniques and Methods of Data Collection-Questionnaires-
Interviews-Observation-Representativeness-Reliability-Validity-Data Analysis-Measurement-
Types of Scales-Hypothesis-Types of Hypothesis-Level of Significance-Confidence Interval-
ANOVA-Correlation-Regression Analysis-Report Writing-Steps in Writing Report-Types of
Reports-Parts of a Report.

The subject is divided into 12 chapters. A brief description of all the 12 chapters is given below:

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Research

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Concept of Research, Characteristics of a Good Research, Types of Research, Research Approach,
Significance of Research, Applying Research in Different Fields of Management, Problems Encountered
by a Researcher, Ethics in Research, Managers and Research, Research Process
Chapter 2: Defining and formulating A Research Problem
Management Dilemma, Literature Review, Importance of a Literature Review, Functions of a Literature
Review, Process of a Literature Review, How to Write a Literature Review, Types of Sources for Review,
Concept of Research Problem, Need of Defining the Research Problem, Conditions and Components of
Research Problem, Identifying a Research Problem, Formulating a Research Problem
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Chapter 3: Research Design
Concept of Research Design, Need and Features of Research Design, Components of Research Design,
Types of Research Design, Research Design for Exploratory (Formulative) Research Studies, Research
Design for Descriptive and Diagnostic Studies, Research Design for Experimental Studies
Chapter 4: Sampling
Concept of Sampling, Census vs. Sample Survey, Developing Sample Design/Sampling Process,
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design, Determining Sample Size, Errors in Measurement and
Sampling Errors, Non-Sampling Errors, Methods of Sampling, Non-Probability Sampling Methods,
Probability Sampling
Chapter 5: Measurement and Scaling
Concept of Measurement, Measurement Scales, Developing Measurement Tools, Basic Criteria of a
Good Measurement Tool, Concept of Scaling Technique, Bases of Scale Classification, Techniques of
Scale Construction, Types of Scales
Chapter 6: Data Collection Techniques
Data Collection, Types of Data, Methods of Data Collection, Methods of Primary Data Collection,
Methods of Secondary Data Collection, Factors Affecting the Selection of Data Collection Methods

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Chapter 7: Introduction to Questionnaire Designing
Concept of Questionnaire Designing, Features of a Well-design Questionnaire, Types of Questions in a
Questionnaire Designing, Errors in Responses, Steps of Questionnaire Designing, Designing an Effective
Questionnaire
Chapter 8: Data Processing and Analysis
Concept of Data Processing, Editing, Coding, Classification, Data Entry, Tabulation, Concept of Data
Analysis, Measures of Central Tendency, Mean, Median, Mode, Measures of Dispersion, Range, Mean
Deviation, Standard Deviation, Measure of Skewness, Measures of Relationship, Correlation Analysis,
Causal Analysis
Chapter 9: The Concept of Hypothesis
Defining Hypothesis, Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis, Types of Hypothesis, Hypothesis Testing,
Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis, Decision Rule, Two-tailed Test, One-tailed Test, Procedure
of Hypothesis Testing
Chapter 10: Parametric Tests
Types of Hypothesis Testing, Parametric Tests, One-Sample Tests - Different Situations in which One
Sample Test is used, Two-Sample Tests, Differences between Two Independent Samples, Differences
between Two Proportions, Comparing Two Related Samples, Study of Equality of Variances of Two
Populations, Exploring ANOVA
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Chapter 11: Non-Parametric Tests
Non-parametric Tests, Sign Test, One Sample Sign Test, Two Sample Sign Test, Wilcoxon Matched Pairs
/Signed Rank Test, Rank Correlation, Rank Sum Test, Mann-Whitney Test or U Test, Kruskal-Wallis Test,
Chi-square Test, Chi-square Test for Goodness of Fit, Chi-square Test for Independence
Chapter 12: Report Writing
Research Proposal, Research Report, Written Report, Oral Presentations, Integral Parts of a Report
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BOOK REFERENCES
€€ Kothari C. R. (2008). Research Methodology (2nd ed.). New Delhi: New Age International
Ltd.
€€ Kumar, R. (2014). Research Methodology. London: SAGE Publications.
€€ Saunders, M. (2009). Research methods for business studenst. Harlow: Pearson Education.
€€ Singh, K. (2006). Fundamental of research methodology and statistics. New Delhi, India: New
Age International.
€€ Walliman, N. (2010). Research methods. Hoboken: Taylor & Francis.

ONLINE REFERENCES
€€ Research Methodology. (2019). Retrieved from https://explorable.com/research-
methodology
€€ (2019). Retrieved from http://designresearchtechniques.com/#/
€€ Home | Educational Research Basics by Del Siegle. (2019). Retrieved from https://
researchbasics.education.uconn.edu/
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 ROAD MAP
Report Writing
Non-Parametric
Parametric Tests Tests

The Concept of Hypothesis

Data Processing and

Analysis

Introduction to
Questionnaire Designing

Data Collection Techniques

Measurement and Scaling

IT Sampling

Research Design

Defining and Formulating

A Research Problem
Fundamentals of
Research
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 CHAPTER

1
FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH

Table of Contents
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Learning Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept of Research
1.2.1 Characteristics of a Good Research
1.2.2 Types of Research
1.2.3 Research Approach
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1.2.4 Significance of Research
1.2.5 Applying Research in Different Fields of Management
1.2.6 Problems Encountered by a Researcher
1.2.7 Ethics in Research
1.2.8 Managers and Research
Self Assessment Questions
1.3 Research Process
Self Assessment Questions
1.4 Summary
1.5 Key Words
1.6 Case Study
1.7 Exercise
1.8 Answers for Self Assessment Questions
1.9 Suggested Books and e-References
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
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After studying this chapter, you will be able to:



Explain the concept of a research
Discuss the characteristics of a good research
 List the various types of a research
 Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research
 Describe the role of ethics in a research
 Discuss the steps involved in a research process
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 Fundamentals of Research

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In simple terms, research can be defined as the meticulous and methodical
investigation into a specific area. It has significant importance in various fields,
such as business, economics and politics. Research is conducted to serve a diverse
range of purposes, such as enhancing the knowledge of the researcher, developing
and revising theories based on observed facts. For example, organisations use
research to make well-informed decisions regarding their products and services
or to devise new strategies. In such a situation, it needs to conduct a research to
find the probable causes of the problem so that it can design and formulate the
most feasible and appropriate solution.

A research study starts by first reviewing the available literature followed by

defining the research problem; the research problem should be stated in a clear
and concise way. Secondly, the source of information is identified, which should
be authentic and accessible. Thirdly, the design of the research is decided, which
gives direction to the research study. Next, the data1 is collected and organised
so that the researcher can easily analyse it. Based on the analysis of the data, the
research report is prepared, which includes conclusions on the given research
problem and also contains the research findings.
IT The chapter begins by explaining the concept of research wherein you will study
the types of research, the significance of research, the characteristics of a good
research, and the problems encountered by the researcher. Next, you will study
about the steps in a research process.

1.2 CONCEPT OF RESEARCH

In simple terms, research means a search for knowledge. It is a systematic inquiry
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of facts, which have already been established. Various authors have defined
research in different ways. Some of these definitions are as follows:

Redman and Mory define research as a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.

D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson define research as the manipulation of things,

concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge,
whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of art.

Thus, it can be said that the concept of research2 is broad and has different
meanings. In simple words, research is a process of collecting, analysing and
interpreting relevant information about any topic. The main objective of performing
a research is to explore answers to questions in a scientific manner. At a broader
level, the objectives of research are to:
€€ Determine a phenomenon or explore something new. For example, a study
may be carried out to explore the eating habits of children aged 11 to 14.
€€ Describe the characteristics of a specific individual, situation or group. For
example, a study may be carried out to study to find the characteristics of a
solar cell.
1 It refers to observations that are recorded in numeric, textual or any other form and can be referenced
readily.
2 A systematic process of generating knowledge.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

€€ Determine the frequency with which an event occurs. For example, a study
may be carried out to determine the frequency with which Huntington’s
disease occurs in humans.
€€ Test a relationship between variables. For example, a research study may be
carried out to test the relationship between polarity and stability.
Apart from the above mentioned common objectives, various research studies can
have different objectives according to their own specific nature. For example, a
research in marketing may concentrate on various factors, such as:
€€ Product development
€€ Cost reduction
€€ Inventory control
€€ New product launching
€€ Profitability improvement
€€ Productivity improvement
Likewise, a research in human resource development aims at developing new
IT tools, concepts or theories, which may help in enhancing the skills and talent of
human resource in an organisation.

1.2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH

Some characteristics are common to all types of research. An effective research is
said to be one that has the following characteristics:
€€ Systematic: The research should be properly structured leaving no scope for
intuition and guess. However, at the same time, the role of creative thinking
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in research should not be ruled out.
€€ Logical: The research should be guided by lucid and logical reasoning.
Basically, logical reasoning is of two types: induction and deduction. The
induction is the process of moving from specific to universal, whereas the
deduction is the process of moving from universal to specific. The use of
logical reasoning makes the research more meaningful.
€€ Empirical: The research should be based on actual data that is derived from
observation and experience. However, in case of research relating to abstract
concepts, they can be measured by constructs.
€€ Clear purpose: It implies that the objectives of the research should be clearly
defined.
€€ Elaboration: It implies that the research procedure should be explained and
detailed properly. Elaboration is required to maintain continuity that would
help another researcher taking the same topic for further advancement.
€€ Efficient analysis: It implies that the data gathered in the research should be
properly analysed by using an appropriate method.

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 Fundamentals of Research

Constructs are abstract and they are not directly observable. For example, job
satisfaction, creativity and constructs. When constructs are developed into a
N ote measurable form, they are called as variables. For example, height, age and
mortality rate of students are variables.

CONCEPT VERSUS CONSTRUCT

In research methodology, the terms concept and construct are often used
E xhibit
frequently. However, it is essential to have a clear understanding of these
terms.

A concept is defined as a verbal abstraction of the perceptions regarding

specific cases. It is important to understand that the concepts are observed
phenomenon. For example, we may see that employees may get disturbed
while working on the job due to the pressures related to job. This can be called
as the concept of job-related stress. The concepts (abstraction) are directly
related to its referents (reality).

In contrast, constructs are theoretical creations based on observations.

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Happiness, depression, Intelligence Quotient (IQ), Emotional Quotient (EQ)
are examples of constructs.

1.2.2 TYPES OF RESEARCH

There can be different research types according to different criteria, such as the
purpose, method, availability of time and other resources, type of analysis, scope
and statistical content. A broad classification of different research types is shown
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in Figure 1:

Basic versus Applied Research

Descriptive versus Analytical Research

Conceptual versus Empirical Research

Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

Other Types of Research

Figure 1: Different Types of Research

Let us discuss these types of research in detail.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

€€ Basic versus applied research: Basic research, also known as pure or

fundamental research, is done to expand the knowledge of the subject. In
most of the cases, the findings of basic research do not carry any immidiate
commercial value. The reason is that the fundamental aim of basic research
is to satisfy curiosity of the researcher or expand his/her knowledge.
Suppose, a person is interested in knowing about the universe and he/she
starts a research on this topic. The main aim of such a research would not
be to commercialise research findings but to enhance the knowledge of the
researcher. However, this does not rule out the importance of basic research.
Basic research is useful in developing new scientific ideas and various ways
of thinking. Some examples of basic research are as follows:
zz Research concerning natural phenomena, such as big bang theory and
climate change
zz Investigation related to basic science
zz Research related to human behaviour
In contrast to basic research, applied research aims to solve practical
problems of the world. While the basic research aims to expand knowledge,
the applied research aims to provide solutions (conclusions) of problems
IT concerning society or business. Applied research may explore ways to:
zz Treat a disease
zz Improve agricultural productivity
zz Curb or reduce carbon emissions
zz Improve energy efficiency
zz Reduce inflation
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€€ Descriptive versus causal research: Descriptive research aims to describe the
characteristics of a phenomenon. In descriptive research, the researcher only
describes the phenomenon. For example, if a researcher wishes to explain
the inflation rate in India in the past 20 years, then he/she only describes the
inflation rate and does not take into consideration its positive and negative
effects on the country.
The causal research is one step ahead of the descriptive research as it aims
to investigate the cause-effect relationships. In the preceding example of
inflation, while the descriptive research just stated the inflation rates of
20 years, a causal research would thoroughly investigates the causes of the
same. In cause-effect analysis, data can be analysed in different ways such
as by comparing inflation rates of different years, giving reasons of high/low
inflation, etc.
€€ Conceptual versus empirical research: Conceptual research aims to explore
new concepts or ideas (theories) and upgrade or redefine the existing concepts.
It is more concerned with ideas and is commonly used by philosophers and
thinkers. On the other hand, empirical research involves gaining knowledge
by experience or observation. In this research, the researcher investigates an
established theory on the basis of a predefined hypothesis. After investigating
the theory, the researcher draws some conclusions or predictions. These
predictions are then verified with a suitable experiment. On the basis of

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 Fundamentals of Research

experimental outcomes, the theory on which the predictions are based is

supported or revised.
Let us understand the concept of empirical research with the help of an
example. Suppose the topic of observation is as follows:
zz Does learning to play a musical instrument sometimes cause a long-term
effect on brain development of children?
Now assume that the hypothesis for this topic is as follows:
zz Playing musical instruments speeds up brain development in children
aged between 2 and 6.
On the basis of this hypothesis, a researcher draws some predictions, such
as the brain development of children who play musical instruments is not
affected. After that, the researcher would conduct a suitable experiment to test
predictions. On the basis of result of the experiment, the topic of observation
would be supported or revised. For example, if the researcher finds out
that the brain development of children who play musical instruments is not
affected by it, the topic of observation would be supported; otherwise, it
would be revised.
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€€ Qualitative versus quantitative research: Qualitative research is concerned
with getting a deep understanding of a phenomenon. For example, if the
researcher wants to know the cause of the rising disrespect of the youth
towards elders, he/she would have to deeply look at different aspects, such
as changing lifestyle, increasing stress among the youth and the attitude of
people towards the nuclear family. This research tries to find out why and
how rather than what, when and where of a phenomenon.
Quantitative research aims to study a phenomenon that is expressed in terms
of quantity. Some examples of the quantitative research are as follows:
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zz A research study that aims to show the percentage of all components of
earth’s atmosphere.
zz A research study that shows that the average rainfall in the month of
June in Delhi is more than that of July.

MOTIVATIONAL RESEARCH
Motivational research is a type of qualitative research that is frequently applied
E xhibit
to study the consumer behaviour in the market; therefore, it is also called a
variant of marketing research. The premise of motivational research is that
there are some unconscious/unknown motives that affect consumer behaviour
besides known motives, such as trends, economic variables, and cultural and
regional beliefs. Thus, by studying unknown qualities, habits and attitudes
of consumers, managers can better understand the target audience and how
to influence that audience. The following are techniques used to conduct the
motivational research:
€€ In-depth interviews: In-depth interview refers to a lengthy (1 to 2 hours)
personal and an one-to-one interview conducted by a researcher. The
effectiveness of the in-depth interviews largely depend on the skills,
efficiency and insight of the researcher. In the in-depth interview, the

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

researcher tries to build a good rapport and understanding with each

respondent. The researcher tries to create a supportive environment so
that the respondents feel free to express their views.
€€ Focus group: The term focus group was coined by Ernest Ditcher, an
eminent psychologist and marketing expert. Focus group is a form of the
qualitative research that is based on conducting communication between
the researcher and participants to generate data. The focus group method
of data generation seems to be similar to interviews. However, a focus
group lays more emphasis on informal group interaction, whereas, in an
interview, formal interaction takes place between the interviewer and
the respondent.
In a focus group, the researcher does not ask questions explicitly; instead
people in the group are encouraged to talk to each other, ask questions to each
other, generate different views about the given topic, and comment on and
add to others’ views and experiences.

€€ Other types of research: In addition to the types of research mentioned in

the preceding section, there are some other types of research, which are
explained below:
IT zz

zz
One-time research: It refers to the research that is carried only once.
Longitudinal research: It refers to an observational research that is
performed for the same purpose repeatedly over a period of time on the
same group of subjects.
zz Laboratory research: It refers to the research that is done in a laboratory.
This is also known as simulation research. A research in the fields of
natural sciences such as Physics, Chemistry and Biology are examples
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of the laboratory research. For example, reaction of one chemical with
another chemical is an example of the laboratory research.
zz Field setting research: It refers to the research that cannot be done in a
laboratory. The research on topics of economics, such as demand, supply,
product and price is an example of a field research.
zz Historical research: It refers to the research in which the researcher either
takes the help of historical sources to conduct fresh research or studies
the past events. For example, research on the outcome of the Revolt of
1857 may be considered as a historical research.

1.2.3 RESEARCH APPROACH

A research approach refers to a plan or procedure that consists of assumptions
to be considered and the detailed methods of data collection, analysis and
interpretation to be used while performing research. Different organisations use
different research approaches depending on the nature of the research problem
being addressed. Broadly, there are two types of research approaches, namely
quantitative approach and qualitative approach. A brief description of these
approaches is as follows:
€€ Quantitative research approach: It refers to the generation of data in a
quantitative form, which can be subjected to quantitative analysis. The sub-
types of quantitative approach are as follows:
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 Fundamentals of Research

zz Inferential approach: It refers to the approach that is used where a

sample3 of the population4 is observed or studied. The objective of this
approach is to infer some characteristics of the population under study
by forming a proper database.
zz Experimental approach: It refers to the approach in which some variables
of a research study are manipulated to observe their effects on other
variables.
zz Simulation approach: It refers to the approach in which an artificial
environment is created to generate relevant information and data. This
approach is quite useful in modern world. For example, training of pilots
is conducted in a simulated environment.
€€ Qualitative research approach: Qualitative research approach deals with
the subjective evaluation of attitudes, opinions and actions. This approach
generates results in a non-quantitative form.
Table 1 distinguishes between quantitative and qualitative research approaches:

Table 1: Distinction between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Approaches

IT Quantitative Approach Qualitative Approach
The quantitative approach deals with The qualitative approach deals with
measurable, quantitative properties of any qualitative aspects of any phenomenon.
phenomenon. This approach is objective in This approach is subjective in nature.
nature.
It uses deductive reasoning. It uses inductive reasoning.
It allows the researcher to generalise the It does not allow the researcher to
research findings. generalise the research findings.
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RESEARCH METHOD(S) VERSUS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The two terms ‘research method’ and ‘research methodology’ are often used
E xhibit
interchangeably; however there is a huge difference between the two. Research
Methodology refers to the approach used to solve research problems in a
systematic manner. The research method is a broad concept and the research
methodology is a part of the research method. When a researcher thinks about
the methodology of conducting a research, he/she must consider research
methods. Research Methodology can be defined as the study using specific
research methods. Research Method is the doing part in the research process.

Research method involves carrying out experiments, surveys, etc. In contrast,

research methodology involves studying various techniques that can be used
in carrying out the surveys or experiments.

Research methods can be classified into three groups. In the first group,
methods related to the collection of data are included. The second group
includes statistical methods, which are used to establish relationships between

3 It refers to a sub-set of the population on whom the experiments are conducted.

4 It refers to the target group of people that are under investigation.
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Research Methodology and Management Decision

different variables. The third group consists of methods which are used to
estimate the accuracy of the results obtained. The latter groups usually include
analytical methods. It is important for the researchers to have the knowledge
of both the research method and the research methodology.

1.2.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

The significance of research has been well-defined by Hudson Maxim. According
to him, All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it
leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention. As already discussed, research is done
to solve problems, expand knowledge or explore a new phenomenon. However, to
find the hidden truth is the main motive of doing a research study. In a society and
in a business, we have different problems, which we try to solve through different
researches.

The role of research has greatly influenced the field of business and economy.
The usefulness and involvement of research in marketing is so significant that it
has given rise to a new field of research called marketing research. A marketing
research is basically the methodical gathering, recording and analysing of facts
IT about the business problems.

Research in the field of business is significant for an organisation because it helps

in:
€€ Identifying and defining opportunities
€€ Defining, monitoring and refining strategies
€€ Identifying economic and business objectives
Identifying policy objectives
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€€

€€ Developing products
€€ Identifying objectives of human resource development
€€ Identifying promotional objectives
€€ Identifying market objectives
€€ Identifying customer satisfaction objectives

Make a list of important national-level research studies that came to light in

A ctivit y the past six months. Take help of newspapers and the Internet.

1.2.5 APPLYING RESEARCH IN DIFFERENT FIELDS OF MANAGEMENT

In management, various types of research are conducted to address different
concerns and issues of organisations. Examples of such researches are
operation, market and motivational researches. These researches help in taking
business decisions. Market research aims to investigate the market structure for
formulating different plans and policies, such as purchasing, production and
sales. Motivational research is frequently used to study consumer behaviour. It
aims to evaluate various plans and policies to motivate people. Thus, research

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 Fundamentals of Research

greatly helps organisations in taking business decisions. Research with regard to

demand and supply are of great use to organisations. If organisations with the
help of research and investigations are able to forecast future demand, it is easy for
them to adjust supply accordingly. Thus, different research types are applicable
in different management fields. Applications of research in important fields of
management are shown in Figure 2:

Business, Economic and Sales and Corporate Responsibility

Corporate Research Market Research Research

• Studies of business • Measurement of market • Studies of consumer

trends potential rights
• Short/long range • Sales promotional • Studies of legal
forecasting studies constraints
• Pricing studies • Sales and market share • Studies of social values
• Product mix studies analysis and policies
• Export and • Establishment of sales
international studies quota

Figure 2: Applications of Research in the Field of Management

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1.2.6 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY A RESEARCHER
Researchers, particularly in India, face several problems. Some of these problems
are discussed as follows:
€€ Lack of training: Lack of training creates problems in getting efficient
researchers for research projects. In India, many researchers are not well-
versed with research methods. Consequently, the research studies that
are carried out by researchers who lack training in this field may not be
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methodologically sound.
€€ Absence of communication: This refers to a lack of interaction between the
researcher and the data providers. A big chunk of primary data is possessed
by universities and government departments. If the researcher cannot
interact with them, then he/she would not get the required data for research.
Efforts should be made to improve interactions between academicians and
practitioners by various means so that academicians get topics of research
from practitioners and practitioners apply the research done by academicians.
€€ Lack of assistance: This refers to absence of support in terms of time,
funds and proper direction for research. It leads to unnecessary delays
in a completion of the research studies. This difficulty can be lessened by
providing sufficient and timely assistance to researchers.
€€ Lack of resources: Deficiency of resources leads to the wastage of energy
and efforts of researchers. At many places, the functioning of library is not
satisfactory and researchers have to spend a lot of their precious time in
searching books, journals and reports. In many libraries, especially which
are away from Delhi and other state capitals, copies of old acts/rules, reports
and other government journals and publications may be difficult to obtain.
This creates a big obstacle in a research work.
€€ Reluctance in supplying data by business units: Business units are
sometimes reluctant to supply data to researchers for the fear of data misuse.

11
Research Methodology and Management Decision

Most business units maintain secrecy about their data. This is a barrier in the
smooth conduct of a research. There is need to enhance confidence that the
information supplied by business units would not be misused.

1.2.7 ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Ethics is a branch of philosophy, which distinguishes between right and wrong.
The major question dealt in ethics is when an action is right and when an
action is wrong. Though many people develop the sense of right and wrong in
their childhood. Ethical development is a long-term process, which continues
throughout the life. Some argue that ethics is merely a common sense. If it is only
common sense, why there are so many ethical disputes in day-to-day life?

One explanation of this disagreement may be that ethical norms vary according
to individuals. Different people may interpret ethical norms in different ways. For
example, if a research involves children as respondents and the nature of research
study is experimental, then, the parents of the children must be informed about
the same. If they are not informed and their consent is not gained, the research
would be deemed as unethical.

There are three broad objectives which underline the necessity of adhering to
IT ethics in a research. These three objectives are:
€€

€€
To protect the interests of participants involved in a research
To make sure that research is carried out in a manner that serves interests of
individuals, groups and/or society as a whole
€€ To scrutinise specific research for its ethical soundness keeping in
consideration issues such as management of risk, protection of confidentiality
and process of informed consent
M
Five major principles of research ethics are as follows:
1. Do good (Beneficence)
2. Do no harm (Non-malfeasance)
3. Obtain informed consent from research participants
4. Do not use deceptive practices
5. Research participants should have the right to withdraw from the research at
any point of time
Thus, ethical norms and standards are important for research. Many universities
and government organisations, such as National Institute of Health (NIH),
National Science Foundation (NSF) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
have adopted some rules and procedures related to research ethics. The following
are some ethical values related to research:
€€ Honesty: It implies truthfulness of the researcher in collecting and presenting
data. The researcher should not fabricate or misinterpret the data.
€€ Objectivity: The researcher should not be biased in research design, data
collection, interpretation, analysis and other aspects of the research.

12
 Fundamentals of Research

€€ Integrity: The researcher should be sincere in his/her action and should keep
his/her promises.
€€ Confidentiality: This entails that the secret information, such as military
secrets, papers, and personnel records which are used in the research, should
be kept private.
€€ Social responsibility: The researcher should try to increase social welfare
through his/her research study. In addition, the researcher should not harm
society and environment in any way while conducting research. For example,
if the research is related to animals, the researcher should give them proper
care and respect.

1.2.8 MANAGERS AND RESEARCH

Managers who have basic knowledge of research are at an advantage as compared
to those managers who do not have any idea about it. In an organisation, managers
need to conduct research for addressing various problems; for example, stable
demand for products and costs higher than the allotted budget. These problems
occur because of growing competition and complexity in the business environment.
An understanding of research methods enables managers to identify a problem
before it gets out of control and thus prevent development of unwanted situations.
IT One may think that the management of an organisation should hire professional
researchers or consultants for problem solving. It is quite true because managers
may handle only minor problems, while serious problems definitely need handling
by professional researchers. However, an effective and fruitful interaction
is possible between managers and researchers if managers understand the
fundamentals of the research. Knowledge about research process, research design,
data collection and data interpretation help managers to determine whether the
solutions recommended by the professional researchers are feasible or not.
M
In addition, managers require the knowledge of research because of various
reasons, which are as follows:
€€ Discriminating good research from bad research
€€ Making important business decisions
€€ Combining experience and scientific knowledge while taking decisions

1. Descriptive research determines the frequency with which an event

occurs. (True/False)
S elf
A ssessment 2. Which of the following research types is also known as pure or
Q uestions fundamental research?
a. Basic research b. Applied research
c. Descriptive research d. Analytical research
3. _________ research aims to explore new concepts or ideas (theories) and
upgrade or redefine the existing concepts.
4. Qualitative research tries to find out why and how rather than what,
when and whereof a phenomenon. (True/False)

13
Research Methodology and Management Decision

5. Research on the outcome of the Revolt of 1857 may be considered as:

a. Field setting research b. Longitudinal research
c. Historical research d. One-time research
6. The __________ research approach deals with subjective evaluation of
attitudes, opinions and actions.

1.3 RESEARCH PROCESS

A process is the act of doing something effectively through a recognised set of
procedures. A research process consists of a series of actions required to carry
out research efficiently. Every research requires a predetermined process for the
following reasons:
€€ Achieving desired results from the research. Most research studies are done
with a specific objective, which can be fulfilled by following a well-defined
procedure.
IT €€

€€
Completing a research study in time. Without a well-defined process,
researchers may not be able to complete their research on time.
Conducting research in an efficient and effective way. A predetermined
process ensures efficiency in research.
The research process consists of a series of steps, which are shown in Figure 3:

1. Reviewing Literature
M
2. Defining a Research Problem

3. Formulating Hypothesis

4. Designing Research

5. Collecting Data

6. Analysing Data

7. Preparing Reports

Figure 3: Steps in the Research Process

Let us discuss these steps in detail.

1. Reviewing literature: This stage refers to a way of developing a proper
understanding of the research problem. Generally, a researcher may review
two types of literature – conceptual literature, which consists of concepts and
theories; and empirical literature, which consists of empirical studies done

14
 Fundamentals of Research

earlier on the same or similar topic. It is important for a researcher to review

the literature properly to:
zz Generate and refine research ideas
zz Enhance subject knowledge
zz Clarify research questions
zz Highlight research possibilities that have been ignored or overlooked
zz Avoid a simple repetitive work, which has been done earlier
zz Discover and provide an insight into research approaches, strategies and
techniques
2. Defining a research problem: This stage refers to identifying a problem
whose solution can be found through research. In simple words, a research
problem means an area or topic on which the researcher wants to research.
Generally, it is a situation that causes the researcher to feel confused and
doubtful. Efforts to solve doubts and confusions give rise to research.
Essentially, two steps are involved in defining a research problem:
i. Understanding the problem correctly
IT ii. Rephrasing the problem into meaningful terms

SOURCES OF LITERATURE

Literature sources are generally categorised as:

E xhibit
€€ Primary literature: It consists of reports and material published by
central and local governments. It also includes unpublished manuscript
sources, such as letters and committee minutes. This is the most reliable
M
literature a researcher can have; however, it is difficult to locate.
€€ Secondary literature: It refers to a subsequent publication of primary
literature. Examples of secondary literature are books and journals.
Secondary literature is easier to locate than primary literature.
€€ Tertiary literature: It refers to a search tool that is designed to help the
researcher in locating the primary or the secondary literature. Library
catalogue is an example of tertiary literature.

3. Formulating hypothesis: This stage refers to a tentative assumption made

by the researcher to speculate the outcome of research. It provides the focal
point for the research and helps the researcher to be on the right track.
4. Decide the research design: Depending upon the type of research problem
and the scope of study, the researcher decides the type of research design
that should be followed in the study.
5. Collecting data: At this stage, data is gathered for any research study. There
are mainly two types of data: primary data and secondary data. Primary
data can be collected by experiment or survey. In the case of surveys, data
can be collected through:
zz Observation

15
Research Methodology and Management Decision

zz Personal interviews
zz Telephonic interviews
zz Questionnaires
zz Schedules
Secondary data refers to the data that has already been collected by some
other researchers. Biographies, diaries, records and published material are
examples of the secondary data. Accurate and appropriate data is mandatory
for the successful completion of a research study.
6. Analysing data: This stage refers to the act of transforming and refining
data to highlight useful information. There are various statistical methods to
analyse the data, such as tabulation, bar diagrams and pie charts. Statistical
theories, such as correlation, regression and time series are also used for data
analysis. After analysing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypothesis formulated in step three. The researcher can check the validity of
the hypothesis by using several statistical tests, such as Chi square test, t-test
and F-test.
IT 7. Preparing reports: In this last stage of the research process, a report is
prepared by the researcher in which he/she shows the complete work done
by him/her. Report writing should be done with great care keeping in view
the proper layout of report. The main text of the report should consist of:
zz Introduction
zz Summary of whatever the researcher has found (Research findings)
zz Main report
M
zz Conclusion
At the end, appendices about technical data used in the research should be given. In
addition, the research report should contain a bibliography and list of references.

7. Which of the following stages of the research process involves developing

a proper understanding of the research problem?
S elf
A ssessment a. Defining research problem
Q uestions
b. Reviewing literature
c. Formulating hypothesis
d. Designing research
8. In which stage of the research process a tentative assumption is made by
the researcher to speculate the outcome of research.
9. __________ means an area or topic on which the researcher wants to
research.
10. The last stage of the research process transforms and refines data to
highlight useful information. (True/False)

16
 Fundamentals of Research

1.4 SUMMARY
€€ In simple terms, research means a search for knowledge. It is a systematic
inquiry of facts, which have already been established.
€€ Some characteristics of a good research study are:
zz Systematic
zz Logical
zz Empirical
zz Clear purpose
zz Elaboration
zz Efficient analysis
€€ A broad classification of different research types is as follows:
zz Basic versus applied research
zz Descriptive versus analytical research
IT zz

zz

zz
Conceptual versus empirical research
Qualitative versus quantitative research
Other types of research
€€ There are two types of research approaches, namely quantitative approach
and qualitative approach.
€€ The research in the field of business is quite significant for an organisation
because it helps in:
M
zz Identifying and defining opportunities
zz Defining, monitoring and refining strategies
zz Identifying economic and business objectives
zz Identifying policy objectives
zz Developing a product
zz Identifying the objectives of human resource development
zz Identifying promotional objectives
zz Identifying market objectives
zz Identifying customer satisfaction objectives
€€ Researchers, particularly in India, face several problems. Some of these
problems include:
zz Lack of training
zz Improper interaction
zz Absence of communication
zz Lack of assistance

17
Research Methodology and Management Decision

zz Lack of resources
zz Reluctance in supplying data by business units
€€ There are some ethical values related to research, they are:
zz Honesty
zz Objectivity
zz Integrity
zz Confidentiality
zz Social responsibility
€€ The research process consists of a series of steps which are:
1. Reviewing literature
2. Defining research problem
3. Formulating hypothesis
4. Designing research
5. Collecting data
IT 6. Analysing data
7. Preparing reports

1.5 KEY WORDS

€€ Empirical literature: An interdisciplinary field of research that is carried out
in area such as psychology, sociology and philosophy.
M
€€ Hypothesis: A proposition made on the basis of limited evidence for further
investigation.
€€ Questionnaire: A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers
prepared for the purpose of survey or statistical study.
€€ Simulation: Scientific modelling of natural systems with an aim to understand
their functioning.

1.6 CASE STUDY: RESEARCH PROCESS FOLLOWED IN URVI LIMITED

Urvi Limited, one of the top research companies, was started in Mumbai, India in
the year 1996. Since then, it has done research on various pressing social issues,
such as child marriage, dowry and honour killing. Now, it plans to conduct a
research on the increasing effect of alcohol on adolescents and youth.

To get a clear and deep understanding of the topic, the company surveys and
reviews already available research papers and thesis, which include conceptual
as well as empirical literature. It also takes help from various books and journals.
This in-depth review and survey of available material enables Urvi Limited to
develop a clear understanding for formulating the research hypothesis.

18
 Fundamentals of Research

After formulating its research hypothesis clearly, Urvi chalks out the complete
research design within which the research would be carried out. It collects primary
data as well as secondary data from books, journals and observation and personal
interviews. The collected data is then analysed critically using various statistical
tools, such as bars, pie charts, tables and time series. Urvi Limited presents a final
report of its work that also includes strategies to reduce the effects of alcohol.

QUESTIONS
1. Mention the research process followed in Urvi Limited.
(Hint: The process followed in Urvi Limited include various steps such as
defining the topic of research, reviewing literature to gain more understanding
about the topic, and so on)
2. Is focus group a more efficient method of data collection for Urvi Limited?
Give reasons in support of your answer.
(Hint: No, focus group is not a preferred method of data collection for Urvi
Limited. This is because Urvi Limited needs to carry out research on social
problems in which large-scale data is required. For this purpose, survey is
IT the preferred method.)

1.7 EXERCISE
1. Discuss the significance of research.
2. Explain the differences between fundamental and applied research.
3. What are the characteristics of a good research?
M
4. What are the major problems encountered by researchers in India?
5. Discuss the role and importance of focus groups.
6. What are the applications of research in various fields of management?
7. Why ethical norms are required to be followed while conducting research?

1.8 ANSWERS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Topic Q. No. Answer

Concept of Research 1. False

2. a. Basic research

3. Conceptual

4. True

5. c. Historical research

19
Research Methodology and Management Decision

Topic Q. No. Answer

6. Qualitative

Research Process 7. b. Reviewing literature

8. Formulating hypothesis

9. Research problem

10. True

1.9 SUGGESTED BOOKS AND E-REFERENCES

SUGGESTED BOOKS
€€ Chandra, S., & Sharma, M. Research methodology.
€€ Goddard, W., & Melville, S. (2011). Research methodology. Kenwyn, South
Africa: Juta & Co.
IT E-REFERENCES
€€ Research and Scientific Method in Research Methodology – Research and
Scientific Method in Research Methodology (11338) | Wisdom Jobs. (2018).
Retrieved from https://www.wisdomjobs.com/e-university/research-
methodology-tutorial-355/research-and-scientific-method-11338.html
€€ Research Process - Research-Methodology. (2018). Retrieved from https://
research-methodology.net/research-methodology/research-process/
M
€€ S. S. (2018). Difference Between Research Method and Research Methodology
(with Comparison Chart) - Key Differences. Retrieved from https://
keydifferences.com/difference-between-research-method-and-research-
methodology.html

20
 CHAPTER

2
DEFINING AND FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

Table of Contents
IT
Learning Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Management Dilemma
Self Assessment Questions
2.3 Literature Review
2.3.1 Importance of a Literature Review
M
2.3.2 Functions of a Literature Review
2.3.3 Process of a Literature Review
2.3.4 How to Write a Literature Review
2.3.5 Types of Sources for Review
Self Assessment Questions
2.4 The Concept of a Research Problem
2.4.1 The Need of Defining a Research Problem
2.4.2 Conditions and Components of a Research Problem
2.4.3 Identifying a Research Problem
2.4.4 Formulating a Research Problem
Self Assessment Questions
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Words
2.7 Case Study
2.8 Exercise
2.9 Answers for Self Assessment Questions
2.10 Suggested Books and e-References
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
IT
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:



Define the management dilemma
Discuss the significance of a literature review
 Explain the procedure of a literature review
 Discuss the concept of a research problem
 Describe the steps to formulate a research problem
M
 Defining and Formulating A Research Problem

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, you studied about the basic concepts of research, its types,
process and the related approaches. In this chapter, you will study about the first
two stages of the research process viz. literature review and defining the research
problem. The success of any research project depends on how well the problem
related to research has been identified and defined. If a research problem is not
stated clearly, then the entire research project goes for a toss, due to prevailing
ambiguity and confusion. Since any sort of research requires a lot of effort, time
and money, it is very important to understand what constitutes a research problem,
how to define it, what conditions to consider and how to ensure that it is complete,
comprehensive and precise.

Consider the case of Savitri Corporation, a cloth-manufacturer based in Central

India. The management of the company was concerned about declining sales
volume. They spent a considerable amount of funds in researching on new
marketing techniques for improving the sales volume. However, none of it
worked. In this case, the management should have properly defined the research
IT problem before conducting any research. The problem could have been the poor
product quality or inefficient human resources or other decisions taken by the
management.

In this chapter, you will understand the concept of research problem. As a necessity
to define research problem you will study the use of literature review, which is a
significant part of the research process.

2.2 MANAGEMENT DILEMMA

M
A vice president of marketing is in a dilemma. Six months ago, a big competitor
announced a new product under development. His company also publicly
announced the launch of a similar product. The launch is in three months when his
development team informs that their version is not up to the performance targets
as that of the competitor. It will take more than a year to develop a product of
similar standards, and it is too late to start over. In such a situation, it becomes
obvious that the vice-president will have to decide against launching the product.

The field of business management is overflowing with such problems, also known
as management dilemmas, which require thorough research and study. The
quickly changing dynamics of business today mean that what is new today might
be obsolete tomorrow. Researchers in business need to be quick on their feet to
identify the complexities of business dynamics and present alternatives to make
suitable business decisions.

A management dilemma is usually the symptom of such a problem that requires

a business decision, which can be related to:
€€ Rising costs
€€ Declining sales

23
Research Methodology and Management Decision

€€ Increasing number of defects in the products

€€ Increasing customer complaints post purchase of a product
€€ Conflicts among employees
€€ Low motivation levels
€€ Performance issues
€€ High levels of absenteeism
€€ Resignation of key employees
A management dilemma can also be triggered by an early signal of a business
opportunity or a trend that is going to take over the market.

It must be remembered that all business organisations face one or the other
type of dilemma. It is required that these dilemmas are handled on time. If the
dilemmas are not managed strategically, they may lead to several issues within
the organisation which would ultimately lead to lowering of profitability.

At first glance, management dilemmas would seem too difficult to resolve.

IT However, a thorough research on a topic would help you to arrive at a satisfactory
decision. Literature review helps in understanding the management dilemma in
a better way by providing essential information and relevant insights associated
with the dilemma. It further helps in evaluating the decision alternatives by
providing insights about probable outcomes.

1. The _____________________ is usually a symptom to an actual problem

in an organisation, such as rising costs.
M
S elf
A ssessment 2. Which of the following can trigger a management dilemma?
Q uestions
a. Organisational restructuring
b. Early signal of a business opportunity
c. Conflict between individual values and organisational goals
d. Moral character

2.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review is an essential element of almost any research project. It forms
the basis for advancing knowledge, facilitates theory development, discovers new
research areas and closes old ones.

In order to understand the management dilemma and find solution to it, researchers
and managers explore a wide variety of books, articles and other sources of
business research. At the end of your research, you present a brief description or
summary as well as a critical evaluation of how your literature review’ fits in with
a larger field of study. This process is called a literature review.

24
 Defining and Formulating A Research Problem

For example, an abstract of a research paper titled ‘The Impact of Social Media
on the Academic Development of School Students’, authored by Tarek A.
El-Badawy & Yasmin Hashem published in the International Journal of Business
Administration, is presented as follows:
2. Literature Review
2.1 Social Media and Its Uses Paul Kirschner and Aryn Karpinski define Facebook and
other social network sites as an online directory that allows people to find their friends,
family and colleagues through looking them up on social network sites (Kirschner and
Karpinsk, 2010). Curtis states that teens all over the world are starting to lose interest
in the use of Facebook and are using Snapchat, Twitter and Instagram (Curtis, 2013).
Victoria Rideout states that, among the younger generation, the time they spend on social
media, what she calls ‘entertainment media’ is “more than twice the average amount of
time spent in school each year.” (Rideout, 2012, p. 5) She also adds that an American
child spends on average seven and a half hours a day just for having fun on the media,
not only that, but they multi-task, between all the different media they use. For example,
they can be listening to music, sending a tweet and also posting on Facebook. Rideout
says, that since social media is seven days a week, unlike school or having a full-time
job, over the years the amount of time one could spend over the internet “has exploded”
(Rideout, 2012, p. 5). Abelardo Pardo believes that technology offers a platform for
innovation, and allows its users to express their opinions about how they feel towards
IT the information being published. He adds that, social media is also a platform that allows
students to interact with one another, with their teachers and communities that share
their same education. Pardo also states that these types of interaction are “an essential
part of how humans learn.” (Pardo, 2013, p. 45)
The purpose of a literature review is to:
€€ Place each source of study in the context of its contribution to understanding
a research problem
Describe the inter relationship of different variables of study
M
€€
€€ Identify new ways to interpret previous research on the topic being studied
€€ Identify any gaps that exist in the literature
€€ Resolve conflicts among previously conducted studies
€€ Locate your own research within the context of existing literature (the most
important purpose)
€€ Generate an idea of sample size1
€€ Get a tentative value of variances in the variables of interest
€€ Identify the type of relationship that exists among variables
€€ Identify the method of analysis that can possibly be used in the research

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
A LITERATURE REVIEW AND A RESEARCH PAPER
E xhibit
The purpose of a literature review is to summarise and synthesise the ideas
of others without adding new contributions. On the other hand, an academic
research paper is used to develop a new argument. It may contain a literature
review as one of its parts.

1 It refers to the number of individual samples or observations that are used in a research study.

25
Research Methodology and Management Decision

2.3.1 IMPORTANCE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

Although there might be several reasons for conducting a literature review, the
most important reasons are given below:
€€ Assess the current state of research on a topic: This is perhaps the most
important reason of conducting a literature review. Once you have identified
a topic of interest, you should search relevant sources of information to
determine what is already known about the topic and how extensively the
topic has already been researched. This will help you to save considerable
time, effort and money in research.
€€ Identify the experts on a topic: A literature review will help you to identify
the experts on your topic of research. For example, someone who has written
20 articles on a topic (or topics related to it) is likely to be more knowledgeable
than someone who has written a single article. This person’s written work
could be a key resource for consultation in your research.
€€ Identify the key questions about a topic that need further research: By
reviewing what has already been written on a topic, you may uncover new
angles that need further exploration. For example, a research may suggest
IT that listening to music while studying helps students to better retain ideas.
However, it may not have revealed which styles of music are particularly
beneficial than others.
€€ Determine methodologies used in previous studies: Finally, a literature
review helps to identify which methodologies in the previous researches
have been most beneficial in analysing a topic.
In conclusion, a literature review helps you to prepare well for research. It shows
the originality and relevance of your research problem and justifies your proposed
M
methodology. If any additional questions arise during the course of research, you
will know which experts to consult to quickly clarify those questions.

2.3.2 FUNCTIONS OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

The main functions of a literature review are as follows:
€€ Providing a context to your research: A literature review helps to place your
research in the context of what is already known about the topic. It answers
questions such as:
zz How does your research answer to the management dilemma/question
compares to the answers obtained by other researchers?
zz What contribution your research work has made?
zz What are the differences between your findings and the findings of other
researchers?
€€ Providing a shape to your research problem: By understanding the topic
better, you will be able to conceptualise your research problem clearly and
precisely. You will also be able to understand the relationship between your
research problem and the work done in your research area.

26
 Defining and Formulating A Research Problem

€€ Improving your research methodology: As discussed earlier, a literature

review will help you to discover the methodologies used by other researchers
in studies done previously on the same/similar topic. This will give you an
idea whether their methodologies worked for them and what problems
they faced by employing them. As a result, you will be strategically well-
positioned to choose a methodology that you feel would suit your research
work better.
€€ Catering to knowledge base: A literature review helps you to become an
expert in your field of research. You will know what others are doing in your
field, which theories have been proposed and what gaps exist.
€€ Ensuring novelty in your research: Finally, a literature review ensures that
you do not “reinvent the wheel.” In other words, you save effort in trying to
rediscover something that is already known or published. This will ensure
that you bring new and significant contributions to your field of research.
€€ Helps you in formulating a research hypothesis: The researchers read
and review the available literature related to the research topic. The review
may include reading articles, books, cases or other research papers. After
IT the literature review is completed, the researchers gain a sufficient amount
of information regarding their study topic which helps them in narrowing
down or limiting it and expressing it in form of a research question. And,
the research hypothesis is constructed using the research question. therefore,
literature review helps in formulating the research hypothesis.

2.3.3 PROCESS OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

Before you begin a literature review, you must clearly identify your topic of
M
interest. If you have a clear idea about what you want to research, then you will be
better positioned to bring in innovative methodologies into your research work.

A literature review consists of four steps, as outlined in Figure 1:

Step 1
Search the Existing Literature in Your Topic of Interest

Step 2
Review the Literature Obtained

Step 3
Develop a Theoretical Framework

Step 4
Write Your Literature Review

Figure 1: Process of a Literature Review

27
Research Methodology and Management Decision

Let us discuss each step of the literature review:

1. Search the existing literature in your field of interest: First, search what
has already been done in your chosen topic of interest. To search the existing
literature, compile a bibliography and/or a list of references, which is a list
of books on your topic of interest. To save time, you can go through the
following sources:
zz Indices of journals on your research topic
zz Abstracts of articles on your research topic
zz Citation indices
zz Digital libraries
2. Review the literature obtained: After you have identified the relevant
journals and books, start reading them. Evaluate them critically to compile
themes and issues that are associated with your research topic. Note down
the main points to create a rough framework or theme of your research. Do
a critical evaluation of the literature to:
zz Identify the proposed theories, critics and methodologies (sample size,
IT zz
data used, measurement methods)
Assess whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework
has been confirmed beyond doubt
zz Discover different perspectives among researchers and write down your
opinions about their validity
zz Find the gaps that are present in the existing body of knowledge
3. Develop a theoretical framework: A literature review can be a time-
M
consuming task, but you have limited time. Therefore, it is important
to set the boundary and parameters for your research work. Sort out the
information obtained from the literature sources according to your theoretical
framework. This will enable you to focus in your literature search. In other
words, your theoretical framework will provide you a foundation and guide
to read further. It is quite possible as you read further that you change your
framework. However, this is part of a research process.
4. Write up the literature review: The final step is to compile and write all the
literature you’ve read and reviewed. To do so:
a. Start your review with a theme or points that you want to focus
b. Organise and list all the themes you want to discuss and relate. This will
give a structure to your literature review
c. Identify and describe various theories relevant to your field of research
d. Describe the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge in your field
e. Explain recent advances and current trends in your field of research
f. Compare and evaluate findings based on:
99 Assumptions of research
99 Theories related to the topic of research

28
 Defining and Formulating A Research Problem

99 Hypotheses
99 Research designs applied
99 Variables selected
99 Potential future work speculated by the researchers
g. Acknowledge, cite and quote sources of research. Give credit to the
works of other researchers. Quote their work to show how your research
contradicts or contributes to their work. This will make your literature
review more comprehensive and precise.

2.3.4 HOW TO WRITE A LITERATURE REVIEW

After reviewing the existing body of knowledge on your topic of research, you
have created a theoretical framework for your area of research. You are now ready
to write a literature review. How should you go about it?

Some strategies of writing a literature review are as follows:

€€ Find a focus: A literature review is generally organised around ideas, and
not just sources. As you read the existing body of knowledge in your topic,
IT consider and pick any of the following themes to focus and organise your
review:
zz Which themes connect your sources together?
zz Do they present a single or multiple solutions?
zz Are there any gaps in the existing themes?
zz How effectively do they present the material?
zz Do they reveal a trend in the field?
M
€€ State the focus: Write a simple statement in your literature review that tells
readers what to expect. Some examples are as follows:
zz The current trend in treatment for cancer combines surgery, medicine
and natural healing.
zz Popular media is acquiring academic consideration.
€€ Present information: Organise the information you want to present in the
following way:
zz Cover the basic categories: A literature review contains the following
three basic categories:
i. Introduction: It gives a quick idea of the topic of your literature re-
view, such as your central theme.
ii. Body: It contains your discussion of sources. It can be organised
chronologically, thematically or methodologically (discussed fur-
ther).
iii. Conclusions/recommendations: It provides the conclusion you have
drawn from reviewing literature.

29
Research Methodology and Management Decision

zz Organise the body: Once you have the basic categories in place, consider
how you will organise the sources themselves within the body of your
review. Table 1 lists some typical ways to organise the sources:

Table 1: Ways to Organise Sources of the Literature Review

Organisation Method Description
Chronologically Sources are organised according to when they
were published.
By publication Sources are organised by publication chronology,
only if the order demonstrates a more important
trend.
By trend Sources are organised chronologically to be
examined under a specific trend.
Thematic Sources are organised around a topic or an issue,
rather than the progression of time. However,
progression of time may still be an important
factor in this case.
Methodologically Sources are organised on the methods of the
research or by author.
IT zz Consider additional sections: Sometimes you might need to add
additional sections for your study, such as:
99 Current situation: This provides necessary information for the
readers to understand the topic or focus of the literature review.
99 History: This presents the chronological progression of the field.
99 Methods and/or standards: This presents the criteria used to select
the sources in your literature review.
M
€€ Compose your study: After organising the basic categories, you are ready to
write your review. Some guidelines to follow during your writing are given
below:
zz Refer to several other sources when making a point. Back up your point
with suitable evidence.
zz Selectively highlight only the most important points in each source. Your
points must directly relate to the review’s focus.
zz Avoid using any direct quotes. This is because the survey nature of the
literature review does not allow for in-depth discussion or detailed
quotes from the text. However, if you do want to use quotes to emphasise
a point, then use short quotes sparingly.
zz Summarise and synthesise your sources within each paragraph and
throughout the review.
zz Maintain your own voice by starting and ending a paragraph with your
own ideas and own words.
zz When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, remember to represent
the author’s information/opinions accurately and in your own words.

30
 Defining and Formulating A Research Problem

€€ Revise: Finally, revise your review. Make sure that it follows the outline.
Rewrite the language of your review to present information in the most
concise manner possible. Avoid unnecessary jargon or slang; use familiar
terminology. Verify that you have documented your sources and formatted
the review appropriately.

2.3.5 TYPES OF SOURCES FOR REVIEW

Secondary data are used as the source of a literature review. However, there can be
different types of sources from which literature is reviewed. Some sources provide
first-hand information that is highly relevant for the study. Such sources contain
a high level of detail. For example, reports, theses, emails, letters, conference
proceedings, company reports, autobiographies, official reports, research articles,
etc. Apart from these, the researcher may also refer to data sources containing low
level of detail. For example, review articles, academic journals, books, newspapers,
documentaries, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, bibliographies and citation indexes.

3. A _______________ is all about compiling and evaluating the research

available on a particular topic.
S elf
IT
A ssessment
Q uestions
4. Which of the following is the third step of a literature review?
a. Search the existing literature in your research area of interest
b. Develop a theoretical framework
c. Review the literature obtained
d. Write up the literature review
5. Secondary sources of information are derived from direct observation.
(True/False)
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6. Writing a literature review is just as writing a research paper. (True/
False)
7. The sources of a literature review are organised around a topic of interest.
Such a literature review is:
a. Thematic b. Methodological
c. Chronological d. Organised by trend

2.4 THE CONCEPT OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

Once you have done your literature review, you are ready to commence your
research on a topic of interest (or management dilemma). The first step in the
process is to formulate a research problem.
A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be
improved, a problem to be resolved or a troubling question in academic literature,
which needs to be deliberately investigated. The research problem is a problem
statement in theoretical or practical context. It does not state how to do something.

31
Research Methodology and Management Decision

The terms research problem or hypothesis are used in case of descriptive or

hypothesis testing research studies. Exploratory (formulative) research studies
involve finding a problem or the hypothesis to be tested.

2.4.1 THE NEED OF DEFINING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

It is important to formulate a research problem carefully to clearly indicate what
you intend to achieve through research. It is said that a process well begun is half
done. A well-formulated research problem makes the research process easier and
more focused. It helps you to:
€€ Separate irrelevant data from relevant data
€€ Keep the research work on track
€€ Ensure efficient and focused literature review and other studies
€€ Keep the research centred around the problem

2.4.2 CONDITIONS AND COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

As already discussed, a research problem is generally a topic of interest, which
you want to research and resolve. A difficulty or problem only exists if some
IT confusion, doubt or apprehension is involved. In the aforesaid situation, no doubt
or apprehension is involved. Usually, if a researcher does not face any situation,
which causes some confusion or doubt, research would not be undertaken. This is
a precondition for a researcher to conduct a research.

A research problem exists if the following four conditions are met:

1. There must be a problem whose solution is presently not known.
2. There must be an individual, group or organisation to which the problem
M
can be attributed.
3. There must be minimum two courses of action, which a researcher can
pursue.
4. There must be at least two feasible outcomes of the course of action. Out of
the two outcomes, one outcome should be more preferable to the other.
On the basis of these conditions, the components of a research problem are shown
in Figure 2:

Components of a Research Problem

Individual, Group,
Research Objectives Environment
or Institution

Figure 2: Components of a Research Problem

32
 Defining and Formulating A Research Problem

Let us discuss each component:

€€ Individual, group, or institution: There must be somebody to whom the
research problem can be attributed. It may be an individual, a group or
an institution. The individual/group/organisation is the one that is facing
the problem or difficulty. At times, these individuals or the group may
themselves be researchers.
€€ Research objectives: There must be a purpose for which the research is
conducted. Every research is carried out to meet some predefined objectives.
€€ Environment: It refers to the environment in which any problem exists.
Examples of environment are economic, social and political environments.
A problem pertaining to study of inflation would come under the economic
environment and a problem pertaining to study the effects of child marriage
on the health of women would come under the social environment.

2.4.3 IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

Identifying or selecting a research problem is a difficult and time-consuming task.
While doing so, you should consider the following factors:
IT
€€ Personal interest: This is the chief motivation to select a research problem.
Academic research is a time- and effort-consuming process. A researcher can
consistently pursue it only if he/she is personally interested in resolving the
problem. The interest of a researcher further depends on other factors such as
educational background, professional and personal experience and outlook.
€€ Knowledge and competence: Selection of a research problem depends on
the researcher’s knowledge in the field of interest and his/her capability to
M
perform research successfully. The researcher’s qualification, training and
experience should match the problem.
€€ Availability of resources: An academic research usually involves large-
scale data collection, wide travelling, lot of time and finance. If sufficient
resources such as time and money are available to research a problem, then
the problem is selected.
€€ Relative importance: If a problem is relatively important and urgent, then it
is selected as an immediate solution and it can benefit the society.
€€ Usefulness and significance: The practical usefulness of a problem is also a
major motivation for a researcher to attend it.
€€ Timelines of the problem: Some problems take little time to be resolved,
while others take a considerable time. So, the time taken to complete research
work is also an important criterion to select a problem.
€€ Data availability: A researcher would select a problem, which has sufficient
and relevant data available.

33
Research Methodology and Management Decision

€€ Novelty: If a problem is around a current topic of interest, then it is more

likely to be picked up for research. Any findings would invite immediate
publicity and funding for the researcher.

2.4.4 FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

The next step after identifying a research problem is to formulate it in a form
agreeable for research. It means specifying the research problem in detail and
narrowing it down to a workable size. In this step, all questions and sub-questions,
which a researcher wants to answer by his/her research, are specified. In addition,
the scope and boundaries of investigation are determined. While formulating a
research problem, the researcher should clearly form the assumptions. Formulating
a research problem is a three-step process, as shown in Figure 3:

Defining the Research Problem

Identifying the Variables

IT Evaluating the Research Problem

Figure 3: Steps to Formulate a Research Problem

Let us discuss each step.

M
1. Defining the research problem: The first step of formulating a research
problem is to mention the problem in the form of a question or statement to
make it clearer and understandable. A good statement must clearly mention
what exactly you want to solve or determine by the research study. You also
need to describe the theoretical basis and background of the study. Major
issues and elements of research should be divided into subparts for better
understanding. It is also important to state the problem in a manner that
indicates relationship between two or more variables. For example, if the
research problem is the impact of remuneration on employee retention in an
organisation, then remuneration and retention would be two variables. The
variables are discussed separately in the next section.
2. Identifying the variables: As already discussed, it is very important to
identify the variables involved in a research study because it helps in
stating the problem in a more precise manner. In other words, all variables
involved in a research problem should be defined in a manner so that they
can be measured or expressed quantitatively or qualitatively. For example,
for a hypothesis: In Organisation ABC, higher rewards lead to lower levels

34
 Defining and Formulating A Research Problem

of absenteeism, the variables of interest would be rewards and level of

absenteeism.
3. Evaluating the research problem: The third step in formulating a research
problem is to evaluate it in terms of originality, importance and feasibility.
These factors are discussed below:
zz Originality: The research problem should be unique. Any topic, on which
a lot of research has already been done, should be avoided because it
would be difficult to highlight anything new in that topic. However, in
some cases, you may decide to research a previously researched topic
to verify its conclusions, explain and elaborate the conclusions in more
effective manner, and solve some of the inconsistencies of the previous
research.
zz Importance: The research study should be significant enough to either
become the basis of any new theory or pose some problems for further
research. In addition, the research study should also have some practical
applications.
Feasibility: This refers to the chances of conducting a successful research.
IT zz
You should take up a problem, which is feasible for you to conduct a
research. A research problem may not be feasible because of the following
reasons:
99 Lack of skills and competencies of the researcher
99 Lack of interest and enthusiasm of the researcher
99 High cost involved in the research study
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99 Time constraint
99 Administrative constraints, such as lack of cooperation from
administrative authorities
However, it must be remembered that the above-mentioned three factors used to
evaluate a research problem are seldom found in research studies.

Now, let us consider an example to better understand the process of formulating

a research problem. Suppose a research problem is: How to improve productivity
in India? This problem is stated in a broader form and gives rise to the following
ambiguities and confusion:
€€ What exactly does ‘productivity’ mean?
€€ Which industries or sectors are being referred to in the problem?
€€ What is the time period being referred?
Without these specifications, it is almost impossible to conduct a study on the
given problem. However, ambiguities disappear if you state the problem as: How
to improve agricultural productivity in India in the next 10 years? This version
of the problem is an improvement over the previous form.

35
Research Methodology and Management Decision

8. A ____________ is a troubling question, which needs to be deliberately

investigated.
S elf
A ssessment 9. Which component of a research problem implies that there must be
Q uestions somebody to whom the research problem can be attributed?
a. Research objective
b. Environment
c. Individual, group or institution
d. None of these
10. Which factor below is not suitable for selecting a research problem?
a. Relative importance
b. Quick resolution time
c. Novelty
d. Inadequate resources
IT 11. Identifying the ______________ involved in a research study will help in
stating the problem in a more precise manner.
12. Which step is used to assess a research problem in terms of originality,
importance and feasibility?
a. Defining a research problem
b. Identifying the variables
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c. Evaluating the research problem
d. Understanding the nature of problem

In groups of two, identify a research problem related to any topic of your

personal interest. State the topic of your interest. Prepare a literature review
A ctivit y
of the topic. Finally, state the research problem and evaluate it in terms of
originality, importance and feasibility. Prepare a presentation on your
literature review and research problem.

2.5 SUMMARY
€€ A management dilemma is usually the symptom of a problem that requires a
business decision or an early signal of a business opportunity or trend. They
usually need a thorough research.
€€ A literature review is an essential element of any research project. It aims to
present a summary and critical evaluation of how a research fits in which a
larger field of study.

36
 Defining and Formulating A Research Problem

€€ The importance of a literature review is as follows:

zz Assess the current state of research on a topic
zz Identity the experts on a topic
zz Identify the key questions about a topic that need further research
zz Determine methodologies used in previous studies
€€ The main functions of a literature review are:
zz Providing a context to your research problem
zz Providing a shape to your research problem
zz Improving your research methodology
zz Catering to knowledge base
zz Ensuring novelty in your research
zz Helps you in formulating a research hypothesis.
€€ The process of a literature review consists of the following steps:
1. Search the existing literature in a topic of interest
IT 2. Review the literature obtained
3. Develop a theoretical framework
4. Write a literature review
€€ Research review is to be articulated in a theoretical framework manner.
€€ Data like reports, letters, company reports, academic journals, books are
used for review.
M
€€ A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to
be improved, a problem to be resolved or a troubling question in academic
literature, which needs to be deliberately investigated.
€€ The components of a research problem are: Individual, group or institution;
research objective; and environment.
€€ Selecting a research problem depends on the researcher’s personal interest,
knowledge and competence, availability of resources and data, and relative
importance, usefulness, significance, timeliness, and novelty of the problem.
€€ There are three steps to formulate a research problem:
1. Define the research problem
2. Identify the variables
3. Evaluate the research problem

2.6 KEY WORDS

€€ Management dilemma: It refers to the symptom of a problem that requires
a business decision. It can also be triggered by an early signal of a business
opportunity or a trend that is going to take over the market.

37
Research Methodology and Management Decision

€€ Literature review: It refers to a process of presenting a brief description or

summary as well as a critical evaluation of how a research fits in with a larger
field of study.
€€ Research: It is the process of systematic investigation into and study of
materials and sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
€€ Researcher: It refers to a person who carries out academic or scientific
research.
€€ Thesis: It is a statement or theory put forward by a researcher and maintained
or proved.
€€ Research problem: It is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to
be improved, a problem to be resolved or a troubling question in academic
literature, which needs to be deliberately investigated.

2.7 CASE STUDY: RESEARCH PROBLEM AT ABC LIMITED

ABC Limited is an Ahmedabad-based electronic equipment manufacturing
organisation. It started operations in 1983 as a small unit with around 200 people.
During that time, there were several renowned companies in western India.
IT By the end of the 80s, ABC Limited was able to grab a substantial market share
by giving a tough competition to its competitors. This became possible due to
the high productivity of its employees. The management of the organisation was
efficiently handling the workforce. The policies of the organisation were oriented
towards employee welfare, job security and job satisfaction. The organisation
encouraged employees to participate in the decision-making process. As a result of
these employee-friendly policies, employees were highly motivated and engaged
with the organisation. Their productivity and quality of work was at an all-time
M
high, which consequently increased the profitability of the organisation.

In the 90s, ABC Limited expanded its business and hired more staff. It had set up
a large production unit. To improve work efficiency, it adopted the specialisation
and division of workforce. Employees were allocated into various divisions and
specialised work units for manufacturing different electronic equipment. The
organisational structure became more hierarchical and complex.

With the passage of time, the company’s policies became more rigid and
unfriendly. Employees were demotivated and their productivity began to suffer.
The organisation conducted a research study to seek anser to its research questions
as follows:

Research Question:

How Human Research Management affects employee performance and

productivity?

To boost productivity, managers introduced the latest equipment and software,

arranged training for employees, and streamlined manufacturing processes.
However, no major improvement was seen in the productivity of the employees.

38
 Defining and Formulating A Research Problem

QUESTIONS
1. Why did efforts of the management fail to bring the required productivity
results?
(Hint: In the case study, two phases of the organisation are compared. In the
initial phase, when the organisation’s setup was small, its productivity was
high due to good working environment and employee friendly policies.)
2. In your opinion, what efforts can be done by the management to improve the
motivation of employees towards work?
(Hint: Involving employees in decision making, recognising their
performance, providing hygienic working conditions, introducing flexible
work conditions, addressing employees’ grievances, etc.)

2.8 EXERCISE
1. What do you mean by the management dilemma?
2. Why is a literature review important in research? How will you conduct it?
IT 3. What is a research problem? What are the conditions in which it exists?
4. What are the steps to formulate a research problem?

2.9 ANSWERS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Topic Q. No Answer
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Management Dilemma 1. Management dilemma

2. b. Early signal of a business opportunity

Literature Review 3. literature review

4. b. Develop a theoretical framework

5. False

6. False

7. a. Thematic

The Concept of a Research

8. research problem
Problem

9. c. Individual, group or institution

10. d. Inadequate resources

11. variables

12. c. Evaluating the research problem

39
Research Methodology and Management Decision

2.10 SUGGESTED BOOKS AND E- REFERENCES

SUGGESTED BOOKS
€€ Biddle, J. (2012). Research in the history of economic thought and methodology.
Bingley: Emerald.
€€ Goddard, W. and Melville, S. (2011). Research methodology. Kenwyn, South
Africa: Juta & Co.
€€ Welman, J., Kruger, F. and Mitchell, B. (2005). Research methodology. Cape
Town: Oxford University Press.

E- REFERENCES
€€ Bonamie, G. (2018). Schrijven / Functions of a literature review. [online]
Schrijven.ugent.be. Available at: http://www.schrijven.ugent.be/node/439
[Accessed 30 Oct. 2018].
€€ Explorable.com. (2018). Defining a Research Problem - What exactly should you
investigate? [online] Available at: https://explorable.com/defining-a-research-
IT €€
problem [Accessed 30 Oct. 2018].
Libguides.library.cqu.edu.au. (2018). Library Guides: Literature Review Tutorial:
What is a literature review? [online] Available at: https://libguides.library.cqu.
edu.au/litreview [Accessed 30 Oct. 2018].
€€ Library.sacredheart.edu. (2018). Research Guides: Organising Academic Research
Papers: The Research Problem/Question. [online] Available at: https://library.
sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185918 [Accessed 30 Oct. 2018].
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40
 CHAPTER

3
RESEARCH DESIGN

Table of Contents
IT
Learning Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Concept of Research Design
Self Assessment Questions
3.3 The Need and Features of Research Design
Self Assessment Questions
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3.4 Types of Research Design
3.4.1 Research Design for Exploratory (Formulative) Research
Studies
3.4.2 Research Design for Descriptive Studies
3.4.3 Research Design for Experimental Studies
Self Assessment Questions
3.5 The Components of Research Design
Self Assessment Questions
3.6 Summary
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Case Study
3.9 Exercise
3.10 Answers for Self Assessment Questions
3.11 Suggested Books and e-References
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
IT
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:



Explain the concept of research design
Describe the need and features of research design
 List the different components of research design
 Explain the different types of research designs
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 Research Design

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, you studied the concept of literature review and research
problem. This chapter explains the concept of research design.

The overall purpose of any research is to find an answer to a research problem.

An appropriate and well-executed research design ensures that this is done. The
success of any research project depends on how well its research design fits with
its research problem.

A research design is thus a complete plan, structure and strategy for conducting
research. It forms the basis of every research and provides vital information to the
researcher, such as the research topic, data type, data sources and techniques of
data collection.

This chapter will help you understand the concept of research design—why it is
required, what are its features and components, etc. You will also learn about the
different types of research designs for exploratory studies, descriptive studies and
IT experimental studies.

3.2 THE CONCEPT OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Let us understand the meaning of research design through an example. Suppose
you need to construct a building. Would you order construction materials or set
critical dates for the project straightaway? No. You would first need to know what
sort of building it is; whether it is a high-rise building, a manufacturing factory, a
school, a residential home or an apartment block. Until that is done, you cannot
sketch a plan, get permits, plan a work schedule or order materials.
M
Similarly, any sort of research needs a design before you can start collecting and
analysing data. The purpose of a research design is to ensure that the information
collected from research enables you to answer the research problem satisfactorily.
For example, before you order construction materials or develop a work plan,
you must decide what type of building is required, how it will be used and what
its occupants will need. Similarly, in research, you need to first consider what
information you need to collect to answer the research problem. Without attending
to these research design matters at the beginning, the conclusions drawn will
normally be weak and unconvincing and fail to answer the research question.

A research design is a systematic approach that a researcher uses to efficiently

handle a research problem. It provides insights about ‘how’ to conduct research
using a particular methodology. It combines various components and data to
arrive at a feasible outcome.

Some definitions of research design by different experts are given below:

According to David J. Luck and Ronald S. Rubin, A research design is the

determination and statement of the general research approach or strategy adopted for the
particular project. It is the heart of planning. If the design adheres to the research objective,
it will ensure that the client’s needs are served.

43
Research Methodology and Management Decision

According to Kerlinger, A research design is the plan, structure and strategy of

investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control
variance.

According to Green and Tull, A research design is the specification of methods and
procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the overall operational pattern or
framework of the project that stipulates what information is to be collected from which
source by what procedures.

Simply stated, a research design is a blueprint for the research study, which guides
the collection and analysis of data. It is a complete structure that is concerned with
decisions regarding what, when, where, how much and by what means about the
proposed research. In other words, it answers the following questions:
€€ What is the research all about?
€€ Why is the research required?
€€ Where will the research be conducted?
€€ What type of data is required?
IT €€

€€

€€
Where can the required data be found?
What is the time period of research?
What will be the sample design?
€€ What techniques of data collection will be used?
€€ How will the data be analysed?

1. _____________ is a complete structure that is concerned with decisions

M
regarding what, when, where, how much and by what means about the
S elf proposed research.
A ssessment
Q uestions 2. What does research design efficiently handle?
a. Researcher’s attitude
b. Literature review
c. Research problem statement
d. Data collection methods

3.3 THE NEED AND FEATURES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Just as you need a well-prepared blueprint for economical and attractive
construction of a building, you need a research design to conduct a research
project. Research design will help you to plan research methods well in advance,
select appropriate tools for data collection and run the research project smoothly.
As a result, you will be able to get maximum information from your research with
minimum investment of time, effort and money.

44
 Research Design

Figure 1 lists some benefits of research design:

Reduces Inaccuracy in the Research Project

Provides Maximum Efficiency and Reliability to the Project

Removes Bias and Optimise Errors

Minimises Time Wastage

Helps in Collecting Research Materials and Testing of Hypothesis

Indicates the Type of Resources Required for Research (Money, Manpower, Time and Effort)

Provides an Overview to Other Experts

Guides the Research in the Right Direction

Figure 1: Benefits of Research Design

The main features of research design are as follows:

€€ Neutrality or Objectivity: The findings of research design should be neutral
IT and free from bias. The degree of objectivity is said to be high when more
than one observer assign scores to various persons and there is high degree
of agreement among these observers. The research designs should involve
use of measuring instruments which can be used by different observers and
derive similar conclusions.
€€ Generalisation: The outcome of research design should be applicable to a
population, and not just a sample of population.
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3. ____________ facilitates smooth research operations that ensure more
efficiency in conducting the research.
S elf
A ssessment 4. What is not a benefit of research design?
Q uestions
a. Maximum accuracy b. Maximum reliability
c. Maximum bias d. Minimum time wastage
5. A good research design is applicable to only a sample of population.
(True/False)

3.4 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Research can be performed in different ways and under different conditions.
Different types of research require different types of research design. It may
happen that a design may be suitable for one type of research, but may not be
appropriate for another type of research.

For example, exploratory research is conducted by marketing department for

identifying the potential areas of growth. Case studies are the most common type
of descriptive research. If a marketer wants to see the impact of different packaging
on the sales of a product, it is an example of experimental research.

45
Research Methodology and Management Decision

For example, if a research is exploratory, then the research design should be

flexible to accommodate continuous changes. On the other hand, if a research is
diagnostic, then flexible research design is not appropriate because this type of
research demands precision, accuracy, minimum bias and reliability. Therefore,
the research design must be rigid (not flexible) in this case.

Before determining the research design of a particular type of research, you should
ask the following questions:
€€ What is the nature of research problem?
€€ Which method of data collection and analysis would be used in the research?
Which conditions are required to be applied to the selected method of data
collection and analysis? Depending on the type of research study, there are three
types of research designs as shown in Figure 2:

Types of
IT Research Designs

Research Design for

Research Design for Research Design for
Descriptive Research
Exploratory Studies Experimental Studies
Studies

Figure 2: Types of Research Designs

Let us discuss these research designs in the following sections.

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3.4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN FOR EXPLORATORY (FORMULATIVE)
RESEARCH STUDIES
Exploratory studies, also known as formulative studies, aim to formulate a problem
for more precise investigation. Usually, these studies are undertaken when there
is not enough information regarding a problem or situation. An exploratory study
lays more emphasis on a problem or situation to gain familiarity with its different
aspects. A researcher conducts an exploratory study if some facts are known about
a problem or situation but there is a need to know more about it.

For example, a restaurant chain may undertake an exploratory study to find

out different ways that can be used to improve the quality of customer service
in its restaurants without making any major investments. The researcher, in this
case, initially has only little information regarding the current status of quality of
customer service for which he/she wants to conduct a research. Such information
can be gained by exploratory study only. The researcher and his team may
interview the existing customers of the restaurant, review the available literature
and consult experienced people in the field.

An exploratory study, by its very nature, considers different aspects of a situation

or topic. Thus, the research design for an exploratory study must be flexible
enough to consider all aspects of the research problem.

46
 Research Design

Generally, the following methods are considered regarding research design for
exploratory studies:
€€ Review of literature: It is the most important and fruitful method for
formulating a problem with precision. If the problem has been formulated
earlier, you can review the available literature to test it for its significance
and usefulness. If the problem has not been formulated earlier, then you can
review the literature for formulating it. Reviewing available literature also
helps you in applying the already developed theories and concepts to your
subject of research.
€€ Experience survey: It is a survey of people who have practical experience in
the topic of the proposed research or in related topics. Experienced people can
contribute significant and innovative ideas in the research. You can conduct
an experience survey by scheduling interviews with the experienced people.
For conducting interviews, you prepare a set of methodical questions to be
put to the experienced people. However, you should also give sufficient
chance to the respondents to raise questions and satisfy their concerns. An
experience survey makes a research more practical, feasible and applicable.
You can use either of the aforementioned methods for conducting an exploratory
IT
research. However, you should ensure that research design is flexible enough to
include different aspects of a problem.

3.4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN FOR DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH STUDIES

Descriptive studies aim to describe the facts and situations as they are. They
are concerned with ‘what’ and not with ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a research problem.
Studies concerning specific predictions, narration of facts and characteristics of
human beings are examples of descriptive research. For example, a research study
M
that aims to describe or list the major features of the organisational culture that
exists in Infosys office located at Gurugram, India.

In descriptive studies, the researcher should be very careful about data and
methods to be used. For descriptive studies, research design should not be flexible
as was the case with exploratory studies. It should be rigid and free from any bias.
While finalising the research design for the descriptive and the diagnostic studies,
you should focus on the following points:
€€ Objectives of the study
€€ Clearly defining the hypothesis
€€ Techniques of data collection
€€ Type of data required
€€ Place and time period of data
€€ Data analysis
€€ Report presentation
Thus, in the descriptive and the diagnostic studies, the foremost requirement of
the research design is the clarity of objectives. It means that you should be clear

47
Research Methodology and Management Decision

about the type of study undertaken and the reasons behind the study. After that,
you select the techniques of data collection.

There are various methods of data collection, such as interviews, observations and
questionnaires. You can select any of these methods according to your requirement,
but the collected data should be free from any bias and ambiguity. However, you
must ensure that the data collection method used would result in least numbers
of errors.

You should also take care of the time and place of data collection. For example, if
you want to survey the effects of recession, the data of only the recession period
is to be considered. In the same manner, if you want to survey the effects of water
scarcity on the lives of people, you would approach those areas that face acute
water shortage. Thus, the time and place of data require discretion on your part.
The collected data must be properly analysed by using proper statistical and
software tools. Finally, the report of the study is presented in detail. The report
must be presented in a simple and planned manner to explain the findings to the
people concerned in an effective way.

Types of Descriptive Studies

IT There are two major types of descriptive research studies as follows:
€€ Cross-sectional research, and
€€ Longitudinal research
Cross-Sectional Research

You can use this type of research to observe variables that differ on one key
characteristic at the same time. For example, you can do a cross-sectional study of
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people who are similar in other characteristics but different in a key factor such as
age, income levels or geographical location.

This type of research is mainly performed for the descriptive studies. It is often
used for making inferences about possible relationships or characteristics of
different sample groups. For example, you might collect cross-sectional data on
past smoking habits and current diagnoses of lung cancer in different groups of
people such as people smoking for past three years, smoking for past five years,
and so on.

The cross-sectional research, however, cannot determine cause-and-effect

relationships between different variables. Some of the key characteristics of a
cross-sectional research are:
€€ The research takes place at a single point in time
€€ It does not involve manipulating variables
€€ It allows researchers to observe several characteristics at once (age, income,
gender, etc.)
€€ It is often used to observe the prevailing conditions in a given population
€€ It can provide information on what is happening in a current population

48
 Research Design

Longitudinal Research

Longitudinal research involves observing variables over an extended period of

time, such as weeks, months or even years. In some cases, longitudinal research
can last several decades.

This type of research can be used to discover relationships between variables over
an extended period. Data is first collected at the beginning of a research, and may
then be repeatedly collected at regular intervals throughout the research. This
allows researchers to observe how a variable may change over time.

For example, you want to research how exercise during middle age may affect
cognitive health of people as they grow old. You hypothesise that people who
are more physically fit in their 40s and 50s will be less likely to have cognitive
health decline in their 70s and 80s. To conduct research, you gather a group of
participants in the age group of mid-40s to early 50s. You collect data related to
their physical fitness, workout schedules and cognitive performance tests. Then,
you collect the same data from the same participants periodically over the course
of the research to track their activity levels and mental performance.
IT
Some of the key characteristics of longitudinal research are:
€€

€€
It allows changes to be analysed at a micro level
It is used to find relationship between two variables
€€ It involves collecting data over an extended period of time

3.4.3 RESEARCH DESIGN FOR EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

In experimental studies, some variables of interest are manipulated to observe
M
their effects on other variables. The simplest example of an experimental research
is conducting a laboratory test. An experimental research is considered to be
successful if the researcher confirms that a change in the dependent variable is
only due to the change of the independent variable.

It is important for an experimental research to establish cause and effect of a

phenomenon. For example, if you conduct research to understand the effect of
food on cholesterol and derive that most heart patients are non-vegetarians or
have diabetes. These aspects are causes, which can result in a heart attack (effect).

Professor R. A. Fisher prepared a research design for experimental studies, when

he was working with the Centre of Agriculture Research in England. Initially, he
conducted various agricultural researches by dividing an agricultural field into
blocks. He carried out a separate research on every block. He found that the data
collected in these experimental separate blocks was reliable. This encouraged him
to develop experimental designs for scientific investigations also.

Experimental research design is a blueprint within which an experimental study is

conducted. There are five steps to prepare an experimental research design:
1. Define the goals of experiment
2. Identify and classify variables (dependent, independent and extraneous)

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

3. Develop a relationship between dependent and independent variables

4. Select a suitable experimental design
5. Ensure the validity of design

Principles of Experimental Research Designs

The purpose of an experiment is to decide:
€€ Whether the observed differences among the treatments (or sets of
experimental conditions) included in the experiment are due to chance only
€€ Whether the extent of these difference is of practical importance
To decide the above two points, you can use three principles of experimental
design:
€€ Principle of replication: This principle provides an estimate of experimental
error.
€€ Principle of randomisation: This principle ensures that this estimate is
statistically valid.
IT €€ Principle of local control: This principle reduces experimental error by
making the experiment more efficient.

Concept of Validity
According to the concept of causality, causality refers to the phenomena due to
which one thing (called the cause) causes something else (called the effect) under
certain conditions. According to Campbell and Stanley, there are two major types
of validity in experimentation. These are as follows:
M
€€ Internal Validity: This refers to the validity on the basis of which a causal
relationship is inferred. With reference to research design, internal validity
answers the following question:
To what extent does a design allow you to say that change in independent
variable A causes a change in dependent variable B? If you are able to infer
causality (the cause-and-effect relationship) between variables, the research
design is considered to have higher internal validity.
€€ External Validity: This validity refers to the extent to which you can
generalise the results of an experiment. For example, if you can generalise
the results to a large population, then it shows high external validity.

Threats to Internal Validity of Research Design

There are certain threats which may affect internal validity. These threats are
factors other than the independent variable that may affect the dependent variable.
They are:
€€ History: It refers to the threat wherein external events have an impact on
the outcomes of the experiment. For example, if a group of researchers
are implementing an educational program in all schools of Delhi in order
to increase awareness regarding use of drugs and its ill effects. During the

50
 Research Design

study, one of the students dies due to over dosage of drugs. This news was
reported extensively in print and electronic media. The researchers find out
that, at the end of the study, the awareness level of the school students has
increased immensely. In such a case, it is difficult to conclusively state that
the increase in the awareness regarding drugs usage is due to the educational
program because it is likely that the death of the fellow student had a great
impact on the level of awareness of the students.
€€ Maturation: It refers to the threat wherein the post-test outcomes go up
or are improved as a result of the subjects maturing with passage of time.
For example, a group of 10 teachers are given a training session every
month for two years. The purpose of training is to improve their teaching
methodology and quality of instruction. After two years, the researchers
find out that the quality of instruction and teaching of all the ten teachers
has increased drastically. In such a case, it is difficult to conclusively state
that the improvement in the quality of instruction of the teachers is entirely
due to the training sessions. It is so because the teachers might have made
improvements as a result of their own experiences. In such cases, the
researchers may use a control group to conclusively state anything.
€€ Attrition /Mortality: It refers to the threat wherein the experiment outcomes
IT may get affected as a result of demise of experimental subjects or due to
subjects dropping out of a study. For example, a market research program
initially starts with 1000 respondents. The research is planned to be carried
out over a period of two years. However, as the study progresses, some of
the respondents may have to leave the research. In such circumstances, the
respondents may leave due to circumstances such as illness, death, relocation
to a new place, etc. Assume that, by the time, the researchers conclude their
data collection activities, about 400 respondents have dropped out or opted
out of the study. In such cases, the results arrived at by the researchers may
M
not be highly valid.
€€ Testing response: It refers to the threat that post-test outcomes are better
than the pre-test outcomes because the subjects by then (time of post-test)
are already experienced with the kind of questions they might expect. For
example, a group of 20 students take the mock-test for UPSC IAS examination
for the very first time in their lives. However, all of them fail to pass in the
examination. After this, all the 20 students attend a free training session
offered by ABC coaching classes. Post this session, the same 20 students take
another mock-test (having same difficulty level) and it is observed that the
scores of all the students have improved drastically. In such a case, it cannot
be conclusively stated that the training session offered by the coaching class
was effective. It is highly likely that the improvement in scores of students
could have been a result of experiencing the mock-test earlier.
€€ Instrumentation: The reuse of human instruments such as interviews
(questions) and questionnaires leads to them wearing out and becoming less
accurate with time. The accuracy level of the instrument has a significant
impact on the experiment’s outcomes. For example, a research study may
use instruments such as questionnaires or survey or interviews. The research
may show a considerable amount of difference between the pre-test and
post-test observations which might be due to reasons such as change in
the questions included in the questionnaire or questions asked during the

51
Research Methodology and Management Decision

interviews. The instrumentation threat may also arise as a result of change in

questionnaire administrators or the method of administration.
€€ Sampling effects/selection bias: The procedure followed for selection
of the experiment’s subjects may have a bearing on the outcomes of the
experiment. For example, a researcher may carry out a research to study the
behaviour of people having anxiety disorder. For this, the researcher creates
an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group has
subjects who have anxiety disorders whereas the control group has subjects
who have no anxiety disorder. It was observed that the people with anxiety
disorders (experimental group) immediately focus their attention on sources
of threats in their environment as compared with healthy people (control
group). Such studies are prone to selection bias because even after ensuring
that the experimental and control groups are similar in respect of background
variables, there is no guarantee that the difference between the two groups
are due to presence or absence of anxiety disorder.
€€ Regression to the mean: This threat may realise as a result of selecting subjects
on the basis of extreme scores or characteristics. In such a case when tests are
carried out repeatedly, extreme scores tend to regress or cluster around the
mean. For example, a researcher selects 20 students who scored extremely
IT low on a Math Test and provides extensive and illustrated Mathematics
sessions to these students. Here, the researcher observes that after providing
the treatment, the scores of the students have improved. In such a case, the
improvement may be due to the treatment that was administered or it is
also possible that the students might have improved their scores without any
treatment.
€€ Experimenter bias: Research is carried out support a belief or theory or to
disprove it. In research studies, it is possible that the researchers are biased
M
towards the results that they desire. Such bias can have an impact on the
observations made by the research team which may be used to skew the
study in the desired direction. For example, a researcher wants to support
his hypothesis that approximately 40% of males living in Bengaluru are
chronic smokers who smoke five or more cigarettes daily. For this research,
the researcher cherry picks the sample population from the target population
having prior information regarding the smoking habits of the sample subjects.

Categories of Experimental Research Designs

There are multiple ways to categorise experimental research designs. One way to
categorise them is as follows:
€€ Formal experimental research designs: These designs use comparatively
more refined and precise forms of data analysis.
€€ Informal experimental research designs: These designs use less sophisticated
forms of data analysis.

There are two types of experiments: true experiments and quasi-experiments.

True experiments are characterised by random selection of sample elements/
N ote subjects. On the contrary, quasi-experiments are those experiments where the
selection of sample elements/subjects is done in a non-random manner.

52
 Research Design

The quasi-experimental research design refers to the design that is used when
it is difficult or not possible to use a true cause-and-effect relationship. In this
design, there is no random assignment of subjects to treatments. Also, the
tested groups are not homogeneous. Comparisons are made mainly between
the experiment and control groups by making observations before and after
the treatment. Some important quasi-experimental research designs include
interrupted time series design, regression discontinuity design, and pre-test
and post-test non-equivalent design.

Another common way in which they are categorised is:

€€ Basic designs
€€ Statistical designs
Let us discuss these two categories.
Basic Designs
Basic designs refer to those designs that include only one independent variable.
There are four main types of basic designs as shown in Figure 3:
IT Basic Designs
M
Pre-test–Post-test Post-test-Only
Control Group Design Control Group Design

Figure 3: Types of Basic Designs

Now, Let us understand each type of basic design. Before that, you should note
the notations used in these designs, as follows:
€€ R: Random assignment
€€ T: Treatment
€€ O: Observation, outcome or effect
1. Pre-test–Post-test control group design: It is also called as the randomised
pre-test–post-test design or the classical controlled experimental design. In
such experimental designs, the subjects are assigned to the experimental
(treatment) and control (no treatment) groups using random numbers.
The researcher or the experimenter controls the timing of administering
treatment. Both the groups are kept in same environment except that the
experimental group receives the treatment whereas control group does not.

53
Research Methodology and Management Decision

Table 1 presents the symbolic representation of the pre-test–post-test control

group design:

Table 1: Pre-Test, Post-Test Control Group Design

Group Pre-test (First Treatment Post-test (Second

observation of the (T) observation of the
dependent variable) dependent variable)

Experimental O1 (Average score of the T O2 (Average score of the

Group (E) Experimental Group on Experimental Group on
the dependent variable) the dependent variable)

Control O3 (Average score of the No-T O4 (Average score of the

Group (C) Control Group on the Control Group on the
dependent variable) dependent variable)

In such an experiment, the changes that are observed in the values of the
dependent variable in the experimental group (O2 – O1) arise as a result of
the treatment. Here, it might happen that there is a difference between the
IT control group’s score i.e., (O4 – O3). The difference of O3 and O4 is the change
in the value of the dependent variable that may occur even in the absence of
any treatment.
2. Post-test-Only Control Group Design: In a post-test-only control group
design, the researcher randomly assigns subjects to the experimental
and control groups. In such a design, the pre-test is not administered.
The experimental group is exposed to a treatment whereas no treatment
is administered to the control group. Table 2 presents the symbolic
M
representation of the post-test-only control group design:

Table 2: Post-test-Only Control Group Design

Group Treatment (T) Post-test (First observation

of the dependent variable)

Experimental Group (E) T O1 (Average score of the

experimental group on the
dependent variable)

Control Group (C) No-T O2 (Average score of the control

group on the dependent variable)

The post-test-only control group design is used for research where it is not
possible to assign subjects to groups randomly due to any (ethical/practical)
reason. The main benefit of this design is that it is very simple to implement
and has a low error propagation percentage. The main disadvantage of this
design is that it is highly vulnerable to threats to internal validity.

54
 Research Design

Statistical Designs
Statistical designs refer to those experimental designs in which there are two or
more independent variables. Figure 4 shows the main types of statistical designs:

Statistical Designs

Completely
Randomised Block Design
Randomised (C.R.) Design

Figure 4: Types of Statistical Designs

Completely Randomised (C.R.) design and randomised block design are the two
major and frequently used statistical experimental designs. Apart from these
designs, Latin Square Experimental Design and Factorial Design are two other
important statistical experimental designs; however, the explanation of these
methods is beyond the scope of this book.
IT
Now, Let us understand the C.R. design and the randomised block statistical
designs as follows:
1. Completely Randomised (C.R.) design: The C.R. design refers to the design
in which there is random assignment of subjects to treatments. Out of three
basic principles of experimental design, this design includes only two (the
principle of randomisation and the principle of replication). In complete
randomisation, every subject carries equal probability to be assigned to any
treatment. For example, if you wish to test eight subjects under two treatments
M
(A and B), there is an equal opportunity of every subject to be assigned to any
of the treatments. C.R. designs may be analysed using ANOVA, independent
t-test, or non-parametric tests depending upon the number of treatments.
A two-group randomised design is the simplest form of C.R. design. In this
design,two randomisations (selecting the items randomly), namely random
sampling and random assignment, take place. Random sampling refers
to selecting a sample from the population. Random assignment refers to
assigning subjects selected from the sample to an experimental group and
a control group. The diagrammatic representation of the two-group simple
randomised design is shown in Figure 5:

Experimental Treatment
Group A

Random Independent
Population Sample
Selection Variable

Control Treatment
Group B

Figure 5: Two-Group Simple Randomised Design

55
Research Methodology and Management Decision

The two-group simple randomised design is very simple to implement.

The variations due to extraneous variables can be controlled using the
control group.
Let us understand the concept of the two-group simple randomised
design with the help of an example. Suppose you are conducting a study
to compare two groups of students from a college. In this example, the
college represents the complete population. On the basis of random
sampling, students are selected out of the population and randomly
assigned to two groups, that is, experimental group and control group.
One group is given training whereas the other group is not.
Here, you assume that the group that has received the training
(experimental group) is in better position as compared to the other group
(control group). This assumption/hypothesis can be tested using a two
group simple randomised design.
2. Randomised block design: In this design, all three principles of experimental
designs can be applied. The randomised block design refers to the design that
is used when you want to eliminate uncontrolled variations. These variations
are caused by a variable called blocking variable or nuisance variable. For
IT example, a doctor wants to treat a patient with a specifically prepared
medicine. In this case, the nuisance factor may be the time of giving medicine
to the patient or room temperature. These factors affect the outcome but are
not of prime interest to the doctor.
Numerous nuisance variables exist in all experiments. You can eliminate their
effect on the research study by a technique called blocking. For example, in
the study of school students, you can expect homogeneity in the students of
the same class as compared to the students of the entire school in terms of
knowledge and skills. In this case, a class is a block that can help in reducing
M
variation in the research.

SIMPLE FACTORIAL DESIGN

The factorial design refers to the design that determines the effects of varying
E xhibit more than one factor on the experiment. There are basically two types of
factorial designs: simple factorial design and complex factorial designs. Such
experimental designs are generally used in socio-economic problems.

A simple factorial design is a design that considers how a dependent variable

is affected by varying two factors (control variables). It is also named as the
two-factor-factorial design (2*2 simple factorial design). Table below shows a
typical 2*2 simple factorial design:

Factor 1 Level 1 Level 2 Row Mean

Factor 2
Level 1 Cell 1 Cell 3
Level 2 Cell 2 Cell 4
Column Mean

56
 Research Design

6. ___________ study lays more emphasis on a problem or situation to gain

familiarity with its different aspects.
S elf
A ssessment 7. For which type of research should you use a rigid design free from any
Q uestions bias?
a. Experimental research
b. Exploratory research
c. Descriptive research
d. None of the above
8. Cross-sectional research does not involve manipulating variables. (True/
False)
9. Which of the following design can be used for eliminating uncontrolled
variations?
a. C.R. design
b. Pre-test–post-test control group design
IT c. Randomised block design
d. None of these

Formulate a research problem statement of your choice. Draft the most suitable
research design to solve your research problem. Make sure to clearly identify
A ctivit y
whether the research type is exploratory, descriptive or experimental. While
M
identifying the research design, get as specific as possible.

3.5 THE COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design may be split into the following four components:
€€ Sampling design: This part of research design deals with the method of
selecting items for research.
€€ Observational survey design: This part of research design involves deciding
how many observations have to be made and under what conditions.
€€ Statistical design: This part of research design involves deciding how the
data will be collected and analysed.
€€ Operational design: This part deals with the techniques of carrying out the
procedures related to sampling design, observational design and statistical
design.

57
Research Methodology and Management Decision

Table 3 compares the research designs relating to the exploratory studies and the
descriptive/diagnostic studies:

Table 3: Comparison of the Research Designs for the Exploratory

Studies and Descriptive Studies
Overall Sampling Statistical Observational Operational
Design Design Design Design Design
Exploratory Flexible Purposive Not Data can be collected Not fixed
studies planned by unstructured
methods
Descriptive/ Rigid Probability Pre- Structured methods Fixed
diagnostic studies planned

These components of the research design can be explained through the following
points:
€€ Variable: It refers to a parameter that keeps changing with time and space.
The parameter or the variable can take on different quantitative values.
Examples of the variables are income, expenditure and weight that keep
on fluctuating from time to time. There are different types of variables as
IT follows:
zz Dependent variable: It is the variable that can be measured by the
researcher. A dependent variable is affected by the changes in an
independent variable. Researchers measure dependant variables.
zz Independent variable: It is the variable that causes a change in a
dependent variable. Independent variables can be controlled. Researchers
manipulate the independent variable to measure its impact on the
dependent variable(s).
M
zz Extraneous (Confounding) variables: These are independent variables,
which are not directly related to the research yet they may affect
dependent variables. For example, you want to study the relationship
between the price of a commodity and the demand of that commodity. In
this case, consider that ‘demand’ is a dependent variable and ‘price’ is an
independent variable. When the price is low, the demand increases and
when the price becomes higher, the demand decreases. However, the
dependent variable demand may also be affected by other factors such as
income and taste of customers. These other factors constitute extraneous
variables. These variables need to be controlled.
zz Control variable: Control variables are those extraneous variables that
can potentially affect the research experiment but the researchers keep
them same (or controlled) during experiments. This ensures that the
experiments are conducted in a fair environment and are not affected by
the extraneous variables.
€€ Factors, outcomes, levels and treatments: In an experiment, factor refers
to that variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher.
Manipulation of factor is done to study its impact on the research study.
The observation of the variable of interest yields outcome. Each factor can
have two or more values called as factor levels. These different factor levels

58
 Research Design

are called treatments. It must be remembered that factors may be qualitative

or quantitative in nature. For example, factors may include soil quality,
type of seeds, type and amount of fertiliser. Here, the outcome is observed
by observing the yield. In research studies, the researcher may use one or
more factors. In a single factor study, treatments correspond to the factor
levels. In a single-factor study, the number of treatments and the number of
factor levels are equal. On the other hand, in n-factor studies, the treatments
correspond to the combination of the factor levels. The number of treatments
is calculated as the product of all the different factor levels. For example, if
there are two factors and one factor has 3 levels and the other has 4 levels;
then, the number of treatments would be 3 * 4, which equals 12. Assume
that a researcher is studying the impact of remuneration on job motivation;
then, it is a single factor study wherein remuneration is the factor and
different amounts of remuneration are factor levels. Similarly, if a researcher
is studying the impact of gender and ethnicity on income; then, it is a two
factor study wherein gender and ethnicity are factors. Here, gender can
be male or female or transsexual (three levels) and ethnicity can be Dalits,
Punjabis, Khasi, Bengalis, Jat, Rajput, etc.
€€ Experimental unit/group: It is the unit/group to which a treatment is applied
IT in a single trial of experiment. The experimental unit may be a plot of land,
a patient in hospital, a group of operators or a set of machines. For example,
you can compare a patient in a private ward with a patient in a general ward,
in terms of the treatment they receive in the same hospital. In this case, the
two patients are the experimental units.
€€ Response: It refers to the results of an experiment on the basis of a treatment.
The response may be the yield of a process, the purity of a chemical, or any
quantitative or qualitative expression.
M
Designed experiment is a type of the controlled study wherein a researcher
applies one or more treatments to different experimental units or groups or
N ote subjects. Thereafter, the researcher observes the effect of different treatments
on the response variable.

10. The sampling design part of the research design deals with the
conditions of observations, which are required for research. (True/False)
S elf
A ssessment 11. Which of the following research designs deals with analysis observations?
Q uestions
a. Observational design b. Statistical design
c. Sampling design d. Operational design
12. Which item below is measured and controlled by the researcher?
a. Variable b. Dependent variable
c. Control variable d. Factor
13. Extraneous variables are independent variables, which are not directly
related to research study yet they may affect the dependent variables.
(True/False)

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

3.6 SUMMARY
€€ A research design is a systematic approach used to efficiently handle a
research problem. It is a blueprint for the research and facilitates smooth
research operations.
€€ A research design is used to structure an entire research project. It gives
direction to the research by defining all the components that need to be taken
care of in the research.
€€ A research design should have characteristics such as neutrality and
generalisability.
€€ A research design depends on the type of research being conducted, whether
it is exploratory, descriptive/diagnostic and experimental.
€€ An exploratory study lays more emphasis on a problem or situation to gain
familiarity with its different aspects. The research design for exploratory
studies must be flexible to include different aspects of a problem.
€€ Descriptive studies aim to describe the facts and situations as they are.
They are concerned with ‘what’ and not with ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a research
IT €€
problem. The research design for descriptive studies should be rigid and free
from any bias.
In experimental studies, some variables of research are manipulated to
observe their effects on other variables. The research design for experimental
studies can be basic or statistical.
€€ Basic designs refer to those experimental research designs that include only
one variable manipulation. They include pre-test–post-test control group
design and post-test only control group design.
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€€ Statistical designs refer to those experimental research designs in which
there are two or more treatments (different conditions of experiments). They
include C.R. design and randomised design.
€€ The randomised block design refers to the design that is used when the
researcher is interested in eliminating uncontrolled variations. These
variations are caused by a variable called blocking variable or nuisance
variable.
€€ A research design can be split into four components: Sampling design,
observational design, statistical design and operational design.

3.7 KEY WORDS

€€ Causal relationship: The cause-and-effect relationship between two
variables.
€€ Experiment: The test done to check a statement or assumption made by the
researcher.

60
 Research Design

€€ Experimental unit: An object from which data are taken for an experiment.
€€ Factor: A quantitative or qualitative independent variable.
€€ Nuisance variable: A measurable quantity that cannot be controlled and
affects a dependent variable.
€€ Random assignment: The method by which subjects are assigned to
experimental and control groups without any bias.
€€ Treatment: It refers to a specific experimental condition.

3.8 CASE STUDY: EFFECT OF NITROGEN AND IRRIGATION ON RICE YIELD

Mr. Nalin is a researcher and wanted to measure the effect of two factors viz.
nitrogen and irrigation on the yield of rice.

The yield of rice is measured in quintal per hectare (q/ha). For most of the crops,
higher levels of irrigation and fertilisers up to a particular limit help in increasing
the yield of the crop. It is also known that these factors are not independent of each
other but they interact with each other. Interaction of factors is said to occur when
the effect of one factor changes as the levels of other factors change. Nalin designed
IT an experiment to measure the effect of nitrogen and irrigation on rice yield when
they are applied alone and in combinations. The results of the experiment are as
follows:

Nitrogen 0 Kg (N/ha) 60 Kg (N/ha) Row Mean

N0 N1
Irrigation
5 cm (I0) 10 (N0 I0) 30 (N1 I0) 20
M
10 cm (I1) 20 (N0 I1) 40 (N1 I1) 30
Column Mean 15 35

Effect of nitrogen (factor 1) at I0 level of irrigation (first level of factor 2) = 30 – 10

= 20 q/ha

Effect of nitrogen (factor 1) at I1 level of irrigation (second level of factor 2) = 40 – 20

= 20 q/ha

Effect of irrigation (factor 2) at N0 level of irrigation (first level of factor 1) = 20 – 10

= 10 q/ha

Effect of irrigation (factor 2) at N1 level of irrigation (second level of factor 1) = 40

– 30 = 10 q/ha

From the experiment, it can easily be observed that the effect of nitrogen is same for
all levels of irrigation. Also, the effect of irrigation is same for all levels of nitrogen.
Therefore, there is no interaction between nitrogen and irrigation.

Nalin carried out another experiment to measure the effect of nitrogen and
irrigation on rice yield when they are applied alone and in combinations.

61
Research Methodology and Management Decision

The results of the experiment are as follows:

Nitrogen 0 Kg (N/ha) 60 Kg (N/ha) Row Mean

N0 N1
Irrigation
5 cm (I0) 10 (N0 I0) 30 (N1 I0) 20
10 cm (I1) 20 (N0 I1) 50 (N1 I1) 35
Column Mean 15 40

Effect of nitrogen (factor 1) at I0 level of irrigation (first level of factor 2) = 30 – 10

= 20 q/ha

Effect of nitrogen (factor 1) at I1 level of irrigation (second level of factor 2) = 50 – 20

= 30 q/ha

Effect of irrigation (factor 2) at N0 level of irrigation (first level of factor 1) = 20 – 10

= 10 q/ha

Effect of irrigation (factor 2) at N1 level of irrigation (second level of factor 1) = 50

– 30 = 20 q/ha
IT From the experiment, it can easily be observed that the effect of nitrogen (and
irrigation) is not same for all levels of irrigation (nitrogen). Therefore, it can be
concluded that nitrogen and irrigation are interacting with each other.

The effects calculated previously are called as simple effect of the factor. The main
effect of a factor is calculated as the average of all the given simple effects. Nalin
calculated the main effects for the experiment as:

Main effect of Nitrogen = (20+30)/2 = 25 q/ha

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Main effect of Irrigation = (10+20)/2 = 15 q/ha

The interaction between the factors is calculated as the difference between simple
effects.

Interaction effect = simple effect of nitrogen at I1 level of irrigation – simple effect

of nitrogen at I0 level of irrigation = 30 – 20 = 10 q/ha

OR

Interaction effect = simple effect of irrigation at N1 level of nitrogen – simple effect

of irrigation at N0 level of nitrogen = 20 – 10 = 10 q/ha

QUESTIONS
1. What will be the interaction if instead of two levels of nitrogen, only one
level of nitrogen is considered?
(Hint: To study the interaction between two factors, it is necessary to use at
least two levels of each factor.)

62
 Research Design

2. If Nalin decides to include a third factor, then how many interactions among
factors can be found?
(Hint: Let three factors are numbered 1, 2 and 3; then, there will be 4
interactions as 12, 13, 23 and 123.)

3.9 EXERCISE
1. Explain the concept of research design.
2. Discuss the components of research design.
3. Explain the need and features of research design.
4. Describe the different types of research design.

3.10 ANSWERS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Topic Q. No. Answer

The Concept of Research Design 1. Research design
IT The Need and Features of the
Research Design
2.
3.
c. Research problem statement
Research design

4. c. Maximum bias
5. False
Types of Research Design 6. An exploratory
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7. c. Descriptive research
8. True
9. c. Randomised block design
The Components of Research Design 10. False
11. b. Statistical design
12. b. Dependent variable
13. True

3.11 SUGGESTED BOOKS AND E-REFERENCES

SUGGESTED BOOKS
€€ Cahoon, M. (1987). Research methodology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
€€ Chandra, S. and Sharma, M. (n.d.). Research methodology.
€€ Welman, J., Kruger, F. and Mitchell, B. (2005). Research methodology. Cape
Town: Oxford University Press.

63
Research Methodology and Management Decision

E-REFERENCES
€€ Explorable.com. (2018). Research Designs – How to construct an experiment
or study. Available at: https://explorable.com/research-designs [Accessed 1
Nov. 2018].
€€ Libguides.usc.edu. (2018). Research Guides: Organising Your Social Sciences
Research Paper: Types of Research Designs. Available at: http://libguides.usc.
edu/writingguide/researchdesigns [Accessed 1 Nov. 2018].
€€ QuestionPro. (2018). Research Design: Definition, Characteristics and Types
| QuestionPro. Available at: https://www.questionpro.com/blog/research-
design/ [Accessed 1 Nov. 2018].
€€ Scholarshipfellow.com. (2018). Available at: https://scholarshipfellow.com/
research-design-types-research-design/ [Accessed 1 Nov. 2018].

IT
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64
 CHAPTER

4
SAMPLING

Table of Contents
IT
Learning Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Concept of Sampling
4.2.1 Census versus Sample Survey
4.2.2 Developing Sample Design/Sampling Process
4.2.3 Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
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4.2.4 Determining Sample Size
Self Assessment Questions
4.3 Errors in Measurement and Sampling Errors
Self Assessment Questions
4.4 Non-Sampling Errors
Self Assessment Questions
4.5 Methods of Sampling
4.5.1 Probability Sampling Methods
4.5.2 Non-Probability Sampling Methods
Self Assessment Questions
4.6 Summary
4.7 Key Words
4.8 Case Study
4.9 Exercise
4.10 Answers for Self Assessment Questions
4.11 Suggested Books and e-References
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
IT
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:



Discuss the concept of sampling
Explain the errors in measurement and sampling errors
 Describe the non-sampling errors
 Explain the different types of sampling methods
M
 Sampling

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, you studied about research design. Now, you will study
about sampling.

Sampling refers to the activity of selecting a subset of subjects or units from an

entire population for conducting a research. It is more helpful in cases where it is
neither possible nor feasible to study each and every element of the population.
For example, in an export house, if a quality checker wishes to judge the quality
of garments of a particular consignment before delivering it to the client, it might
not be practically possible for him/her to examine each and every garment in the
consignment. Therefore, in such a situation, the checker would examine only a
subset of garments picked randomly to judge the quality of the entire section. In
this case, the subset of garments picked randomly represents a sample and the
process of examining them is the experiment. Most decisions in organisations are
taken on the basis of sampling. For example, a production organisation cannot
take feedback for its new products from each and every customer. Therefore, it
may carry out a survey involving a particular number of customers (say, 10% of
the total customers).
IT It would not be possible for a human resource manager of a large organisation,
where employee strength is large, to interact with each employee to decide
employees’ motivation. In cases like this, it is more practical and feasible to select
a sample and then generalise the result. Thus, knowledge of sampling and its
various methods is essential for conducting studies to find solutions to various
problems in minimum possible time with greater efficiency.

The chapter begins by explaining the concept of sampling. Next, it differentiates

census from sample survey. Thereafter, sample design and characteristics of a good
M
sample design are discussed. Sampling and non-sampling errors are explained.
Towards the end, a detailed overview of probability and non-probability sampling
methods are discussed.

4.2 CONCEPT OF SAMPLING

Sampling is the process in which a sufficient number of elements are selected
from a population for conducting a study. The characteristics and properties of
the selected sample are generalised for the whole population. For example, the
chancellor of a university is curious to know the student feedback on the grading
system. Since a large number of colleges are affiliated to the university, it is not
feasible to take feedback from each student of every affiliated college. A sample,
representing the students of all the colleges (known as population), would be
selected. The views of the students from this sample on the grading system would
be taken as the feedback of the entire student population.

However, the chancellor should ensure that the selected sample truly represents
all types of students. For example, if the university organises classes in
18 disciplines, the sample should also contain students from all the disciplines to

67
Research Methodology and Management Decision

make it representative of the whole population. A representative sample helps in

getting better and accurate results. Usually, sampling is done if the population
is large and contains hundreds or thousands of elements. In such a case, data
collection from each and every element of the population is either impossible or
requires huge time, money, efforts and other resources.

Various thinkers have defined sampling in different ways. Some sampling

definitions are mentioned as follows:

According to Bogardus, sampling is the selection of certain percentage of a group of

items according to a predetermined plan.

According to Mildred Patron, sampling method is the process or method of drawing a

definite number of individuals, cases or observations from a particular universe, selecting
part of a total group for investigation.

According to Frank Yates, the term sample should be reserved for a set of units or
portion of an aggregate of material which has been selected in the belief that it will be a
representative of the whole aggregate.

According to Blalock and Blalock, sampling is a small piece of the population obtained
IT by a probability process that mirrors with known precision the various patterns and
subclasses of the population.

4.2.1 CENSUS VERSUS SAMPLE SURVEY

Census refers to the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording
information related to all items in a population or universe, whereas sample survey
refers to the study of some selected elements from the population. The census is
assumed to be more accurate as compared to sample survey. However, in practice,
M
census results are more ambiguous if data collection is not free from bias. Table 1
differentiates between sample survey and census:

Table 1: Distinction between Census and Sample Survey

Census Sample Survey
Used when it is required to gather Used when a population contains
information regarding each element or numerous elements and it is not feasible to
member of the population. conduct a census.
Used when the researcher has enough Used when the researcher does not
time and other resources including money have enough time and/or resources for
to conduct complete enumeration. conducting a census.

Each member of the target population is called as its element.

N ote

4.2.2 DEVELOPING SAMPLE DESIGN/SAMPLING PROCESS

Sample design refers to a methodological plan to obtain a sample from a population.
The steps involved in developing a sample design are shown in Figure 1:

68
 Sampling

1. Selecting the 2. Deciding the 2. Designing the

Type of Population Sampling Unit Sampling Frame

6. Considering
5. Deciding the 4. Choosing the
Budgetary
Sample Size Sampling Method
Constraints

Figure 1: Steps Involved in Developing Sampling Design

Let us now discuss the steps involved in sample design.

1. Selecting the type of population: It is the first step in developing a sample
design. The researcher, while developing a sample design, must choose the
type of population according to his/her research study. Population can be
IT finite or infinite. Population is finite if the number of elements in it are certain
and countable. In the case of infinite population, no figure can be given about
the number of elements in the population.
2. Deciding the sampling unit: According to Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD), a sampling unit is one of the units
into which an aggregate is divided for the purpose of sampling, each unit is
regarded as individual and indivisible when selection is made. For example,
when a survey of a group of students in a class is conducted, a single student
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is a sampling unit.
3. Designing the sampling frame: A sampling frame refers to the list of all in a
population. If the sampling frame is not available, it should be prepared by
the researcher. It is better if the sampling frame is comprehensive, authentic
and appropriate. If the sampling frame is not comprehensive, it would not be
truly representative of the entire population.
4. Choosing the sampling method: A sampling method is a procedure of
selecting sampling units from a population. A detailed explanation of
sampling methods is given later in this chapter.
5. Deciding the sample size: A sample size refers to the number of items in
a sample. The researcher should be careful while deciding the sample size
because it is important to note that the sample size should be neither too
large nor too small.
Before selecting a sample size, the researcher must consider the population
variance for the variable of interest. Population variance refers to the extent
of variation in the items of a population. If the population is highly diverse,
the sample size should be large so that it could represent all characteristics
of the population. If the population is less diverse, the sample size should be
kept smaller because a small sample size can represent all the characteristics
of a less diverse population.

69
Research Methodology and Management Decision

6. Considering budgetary constraints: These refer to finance-related

constraints. While developing a sample design, the researcher must consider
those financial aspects that greatly affect not only the size of sample but also
the type of sample. There exists a trade-off between the expenditure incurred
in research and the percentage error in experiment. As the cost of experiment
increases, the error percentage decreases.

4.2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

Some important characteristics of a good sample design are given below:
€€ A sample design must be feasible in the context of available funds
€€ A sample design should result in such type of sample whose results can be
applied to the whole population
€€ A sample design should not be based on personal bias of the researcher

4.2.4 DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE

Sampling and surveys are generally conducted in order to generalise the findings
of the research for the entire target population. However, there is a relation
IT between the sample size and the accuracy of the research. The larger the sample
size, the more accurate the research findings will be. Therefore, it is important to
carefully determine the size of sample to be used for research. If the sample chosen
is very small, it will have more errors and if the sample is very large, it might lead
to wastage of time, money and effort. Before, determining the sample size, it is
important to have information regarding the following aspects:
€€ Population size: In order to determine the sample size, the population size
must be known.
M
€€ Confidence interval (margin of error): The allowable error or the percentage
of error that is allowed in a sample is represented by the confidence interval.
Confidence interval determines the allowable difference between the
population mean and the sample mean.
€€ Confidence level: It refers to the percentage confidence that the sample mean
falls within the given confidence interval. Three most common confidence
intervals include 90%, 95% and 99%.
€€ Standard deviation: It refers to the standard deviation that a researcher may
expect in his responses for the variable of interest.
Now, we can calculate the sample size in the following manner. First, find out the
Z-score or the constant value that represents the confidence level corresponding
to a Z-score. The Z-scores for the corresponding confidence levels can be found
using the Z-score table. Z-score for 90% confidence level is 1.645; Z-score for 95%
confidence level is 1.96; and Z-score for 99% confidence level is 2.576.

Now, insert the values of Z-score, confidence interval and standard deviation in
the formula to calculate the sample size:

(Z −( Z Score ) Ã
22 22
Score) σ
Required Sample Size= = 2 2
(M(Margin
arg in ofofError)
Error)

70
 Sampling

Now, if a researcher choses to conduct the research with a confidence level of

99%, confidence interval of ±3% with a Standard Deviation (SD) of 0.5; then, the
required sample size will be:

(2.576)2 (0.5)2
=
(0.03)2

(2.576) 2 (0.5) 2
=
0.0009

6.635 × 0.25
=
0.0009

1.65875
=
0.0009
IT = 1843.055

Therefore, a sample containing 1844 subjects is required.

1. ___________ is the process in which a sufficient number of elements are

selected from a population for conducting a study.
S elf
A ssessment 2. Census refers to the complete enumeration of all items in a population or
Q uestions universe, whereas the sample survey refers to the study of some selected
elements from a population. (True/False)
3. Which of the following is the third step in sample design?
M
a. Deciding the sampling unit
b. Deciding the sample size
c. Selecting the type of population
d. Choosing the sampling method
4. Which of the following steps of sampling design involves cost-related
limitations?
a. Choosing the sampling method
b. Deciding the sample size
c. Designing the sampling frame
d. Considering budgetary constraints

4.3 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT AND SAMPLING ERRORS

An unambiguous and precise measurement of variables is the necessary condition
of a research. However, at various stages of measurement, errors may occur

71
Research Methodology and Management Decision

because of many reasons. The researcher should efficiently identify potential

sources of errors and try to reduce them to the maximum possible extent. Some
important errors in measurement are explained as follows:
€€ Errors due to the interviewer: These errors occur because of the biased
attitude of the interviewer. The interviewer can encourage or discourage
certain viewpoints of respondents by rephrasing questions.
€€ Errors due to respondents: These errors occur due to the reluctance of
respondents to respond to questions. The respondents may feel reluctant
to answer questions correctly because of fatigue, hunger, or ill-health. The
respondents may also commit errors because of lack of knowledge.
€€ Errors due to ineffectiveness of the instrument: These errors occur because
of the ineffective measuring instrument, such as a questionnaire. If the
questionnaire contains lack of choices, complex language, poor printing,
non-essential questions, then it cannot get desired outcomes from the
respondents.
€€ Errors due to the situation: These errors occur because of situational factors.
Any condition that puts strain on the interviewer can cause an adverse
impact on the rapport between the interviewer and respondent. In addition,
IT if the respondent feels that secrecy of his/her responses is not certain, he/she
may be reluctant to express certain feelings.
In research study, two types of errors can occur. they are sampling errors and
non-sampling errors. Sampling errors, also known as random errors, occur due to
observing only a sample of an entire population for a study instead of studying
the entire population. The reason is that the population taken for the study can
have many samples. Any value computed from a sample is called sample statistic.
The sample statistic may or may not be close to the value obtained for the whole
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population. A deviation in the values leads to a sampling error. Let us understand
the concept of sampling error through the following example:

A researcher is interested in calculating the average yield of rice in a village in a

particular year. In the village, 10,000 farmers cultivate rice. The researcher selects
a sample of 1000 farmers from the universe (population) of 10,000 farmers. He/she
calculates the average yield of rice based on the rice production figures given by
1000 farmers. Chances are high that the average obtained for the sample would
be different from the actual average of the entire population. This deviation from
the actual average refers to sampling error. Thus, a sampling error occurs because
of selection of only a specific part of the population as the sample. Usually, a part
of population cannot show the true picture of the whole population. However, a
sampling error can be reduced to some extent by designing a sample in a better
way. Some important methods that result in less sampling errors are discussed as
follows:
€€ Increasing sample size: Increasing the sample size will reduce sampling
errors. If the sample size is equal to the complete population, the scope of
sampling error is zero.
€€ Stratification: It refers to dividing the given population into homogeneous
and non-overlapping units or sub-groups (known as stratum) to make the
sample more representative. Grouping is done on the basis of one or more

72
 Sampling

common attributes. For example, there is a population of 1000 people, out of

the entire population, 300 belong to high-class, 400 belong to middle-class,
and 300 belong to low-class. The sizes of these strata are denoted by S1, S2,
and S3.
The process of stratification of the given sample is shown in Table 2:

Table 2: Process of Stratification of the Given Sample of 1000 People

Stratum Size of Stratum Size of Sample from Each
Number Stratum
1. S1 (High-class) = 300 s1 = (s × s1)/1000
= (100 × 300)/1000 = 30
2. S2 (Middle-class) = 400 s2 = (s × s2)/1000
s2 = (100 × 400)/1000 = 40
3. S3 (Low – class) = 300 s3 = (s × s3)/1000
= (100 × 300)/1000 = 30
S1 + S2 + S3 = 1000 (Total Population) s1 + s2 + s3= 100 (Desired Sample Size)
IT As you can see from Table 2, the size of the sample from each stratum has been
estimated as per the size of the stratum, which is called proportional allocation.
In the sample design shown in Table 2, the sampling fraction in the population is
s/S =100/1000 = 1/10 and the sampling fraction in both the strata is also 1/10.
Therefore, this design is known as a fixed sampling fraction and is frequently used
in sample surveys. However, this design requires some prior information about
population units, and the population is divided into different strata based on this
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information. If the prior information is not available, performing stratification is
not possible.
€€ Choose the target population carefully: The target population from which
the researcher draws a sample should be selected carefully. For example, if a
research relates to the search or usage pattern of Indian Facebook users, the
population would include all the Facebook users whose nationality is Indian
irrespective of the fact whether or not they are located in India.

5. Which of the following methods of sampling error requires to dividing

the given population into homogeneous units?
S elf
A ssessment a. Stratification
Q uestions
b. Sample size
c. Both a and b
d. None of these
6. Increase in the size of the sample may ___________ sampling error.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

4.4 NON-SAMPLING ERRORS

Non-sampling errors are the errors that do not occur because of sampling. These
errors may occur even if all elements of a given population are considered for a study.
In other words, non-sampling errors occur as a result of factors other than sample
selection. For example, a population contains 1000 elements. The researcher intends
to find the average income of the population. Even if the researcher considers all
1000 elements to find the average income, he/she may get inaccurate results
because of non-sampling errors. These errors occur due to various reasons, which
are:
€€ Improper division of sampling units of a population: The following
example explains why improper division of sampling units causes
non-sampling errors. Suppose an organisation wants to conduct a skill
development programme for its employees who do not have the required
skills to perform job duties. For this, the organisation needs to find out
the number of employees who need to attend the programme. To do so,
employee population of an organisation is divided as skilled population and
unskilled population. However, this division may not be a precise division
IT of the employee population. The reason is some people are involved in non-
technical jobs, some are involved in technical jobs and some people work
on multiple projects simultaneously. In addition, some people may be more
qualified but they perform unskilled jobs. Thus, because of the reasons, this
division of the employee population as skilled and unskilled workers is not
clear cut, which may lead to non-sampling errors.
€€ Poor response of respondents: This makes it difficult for the researcher to
derive accurate results. Usually, respondents show reluctance in supplying
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accurate information about their income, age and current level of education
and skills. The incorrect information provided by respondents leads to erratic
results, even if each element of the population is considered. For example,
a researcher intends to study the average annual income of the residents of
a particular town. The total number of residents in the town is 10,000. The
researcher, instead of doing sampling, collects data from all 10,000 people.
However, many residents do not provide correct data about their income.
Due to incorrect information, the researcher’s findings about the average
annual income would not be accurate.
Apart from these reasons, non-sampling errors may also be caused because
of selection bias, ambiguous population specification, sampling frame error,
processing error, respondent errors, non-response error, physical environment,
inadequacy of enumerators, etc.

7. Poor response of respondents leads to the non-sampling error that occurs

because of the prejudiced behaviour of the enumerator or the respondent
S elf during data collection. (True/False)
A ssessment
Q uestions 8. ___________ bias occurs because of lack of training or ability of the
enumerator for data collection.

74
 Sampling

4.5 METHODS OF SAMPLING

Sampling methods can be broadly classified into probability and non-probability
sampling methods. These methods, along with their subparts, are shown in
Figure 2:

Unrestricted
Sampling (Simple Systematic Random
Probability Random Sampling) Sampling
Sampling Methods
Restricted Sampling
(Complex Probability Stratified Random
Sampling Methods

Sampling) Sampling

Cluster
Sampling

Purposive Quota
Sampling Sampling

Non-Probability Snowball Judgement

Sampling Methods Sampling Sampling
IT Convenience
Sampling

Figure 2: Sampling Methods

Depending on the specific requirements of a research, a suitable sampling method

can be selected. Some important factors that affect the choice of a sampling method
are as follows:
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€€ Accuracy
€€ Supplementary information available about the given population
€€ Cost concerns
€€ Generalisations
Let us now discuss probability and non-probability sampling in the following
sections.

4.5.1 PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

Probability sampling refers to the method of sampling in which the probability
of selecting each item in the sample is known. Any method of sampling, which
utilises uniquely identified form of sampling is known as probability sampling.
In simple words, random sampling refers to selecting a sample from the given
population on a random basis. Random sampling has been in practice since long.
Examples of random sampling are tossing the coin and selecting a chit out of five
chits. There are three types of probability sampling, which are explained in the
following sections.

Unrestricted Sampling
In this type of probability sampling, each element in the population has equal
chance of selection in the sample. For example, a researcher needs to select
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Research Methodology and Management Decision

five elements out of the total population of 10. In this case, he/she knows that
the probability of selection of each element is equal because elements would be
selected on the basis of random sampling without any bias involved. Unrestricted
sampling is also known as simple random sampling.

Restricted Sampling
In this method, sampling is done on a restricted basis. This sampling is also called
a complex sampling method. Restricted sampling offers more efficient alternative
as compared to restricted sampling. Some of the common types of restricted
sampling are as follows:
€€ Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling refers to a sampling
method in which the sample is selected by dividing population into different
subgroups or strata.
For example, a human resource manager wants to assess the need of
training for employees working in his/her organisation. In this case, the total
population of that organisation constitutes the total number of employees.
Since the different levels of employees have different needs for training, the
manager divides the population into exclusive subgroups, such as clerical
IT workers, computer administrators, supervisors, lower-level managers and
middle-level managers. Now, data needs to be collected in such a way that
would help know the training need of each subgroup in the population. This
can be ensured by selecting the elements of each subgroup for the sample
with the help of the following two ways:
zz Proportionate stratified sampling: In this method, elements from all
the subgroups of population are selected corresponding to their exact
proportion in the population as shown in Table 3:
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Table 3: Example of Proportionate Stratified Sampling
Employees Number of Number of Elements
Elements in the Selected for the Sample
Population by Proportionate
Sampling
Clerical workers 500 100
Computer administrators 400 80
Supervisors 200 40
Lower-level managers 150 30
Middle-level managers 40 8
Top-level managers 10 2
1300 260

Table 3 exhibits the process of obtaining a sample by proportionate

stratified sampling. From the population of each subgroup, a proportion
of 20% employees has been selected for the sample. However, the
researcher might feel that only two members from the top-level
management cannot reflect the views of all 10 top-level managers and
only 8 members from the middle-level management cannot truly reflect

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 Sampling

the views of all 40 members. Therefore, he/she may alter the number and
might decide to use the disproportionate method instead.
zz Disproportionate stratified sampling: In this method, there is
no proportionate allocation of elements for the sample. Usually,
disproportionate sampling is done in case of differences in size of strata
and their variability as shown in Table 4:

Table 4: Example of Disproportionate Sampling

Employees Number of Number of Elements
Elements in the Selected for the Sample by
Population Disproportionate Sampling
Clerical workers 500 70
Computer 400 60
administrators
Supervisors 200 50
Lower-level managers 150 50
Middle-level managers 40 24
Top-level managers 10 6
IT 1300 260

In disproportionate sampling, as shown in Table 4, elements are not

selected on the basis of their proportion. Disproportionate sampling is used
in cases when the researcher wants to have a larger representation of one
or more groups in the overall sample. Researchers use disproportionate
stratified sampling because different strata have different variations.
€€ Systematic sampling: In systematic sampling, a sample is selected from the
sampling frame at regular intervals. In this type of sampling, the elements in
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the sampling frame are numbered consecutively. After this, a random number
is chosen. Thereafter, the sampling fraction is calculated as the ratio of actual
sample size and the total population. Starting with the randomly selected
number, samples are drawn using a frequency (inverse of the sampling
fraction). For example, if we need to select 100 units out of available 1000, the
sampling fraction is 1/10 and the frequency would be 10. It means that if a
researcher starts with a randomly selected element at number 3 (in sampling
frame), then, he would choose 13th, 23rd, …elements. Systematic sampling is
used in cases when the researcher has a complete list of all the members of
the population.
zz Cluster Sampling: In this type of probability sampling, the entire
universe is divided into groups or clusters. After that, these clusters are
selected on the basis of random sampling. All elements of the selected
clusters should be included in the sample leaving out all the elements
of the non-selected clusters. For example, a population has been divided
into 10 clusters named a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i and j. The researcher requires
only 3 clusters for his/her sample out of 10 clusters. Suppose 3 clusters,
namely a, i, and d, are selected randomly. In the sample, all elements
from these 3 clusters would be included.
Cluster sampling seems to be similar to stratified sampling, but in reality,
it is not. In stratified sampling, elements from all subgroups are selected.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

However, in cluster sampling, clusters themselves are selected and all

elements from the selected clusters are included in the sample.
In cluster sampling, due care should be taken to make clusters as
heterogeneous as possible. For example, the total population of a city has
been divided into five clusters for getting response from customers on
a particular product. Individually, each cluster should include as many
diverse customers as possible, such as female, male, young and old. This
method will result in a large sampling size as compared to stratified
random sampling. Cluster sampling is usually done on the basis of
geographical areas due to which more data can be collected using face-
to-face methods.

4.5.2 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

In non-probability (non-random) sampling, samples are collected in a manner
according to which all individuals in the population do not get equal chances of
being selected. The major advantage of this sampling is, that it is, less expensive.
However, the results obtained from non-probability sampling cannot be generalised
confidently for the entire population because an unknown proportion of the entire
IT population was not sampled. However, the results obtained from non-probability
sampling cannot be generalised with much confidence. Important types of non-
probability sampling are explained in the following sections.

Convenience Sampling
In this type of non-probability sampling, the researcher selects those elements
or subjects from the target population that are easily accessible to him/her.
For example, in a college, volunteers are required to organise a tree plantation
camp. The strength of the college is 2000 and the number of volunteers required
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is 50. In this case, the easiest way to select volunteers is their accessibility. The
researcher can select those students as volunteers who are easily accessible to him/
her. Convenience sampling helps in conducting pilot studies by facilitating the
researcher to obtain basic data. However, convenience sampling has a sampling
bias as the researcher selects the sample according to his/her own convenience.
Since the sample is not truly representative of the population, the results of the
study cannot be generalised for the whole population.

Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling method wherein the sample
is chosen purposively on the basis of certain characteristics of a population and
the objective of the study. For example, a researcher wants to gather opinion of
working mothers about conditions at their workplaces. In this case, the researcher
would contact only those women who are mothers and working. The females not
falling in this category would not be surveyed. There are two subtypes of purposive
sampling namely quota sampling and judgement sampling.

Quota Sampling
In this sampling method, the given population is first divided into mutually
nonoverlapping subgroups such as male|female|children or Indian|American|

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 Sampling

Asian|European or salary between ` 20,000 – 30,000pm| salary between ` 30,001 –

40,000pm, etc. The subgroups are divided in a manner such that they are a
replication of the population. Thereafter, a sample is formed by selecting members
from each subgroup according to the proportion of each subgroup in the total
population; this is called proportionate quota sampling. In case, the members from
each subgroup are selected based on a criteria other than proportion, it is called as
non-proportionate In quota sampling, the researcher ensures equal representation
of all elements from the population in the sample. Let us understand the concept
of quota sampling with the help of an example. A researcher is given the task
of interviewing 300 full-time professionals based on their nationality (American,
Indian and Chinese) in order to collect data regarding their perception of workplace
racism.

Proportionate quota sampling results in a representative sample because it contains

elements from all subgroups of the population as per their exact proportion in the
population. It is apt for those studies in which the researcher aims to investigate
the characteristics of a certain subgroup of the population.

However, sometimes, quota sampling results in a non-representative sample. The

IT
reason is that while forming subgroups of the given population, only some traits
of the population can be considered.

Judgement Sampling
In Judgement sampling, the elements or units from the population are selected on
the recommendation of experts in the field of research work that is being carried
out. The experts are asked to select the units that should be included in the sample
so that the sample is truly representative of the population. Usually, the expert
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selects such elements in the sample that can provide the best information on the
research subject. In judgement sampling, the reliability of sample directly depends
on the expert’s judgement. Quota sampling can also be considered as a type of
judgement sampling because the elements that are chosen for each quota depend
upon the judgement of the interviewer/researcher. For example, a researcher
wants to know the factors or conditions responsible for the success of women who
have achieved top positions in their respective fields of work. In this case, the best
information can be provided by women who have actually achieved and retained
such positions in various fields.

Suppose in an organisation, there are twenty members in the Board of Directors. If

one of them quits, the Chairperson may invite applications to this post or shortlist
some candidates from the middle managerial positions. Thereafter, he may call a
board meeting wherein the available candidates’ information is shared with all the
board members. After this, the process of selecting the board member involves two
stages. One, vote resolution needs to be passed by all other members of the board.
Two, the shareholders must pass a resolution in the Annual General Meeting of
the company. Each board member and the shareholder here casts his/her vote
according to their knowledge and expertise.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is also known as chain sampling or referral sampling. This
type of sampling is used in research where it is difficult to identify or locate the
units or elements to be included in the sample. In the snowball technique, the
researcher first picks up one or more subjects (to be included in sample) and then
he/she asks them to recommend or refer subjects who conform to the criteria for
being included in the sample. This process of referral is repeated with the new
subjects till the required number of subjects in the sample is fulfilled. This method
of sampling is called as snowball sampling because the process is akin to the
process of rolling a snowball downhill. The initial snowball size (sample subjects)
keeps on increasing in size till the snowball reaches a flat surface (desired sample
size is achieved). Snowball sampling is used in those cases where there is no list
of population of interest or when the subjects refrain from identifying themselves
socially or due to the secretiveness or illegality of the organisation for which they
work.
For example, for a research study, a researcher needs environmental photographers.
The researcher finds only four photographers; then he/she asks these four people
to provide information of more environmental photographers. On the basis of
their information, contacts are increased and sufficient data is collected.
IT 9. Sampling methods can be broadly classified into ___________ and
___________ sampling methods.
S elf
A ssessment 10. Probability sampling refers to the method of sampling in which the
Q uestions probability of selecting each item in the sample is known. (True/False)
11. ___________ sampling helps in conducting pilot studies by facilitating
the researcher to obtain basic data.
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12. Which of the following methods of sampling deals with the entire
universe or group of clusters?
a. Restricted sampling
b. Cluster sampling
c. Systematic sampling
d. Stratified random sampling

4.6 SUMMARY
€€ Sampling is the process in which a sufficient number of elements are selected
from a population for conducting a study. The characteristics and properties
of the selected sample are generalised for the whole population.
€€ Census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording
information related to all items in a population, whereas sample survey is
the study of some selected elements from the population.
€€ Sample design refers to a methodological plan to obtain a sample from a
population. Steps in developing a sample design are:
1. Selecting the type of population
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 Sampling

2. Deciding the sampling unit

3. Designing the sampling frame
4. Choosing the sampling method
5. Deciding the sample size
6. Considering budgetary constraints
€€ A good sample design should be feasible in the context of funds and should
be result oriented. Sample design should not be based on personal bias of
the researcher.
€€ Sample size should be determined carefully. A small sample size may not
be representative of the characteristics of the entire population. A very large
sample size may lead to waste of time, money and effort.
€€ Sampling errors, also known as random errors, occur due to observing
only a sample from an entire population for a study. The reason is that the
population taken for the study can have many potential samples.
€€ Non-sampling errors are the errors that do not occur because of sampling.
These errors would occur even if all elements of a given population are
IT €€
considered for a study.
In non-probability sampling, samples are collected in a manner according
to which all individuals in the population do not get equal chances of being
selected. Non-probability sampling methods include quota sampling,
convenience sampling, judgement sampling, purposive sampling and
snowball sampling.
€€ Probability sampling refers to the method of sampling in which the probability
of selecting each item in the sample is known. Probability sampling methods
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include restricted sampling, unrestricted sampling and cluster sampling.

4.7 KEY WORDS

€€ Enumeration: An act of mentioning the number of members of a population
one by one.
€€ Enumerator: A person who is responsible for performing enumeration.
€€ Pilot study: A small-scale preliminary study conducted before the main
research to judge the efficiency of research design.
€€ Sampling: The process of obtaining elements from the entire population.

4.8 CASE STUDY: SAMPLING IN XYZ LTD.

Established in 2001 in Gurgaon, XYZ Limited is a software organisation engaged
in IT and product development. Since 2005, the organisation’s activities have been
expanding continuously and it has started its offices in several foreign locations,
like US, Canada, UK and Budapest. Its workforce has also increased, signifying
the good growth of the organisation. However, the human resource department
of the organisation is concerned about the increased stress level of employees in
the last one year. The increasing stress of employees is affecting the organisation’s

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

retention policy as many employees are leaving. Therefore, the human resource
manager wants to offer stress management sessions to the employees facing a high
level of stress.

QUESTIONS
1. If Mr. X is the human resource manager, how should he select the employees
to offer stress management seminars?
(Hints: In this case, the number of employees in XYZ constitutes the whole
population. Since the workforce is quite large, different levels of employees
need different types of stress management sessions. The best way to do this
is dividing the population into different groups.)
2. In reference to above case study, which sampling method should be chosen
by the researcher – probability or non-probability sampling?

(Hints: Probability sampling)

4.9 EXERCISE
IT 1. Discuss the concept of sampling and its features.
2. What do you understand by the term sample design? Also, explain the steps
involved in sample design.
3. Explain the sampling errors in detail.
4. Describe the methods of sampling.

4.10 ANSWERS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

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Topic Q. No. Answer
Concept of Sampling 1. Sampling
2. True
3. a. Deciding the sampling unit
4. d. Considering budgetary constraints
Errors in Measurement and 5. a. Stratification
Sampling Errors
6. Reduce
Non-Sampling Errors 7. False
8. Unintentional
Methods of Sampling 9. probability, non-probability
10. True
11. Convenience
12. b. Cluster sampling

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 Sampling

4.11 SUGGESTED BOOKS AND E-REFERENCES

SUGGESTED BOOKS
€€ Biddle, J. and Emmett, R. (n.d.). Research in the history of economic thought and
methodology.
€€ Goddard, W. and Melville, S. (2011). Research methodology. Kenwyn, South
Africa: Juta & Co.
€€ Welman, J., Kruger, F. and Mitchell, B. (2005). Research methodology. Cape
Town: Oxford University Press.

E-REFERENCE
€€ Merriam-webster.com. (2018). Definition of SAMPLING. Available at: https://
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sampling [Accessed 2 Nov. 2018].
€€ Socialresearchmethods.net. (2018). Social Research Methods - Knowledge Base
- Sampling. Available at: https://socialresearchmethods.net/kb/sampling.php
[Accessed 2 Nov. 2018].
IT €€ Web.ma.utexas.edu. (2018). Types of Sampling. Available at: https://web.
ma.utexas.edu/users/parker/sampling/srs.htm [Accessed 2 Nov. 2018].
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IT
 CHAPTER

5
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING

Table of Contents
IT
Learning Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Concept of Measurement
5.2.1 Measurement Scales
5.2.2 Developing Measurement Tools
5.2.3 Basic Criteria of a Good Measurement Tool
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Self Assessment Questions
5.3 The Concept of Scaling Techniques
5.3.1 Types of Scaling Techniques
5.3.2 Bases of Scale Classification
5.3.3 Techniques of Scale Construction
Self Assessment Questions
5.4 Summary
5.5 Key Words
5.6 Case Study
5.7 Exercise
5.8 Answers for Self Assessment Questions
5.9 Suggested Books and e-References
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
IT
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:



Explain the concept of measurement
Discuss the scaling techniques
 Explain the various types of scales
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 Measurement and Scaling

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, you studied about the concept of sampling and the different
types of sampling errors. Now, we will discuss the concept of measurement,
scaling and data collection techniques. After the researcher has selected the
samples and finalised his sampling design, he/she proceeds for data collection
and measurement. Measurement is a process of assigning values or quantifying
physical objects or observations or abstract concepts. In the context of research,
the measurement is the process of assigning a symbol or a numeral to an object,
which can be in the form of a physical entity or an abstract idea. For example, if
we consider a human subject, height, weight, blood pressure are direct variables
whereas depression and happiness are constructs.
It is easier to measure physical objects with the help of a standard yardstick, as
they are quantifiable in nature. For example, height can be assessed in centimetre
and foot; area can be quantified in square metre, kilometre or hectare; and weight
can be calculated in kilogram. In addition to physical objects, the researcher needs
to measure abstract concepts such as happiness, sadness, attitude and leadership
qualities, which cannot be quantified because they are qualitative in nature.
Therefore, scaling techniques are adopted to measure such concepts. Defining in
IT simple words, scaling is assigning a symbol or a numeral in a scale, to measure
qualitative concepts.
A researcher may use different types of scales, such as rating scale, ranking scale,
arbitrary scale or differential scale, depending upon the nature of the research
problem. If the research problem is to assess whether the performance of employees
is good, bad, average, or outstanding, then the researcher requires an ordinal scale.
If the research problem is to assess the differences between cases represented by
private advocates and the court-appointed advocates; then, the researcher may
use nominal scale. If the researcher wants to study the number of arrests faced by
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a sample of offenders, the researcher may use ratio scale. Therefore, it is essential
for the researcher to select the most appropriate scale to measure concepts for
ensuring productive and accurate conclusions of the research.
The chapter begins by defining the basic concepts related to measurement along
with measurement scales. In addition, the chapter provides information about
the concept of scaling. A brief overview of scale classification and different
approaches of scaling is also presented. Towards the end, different types of scales
are discussed.

5.2 THE CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENT

In simple words, measurement means using a yardstick to determine the
characteristics of a physical object. In addition to physical objects, qualitative
concepts, such as songs and paintings, or an abstract phenomenon, can also be
measured. However, measuring qualitative concepts is a comparatively difficult
task because numbers cannot be easily assigned to them.
For example, it is easy to state that the weight of an object or a subject is 10 kg.
However, if a person is asked to measure a song for its good composition, then
it becomes difficult to say that the song is 10 per cent good or so. Today, there
exist standardised tools to measure abstract concepts such as intelligence, unity,

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

honesty, bravery, success and stress. High accuracy and confidence can be expected
while measuring quantitative characteristics of an object.

5.2.1 MEASUREMENT SCALES

A measurement scale refers to a classification that defines the nature of information
within the numerals assigned to variables.

The characteristics of a scale determine the level of measurement. Before

a researcher selects a measuring scale, he must understand the level of
N ote measurement.

Measurement scales have been classified into four types as shown in Figure 1:

Interval Scale
• Named and Ordered
Variables Having
Proportionate
Nominal Scale Interval between
• Named Variables Them
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Ordinal Scale Ratio Scale
• Named and • Named and
Ordered Variables Ordered Variables
Having Proportionate
Interval between Them.
It can also Accommodate
Absolute Zero
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Figure 1: Types of Measurement Scales/Levels of Measurement

Let us now discuss the types of measurement scales in detail:

€€ Nominal scale: In this scale, the variables are named or labelled in no specific
order. This is the measurement scale in which numbers are assigned to things,
beings or events to classify or identify or label them. All of the nominal scales
are mutually exclusive and bear no numerical significance. For example, the
assignment of different numbers (1, 2, 3, ...) to cricket players in a team, books
in a library, and computers in the Internet café. These numbers cannot be
used to perform mathematical operations. If 11 players of a cricket team are
assigned numbers from 1 to 11, finding the average of 1 to 11 does not signify
any meaning. In this case, the only use of these numbers is to count the team
members. The nominal scale represents the lowest level of measurement.
However, it is helpful when there is a need to classify data. For example,
for a question “What are your political views?”, we can have the following
nominal scale:

S. No. Objective
1 Left Orientation
2 Right Orientation

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 Measurement and Scaling

S. No. Objective
3 Centre
4 Conservative
€€ Ordinal scale: This is the scale that only implies greater than or less than
but does not answer how much greater or less. Only inequalities can be
set up with respect to ordinal scale and other arithmetic operations cannot
be performed. The ordinal scale can be used to make only comparisons.
In ordinal scale, data is shown in order of magnitude. An example of the
ordinal scale is as follows:
For example, the ordering of colour preferences of Mr. A are:

Car Colour Preferences

1 Silver
2 White
3 Black
4 Red
Thus, with the ordinal scale, researcher can use median or mode to determine
IT
€€
the central tendency of a set of ordinal data
Interval scale: This is the scale in which the interval between successive
positions is equal. The positions are separated by equally spaced intervals
or basis. For example, a person represents his/her level of happiness along
a scale rated from 1 to 10. With the interval scale, the following conclusions
can be made:
zz Number 1 represents least happy and number 10 represents most happy.
zz Number 6 represents a higher level of happiness than number 5.
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zz The difference in the level of happiness between 6 and 5 is same as the
difference in the level of happiness between 8 and 9.
zz However, the major problem with the interval scale is that the ratio of
two observations cannot be taken. It cannot be stated that number 4
represents double happiness level as compared to number 2.
The basic limitation of the interval scale is that it does not contain an absolute
zero. A simple example of the interval scale is the scale of temperature in
which absolute zero is unattainable theoretically. Therefore, the interval
scale does not have the provision to measure the absence of any characteristic
such as zero happiness (or absence of happiness). The interval scale contains
features of nominal and ordinal scales. In addition, it involves the concept of
equality of intervals. In the interval scale, more arithmetic operations, such
as addition and subtraction can be performed. Mean can be calculated for
interval scale.
€€ Ratio scale: This is the scale that contains absolute or true zero, which implies
the absence of any trait. For example, on a centimeter scale, zero implies the
absence of length or height. In the ratio scale, it is possible to take ratio of two
observations. For example, it can be stated that the weight of Ram is twice
that of Shyam. The ratio scale is the most powerful scale of measurement, as
almost all statistical operations, which cannot be performed by other scales,

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

can be performed by it. We can calculate mean, median, mode (if it exists)
and take ratios.

5.2.2 DEVELOPING MEASUREMENT TOOLS

Any tool used to measure or collect data is called measurement tool, which is also
known as assessment tool. There are several types of measurement tools, such as
observations, scales, questionnaires, surveys, interviews and indexes (or indices).
There are four stages of developing measurement tools, which are explained as
follows:
1. Concept development: This is the first stage in the process of development of
measuring tools. At this stage, the researcher develops a good understanding
of the topic he/she wants related to his research study. For example, a research
on the pros and cons of the multiparty political system requires a proper
understanding of the concept behind this system. Without referring to the
theories related to the multi-party system, a good understanding about this
system cannot be developed. However, if the research is being done on a
concept such as stress (which has already been researched extensively), no
exclusive concept building is required.
IT CONCEPTS, INDICATORS AND VARIABLES

At times, the concepts may not be measurable. In such cases, it becomes

E xhibit
imperative to operationalize the concept in measurable terms. It is essential in
order to minimise the variation in respondent’s understanding.

A variable can be a concept that can take on different values.

Concepts are based on mental perceptions; therefore, they vary from one
M
person to other. Concepts are measured by the use of constructs which is done
by variables. For example, good health can be measured by calorie intake/
nutritional value, daily exercises. A set of variables can be developed to
measure a concept.

In order that concepts are made measurable, it is important to operationalize

them (specify how they will be measured). This is done by identifying
indicators. Indicators are a list of criteria which are related to the concept
under study and can be converted into variables.

Concept Indicators Variables

2. Specification of concept dimension: After developing a concept at the first

stage, the researcher is required to clearly identify the dimensions of the
concept. For example, when a researcher wants to conduct a study related to
image of a company, he/she may relate image of the company to dimensions
or factors such as customer service level, customer treatment, product
quality, employee treatment, social responsibility, corporate leadership, etc.

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 Measurement and Scaling

3. Selection of indicators: At this stage, indicators for the research subject

are selected. Indicators help in measuring the elements of a concept such
as knowledge, opinion, choices, expectations and feelings of respondents.
Examples of indicators are variables. For example, the effectiveness of a
medicine (concept) used for treating a chronic disease is related to indicators
such as changes in the mortality rate, recurrence of that disease, etc. The
researcher may convert these indicators into variables that can be measured.
For instance, number of deaths caused by that disease, number of patients
who were again affected by that disease, can be the indicators of the said
concept.
4. Formation of index: After determining multiple elements of a particular
concept and selecting suitable indicators for the research, the researcher
needs to combine all the indicators into a summated scale because separate
indicators cannot give a certain measurement of the concept. For example, a
prices index is based on weighted sum of prices.

5.2.3 BASIC CRITERIA OF A GOOD MEASUREMENT TOOL

What should be the characteristics of a good measurement tool? The answer
to this question is that the tool should clearly and accurately indicate what the
IT
researcher intends to measure. In addition, the good measurement tool should
be easy to use and should give reliable results. The two major characteristics of a
good measurement tool are shown in Figure 2:

Criteria of a Good Measurement Tool

Reliability Validity
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Figure 2: Criteria for a Good Measurement Tool

Let us discuss the criteria of a good measurement tool in detail.

€€ Reliability: Reliability of a good measurement tool refers to the degree of
confidence with which the measurement tool can be used to derive consistent
results upon repeated application. A reliable instrument is not necessarily a
valid instrument. However, a valid instrument must be reliable. For example,
a scale is used to measure the weight of objects. The scale consistently shows
all objects to be overweight by 2 kg. In that case, the scale can said to be
reliable because it is consistent, but it is not valid at all. The reliability of
the measurement tool can be affected because of factors such as subject-
related factors, observer/interviewer reliability, instrument reliability and
situational reliability. Reliability of physical instruments can be tested
by using calibration. However, in case of non-physical instruments such
as questionnaires, the reliability of instruments is based on their stability
and internal consistency. Test-retest method is used to measure reliability
of the instruments. Reliability can be assessed by four methods viz. retest,
alternative-form test, split-halves test or internal consistency tests.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

€€ Validity: Validity refers to the degree to which a measurement tool succeeds

in measuring what is expected to be measured. Reliability and validity are
inter-dependent concepts. There can be reliability without validity; however,
there can be no validity without reliability. There can be three types of
validity based on which the validity of a measuring instrument is assessed.
These are content validity, criterion-related validity and construct validity.
Content validity refers to the judgement of one or more subject matter experts
regarding the measurement tool. At times, researchers use a well-established
measurement procedure [for example, an established survey (say Survey A)
for measuring stress level] that measures a variable of interest (say, V) as a
base for developing another measurement procedure [for example, newly
created survey (say Survey B) for measuring stress level] that measures
the same variable of interest V. Construct validity indicates how well the
measurement tool measures different constructs. Validity is assessed by
one of three methods: content validation, criterion-related validation and
construct validation.

1. ________________ is the measurement scale in which numbers are

assigned to things, beings, or events to classify or identify them.
S elf
ITA ssessment
Q uestions
2. Which of the following measurement scales contains absolute zero?
a. Interval scale b. Ratio scale
c. Nominal scale d. Ordinal scale
3. Any tool used to measure or collect data is called measurement tool,
which is also known as __________________.
4. Validity refers to the extent to which the content of the measuring
instrument provides adequate coverage of the topic. (True/False)
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5. The respondents may feel reluctant to answer questions correctly because
of fatigue, hunger or ill-health. (True/False)

5.3 THE CONCEPT OF SCALING TECHNIQUES

Scaling evolved out of efforts in psychology and education. However, scaling
remains one of the most hidden and misunderstood aspects of social research
measurement. It aims to perform one of the most complicated research tasks, that
is, measuring abstract concepts. Scaling refers to a procedure in which numbers
or other symbols are assigned to a property of objects. In simple words, scaling is
a method to assign quantitative numbers to abstract concepts. Usually, in a scale,
there are highest and lowest points with several intermediate points between
these two. In the scale, from the lowest to the highest points, all points exhibit an
increasing or decreasing degree of a characteristic.

5.3.1 TYPES OF SCALING TECHNIQUES

A scale refers to a tool or mechanism through which individuals are distinguished
as to how they differ from one another on the variables of interest of research.

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 Measurement and Scaling

Different researchers use different scales depending on the needs of their study.
The different types of scales are shown in Figure 3 as follows:

Types of Scaling
Techniques

Comparative Non-Comparative
Scales Scales

Continuous
Ranking Scale Rating Scale

Itemised Rating Scale

(Likert Scale, Semantic
Paired Scale, Differential Scale,
Comparison Stapel)

Summated
Rank Scale (Likert)
Order Scale
Semantic Differential
IT Constant
Sum Scale
Scale

Guttman Scale

Figure 3: Types of Scaling Techniques

Let us now discuss these scales.

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Comparative scales include scales wherein the researchers ask the respondents for
their relative preference between two or more objects. For example, “Do you prefer
Colgate or Babool?” Examples of comparative scales include paired comparison,
rank order, and constant sum scale.
€€ Ranking scale: Ranking scales are used to make relative judgements. There
are two approaches used in ranking scales, which are:
zz Paired comparison: This approach of ranking scale provides a way to
make comparisons among objects. For example, for almost every product,
there are numerous brands. In that case, the task of respondents becomes
quite difficult. According to the method of paired comparison, if there
are ‘n’ numbers of objects, then the respondents need to make (n (n–1))/2
comparisons. If there are 8 products, then the respondents needs to make
(8(8–1/2)) = 28 comparisons. If the number of comparisons becomes quite
large, then there is a risk because the respondents may show reluctance
to take part in the research. In such a case, comparisons can be reduced
by applying the law of transitivity. This law says that if A is preferred to
B and B is preferred to C, then A would automatically be preferred to C.
zz Rank order scale: In this approach of ranking scale, the respondents are
asked to rank their choices according to their preferences.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

The following is an example of the rank order method:

Items Choices
A 3
B 6
C 1
D 4
E 2
F 5
In the given example, 6 items are shown. The respondent was asked to rank
the items as per his/her preferences. Item C is the most preferred and item B
is the least preferred by the respondent.
€€ Constant sum scale: In the constant sum scaling, the respondents are asked
to rate the different attributes of an object and assign some number of units
to each attribute. The respondents have to rate each attribute in such a
manner that the total number of units or points equal the total number of
units assigned by the researcher or the experimenter. A respondent assign
number of units to each attribute based on the importance a respondent
IT assigns to the attribute. If the attribute holds no importance for an attribute,
the respondent can assign zero units to it. For example, an HR professional
may create a constant sum scale to know the relative importance of different
infrastructural attributes in an organisation such as clean washroom, sports
room, gymnasium, canteen, etc. The respondents must remember that the
sum of all the allocated units must be equal to 100.
After the response of all respondents has been noted, the numbers of points
earned by each attribute are counted. These values can be used to infer
results or help in research. Constant sum is an ordinal scale because of its
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comparative nature.
Non-comparative scales are those scales wherein each object is measured
independently of the other objects under the same research study. Absolute
results are obtained for each object. Examples of non-comparative scales include
continuous rating scales, Likert scale, etc. They are generally divided into two
categories: continuous rating scale and itemised rating scales.
€€ Continuous rating scale: A continuous rating scale is a type of scale wherein
the respondents are asked to rate different objects on a continuum according
to certain criterion. A continuum is a line running from one extreme value of
the criterion to the other extreme value of the criterion. The rating is given by
respondents by marking a point on the continuum.
€€ Itemised rating scale (Likert Scale, Semantic Scale, Differential Scale,
Stapel): In itemised rating scale, items are shown in the form of ordered
statements in and the respondents are required to select the category that
best describes the concerned item. The respondents are asked to select one
of the choices according to their preferences or opinions. The itemised rating
scales have a number of brief descriptions associated with each category.
Most commonly used itemised rating scales include Likert Scale (Summated
scale), Semantic Differential Scale, Thurstone and Guttman scale.

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 Measurement and Scaling

zz Summated scale (Likert): Summated scales are constructed by using the

item analysis approach. Such scales consist of a number of statements
that express either positive or adverse feelings toward any topic or idea.
The summated scale is most frequently used in studying social attitudes.
It follows the pattern developed by Likert; thus, the summated scale is
also termed as Likert scale. Most commonly, a Likert scale contains five
degrees of a statement. Let us know more about the Likert scale with the
help of the following example (statement and options).

Statement: The Internet is creating a positive impact on Children.
Strongly Agree (1)
Agree (2)
Neutral (3)
Disagree (4)
Strongly Disagree (5)
In the preceding example, there are five degrees of responses for the given
statement. The right extreme of the scale shows the strongest approval
of the statement, whereas, the left extreme indicates the strongest
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disapproval of the statement. The middle points are between these two
extremes. Each point on the scale has a numerical value. This example
constitutes only one statement, but more than one statement can be used
in Likert scale. In the Likert scaling method, each statement is assigned
a numerical value. The total score for each respondent is calculated by
considering his/her response to each statement.
zz Semantic differential scale: Factor scales are developed using the factor
analysis approach. The semantic differential scale is an example of factor
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scale and was developed by Charles E. Osgood, G.J Suchi and P.H.
Tannenbaum. It measures the connotative meaning of objects, events and
concepts. The semantic differential scale consists of bipolar adjectives,
such as good-bad and valuable-worthless. The respondent is asked to
select his/her position between these two adjectives. Let us understand
the concept of the semantic differential scale with the help of the
following example. A semantic differential scale analysing candidates
for a managerial position is shown in Table 1:

Table 1: A Semantic Differential Scale for Analysing Candidates for a Managerial Position
Statement: How do you rate yourself on the following traits?
Successful Unsuccessful
Progressive Regressive
Active Passive
Fast Slow
Strong Weak
Severe Lenient
True False
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

In Table 1, two adjectives are shown on two extremes. In between these

two extremes, scores (3, 2, 1, 0, –1, –2, and –3) are mentioned to rate
candidates according to the level of traits possessed by them. In Table 1,
successful-unsuccessful, progressive–regressive, and true–false represent
the evaluative attitude. The potency attitude is represented by the severe–
lenient and strong-weak pairs. The rest of the adjectives shown in Table
1 represent the activity factor. The semantic differential scale is widely
used to measure the attitude of different people.
zz Guttman scale: The cumulative scale consists of a series of statements to
which a respondent expresses his/her agreement or disagreement. It is
important to note that in the cumulative scale, statements appear in the
form of a cumulative series. It means that if there are seven statements
and the respondent agrees with statement 4, then he/she would also agree
with statements 1, 2 and 3. Let us understand the concept of cumulative
scale with the help of the following example:
99 I can do counting
99 I can do addition
99 I can do subtraction
IT 99

99
I can do multiplication
I can do division

5.3.2 BASES OF SCALE CLASSIFICATION

As discussed earlier, scaling is a procedure to assign numbers to abstract concepts.
There are some factors on the basis of which numbers are assigned. These factors
are explained as follows:
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€€ Subject orientation: In this basis of scaling, differences in the responses
obtained from different people are studied and examined.
€€ Response form: It refers to the style according to which responses would
be represented on a scale. Based on the responses, there can be two types of
scales, namely categorical and comparative. Categorical scales are used when
a respondent rates (scores) and object without reference to other objects. In
contrast, comparative scales (ranking scales) are used when a respondent
compares two or more objects.
€€ Degree of subjectivity: It refers to the development of scale either by
measuring personal preferences or non-preference judgements. In the first
case, respondents may be asked to select the person or solution they favour.
For example:
Which of the following organisations you favour the most?
a. A b. B
c. C d. D
In the second case, the respondent may be asked to judge which organisation
would be the most profitable. It is clear that in the second case, scope of
personal opinion is not there.

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 Measurement and Scaling

€€ Scale properties: In this basis of scale classification, scales can be classified

as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. These scales have already been
discussed in previous sections.
€€ Number of dimensions: Under this basis of scale classification, there are two
types of scales – one-dimensional scales and multidimensional scales. In the
one-dimensional scale, only one characteristic of the respondent or the object
is considered. In one-dimensional scales, each dimension is a construct. In
the multidimensional scale, an object can be described by using attribute
space of ‘n’ dimensions rather than using a single dimension.
€€ Scale construction approach: It refers to the scale-classification on the basis
of different approaches.
Let us discuss these approaches in the next section.

5.3.2 TECHNIQUES OF SCALE CONSTRUCTION

Scales are used in almost all fields of research. However, it is used extensively in
studies related to psychology and social sciences. In an attitude scale, different
questions are framed and the response of the respondent is noted. In developing the
IT
question statements, care must be taken so that the questions elicit the responses that
are psychologically related to attitude being measured. In addition, the question
statements must be made in such a way that the slightest of individual differences
are made visible. While carrying out the measurement, the researcher must take
into account the fact that respondents may conceal their true attitudes and spell
out only the socially acceptable opinions. At times, respondents may be faced with
a question about some incident or experience which they never have had. After
recognising all these issues and limitations, psychologists and sociologists have
developed five basic scale construction techniques. The researchers must know
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these techniques so that they can develop an appropriate scale for their study.

These scale construction techniques are shown in Figure 4 as follows:

Judgement Methods (Arbitrary Approach, Consensus

Approach, Item Analysis, Summated Scales)

Factor Analysis Approach

Figure 4: Techniques of Constructing Scale

Let us now discuss these techniques breifly.

€€ Judgement methods: These methods usually require the responses of
respondents that are based on their perception of the subject and their
judgements. These include the following approaches:
zz Arbitrary approach: In this approach, a scale is developed on an ad-hoc
basis. An arbitrary scale is developed for a specific purpose; therefore,
it cannot be generalised. Arbitrary scales are easy and inexpensive to
develop. Arbitrary scales can also be developed in a manner that they
are highly specific and adequate about a particular topic if designed by a
person skilled in scale designing.
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Research Methodology and Management Decision

zz Consensus approach: In this approach, items included in the scale are

decided by a panel of experts who evaluate the items for attesting their
relevance to the research topic, and the level of attitude the scale item
represents. Examples of scales developed using the consensus approach
include differential scales.
zz Item analysis approach or summmated scale approach: In item analysis,
the respondents’ responses to each individual item (question) in the test
are segregated based on the discriminating power of the item. Such
segregation helps in assessing the quality of each individual item and
of the test as a whole. This approach is used to select items which can
be reused in successive test or to select the items that should not be
reused in successive tests. An example of a scale developed using item is
summated scale.
€€ Factor analysis approach: In this approach, a correlation between different
items is established on the basis of a principal component. An example of a
scale developed using the factor analysis approach is semantic differential
scale.

International Stress Management Association (ISMA) uses various types of

IT E xhibit
questionnaires to determine the degree of stress of an individual. One such
example of a standardised and validated questionnaire used by ISMA is as
follows:
Answer all the questions but just tick one box that applies to you, either yes or
no. Answer yes, even if only part of a question applies to you. Take your time,
but please be completely honest with your answers:

Yes No
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1 I frequently bring work home at night
2 Not enough hours in the day to do all the things that I must do
3 I deny or ignore problems in the hope that they will go away
4 I do the jobs myself to ensure they are done properly
5 I underestimate how long it takes to do things
6 I feel that there are too many deadlines in my work / life that are difficult to meet
7 My self confidence / self esteem is lower than I would like it to be
8 I frequently have guilty feelings if I relax and do nothing
9 I find myself thinking about problems even when I am supposed to be relaxing
10 I feel fatigued or tired even when I wake after an adequate sleep
11 I often nod or finish other peoples sentences for them when they speak slowly
12 I have a tendency to eat, talk, walk and drive quickly
13 My appetite has changed, have either a desire to binge or have a loss of appetite
/ may skip meals
14 I feel irritated or angry if the car or traffic in front seems to be going too slowly/I
become very frustrated at having to wait in a queue
15 If something or someone really annoys me I will bottle up my feelings
16 When I play sport or games, I really try to win whoever I play
17 I experience mood swings, difficulty making decisions, concentration and
memory is impaired
18 I find fault and criticize others rather than praising, even if it is deserved
19 I seem to be listening even though I am preoccupied with my own thoughts
20 My sex drive is lower, can experience changes to menstrual cycle
21 I find myself grinding my teeth
22 Increase in muscular aches and pains especially in the neck, head, lower back,
shoulders
23 I am unable to perform tasks as well as I used to, my judgment is clouded or not
as good as it was
24 I find I have a greater dependency on alcohol, caffeine, nicotine or drugs
25 I find that I don’t have time for many interests / hobbies outside of work
A yes answer score = I (one), and a no answer score = 0 (zero). TOTALS

Sources: http://isma.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Stress-Questionnaire.pdf

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 Measurement and Scaling

6. The _________________ scaling refers to a process of visualising

similarities or dissimilarities in the data.
S elf
A ssessment 7. In which of the following bases of scaling, differences in the responses,
Q uestions obtained from different people, is studied and examined?
a. Subject orientation b. Degree of subjectivity
c. Response form d. All of the above
8. The cumulative scale consists of a series of statements to which a
respondent expresses his/her agreement or disagreement. (True/False)
9. ______________ scales are widely used for measuring a single attitude.

5.4 SUMMARY
€€ Measurement means using some yardstick to determine the characteristics
of any physical object. In addition to physical object, qualitative concepts,
such as songs, paintings, or any abstract phenomenon, can also be measured.
IT €€

€€
The nominal scale is a measurement scale in which numbers are assigned to
things, beings, or events to classify or identify them.
The ordinal scale only implies greater than or less than. It does not answer
how much greater or less. Only equalities can be set up with respect to
ordinal scale and other arithmetic operations cannot be performed.
€€ The interval scale is the scale in which the interval between successive
positions is equal.
The ratio scale is the scale that contains absolute zero, which implies the
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€€
absence of any trait.
€€ Any tool used to measure or collect data is called measurement tool, which
is also known as assessment tool.
€€ Validity refers to the ability of an instrument to measure what it is expected
to measure.
€€ Reliability refers to another important criterion of a good measurement tool.
A measuring instrument is reliable if it produces consistent outcomes.
€€ The approach according to which a scale is developed on an ad hoc basis.

5.5 KEY WORDS

€€ Ad hoc: A solution that is designed for a specific problem.
€€ Connotative: The figurative meaning of a word.
€€ Measurement: A yardstick to determine the characteristic of any physical object.
€€ Non-preference judgement: The style of judgement in which there is no
scope of personal bias.
€€ Scaling: A branch of measurement that tries to measure abstract concepts.

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5.6 CASE STUDY: RANK ORDER SCALING

In Indonesia, a toothpaste company named TZV Ltd. is proposing the launch of a
new brand of toothpaste in its product chain. Before launching the new product,
it thinks that it is imperative to gather material information about customer
preferences and the most leading brands in the toothpaste industry. The existence
of competitors in the market, desired expectations of consumers and their
preferences will enable the company to design its new product in accordance with
market requirements.
For this purpose, TZV Ltd. conducted small research on a sample of 200
respondents, using a questionnaire containing questions based on rank order
scale. The respondents were presented with 10 toothpaste brands simultaneously
and were asked to rank or order them according to their own presumed criteria.
The following instructions were given to the respondents:
“Rank the several brands of toothpaste in the order of your preference. Pick the
brand that you prefer the most and assign it a number 1. Assign a number 2 to
the second most liked brand. Continue with this process until all the brands have
been ranked in order of your preference. The least preferred brand of toothpaste
IT should be rated 10. Also, no two brands should be ranked in the same number. The
criteria of preference are entirely dependent on you. There is nothing like right or
wrong answer.”

Form for Preference for

Toothpaste Brands
Brand Rank Order
1 Sensodyne
2 Crest
3 Ultra Brite
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4 Colgate
5 Close Up
6 Antiplaqu
7 Oral B
8 Plus White
9 Pepsodent
10 Formula Action

By compiling and analysing the information received from the survey, the company
could make an assessment that the product characteristics present in Brand
5 (Close Up) were most valued by customers, followed by Brand 3 (Ultra Bite)
and Brand 9 (Pepsodent). The price, durability, quality, functionality, packaging
and other features of the top most brands gave the required market information
to the company for deciding the desired specifications in the new product to be
developed.
The value of competition prevailing in the toothpaste market could also be assessed
by the company. Although the survey gave details on the most favoured and
unfavoured brands, but could not reveal the distances between research objects
or the reasons for customers’ choices between different brands. It was felt that for
knowing about the criteria based on which consumers accept or reject a product
over one another, this survey could only provide limited insights. It could not
reveal why a product was important or unimportant to the respondents.

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 Measurement and Scaling

QUESTIONS
1. What are the limitations of the measurement scale used by TZV Ltd.?
(Hint: Rank order scale yields ordinal data. It gives better results only when
a direct comparison is required between research objects.)
2. What other scaling methods could be used by TZV Ltd.?
(Hint: No other scaling method can be used.)

5.7 EXERCISE
1. Explain the concept of measurement of scale in detail.
2. Describe the concept of scaling techniques.
3. Enlist the various types of scale.
4. Explain the comparative scales.
5. Describe the various non-comparative scales.
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5.8 ANSWERS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Topic Q. No. Answer

The Concept of Measurement 1. Nominal scale
2. b. Ratio scale
3. Assessment tool
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4. False
5. True
The Concept of Scaling Techniques 6. Multidimensional
7. a. Subject orientation
8. True
9. Differential

5.9 SUGGESTED BOOKS AND E-REFERENCES

SUGGESTED BOOKS
€€ Babbie, E. The practice of social research.
€€ Biddle, J., & Emmett, R. Research in the history of economic thought and
methodology.
€€ Detterman, D. (1985). Research methodology. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.
€€ Goddard, W., & Melville, S. (2011). Research methodology. Kenwyn, South
Africa: Juta & Co.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

E-REFERENCES
€€ Read the full definition. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.businessdictionary.
com/definition/research-methodology.html
€€ Research Guides: Organising Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 6. The
Methodology. (2018). Retrieved from http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/
methodology
€€ Research Methodology: Approaches & Techniques - Video & Lesson
Transcript | Study.com. (2018). Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/
lesson/research-methodology-approaches-techniques-quiz.html
€€ Research Methods. (2018). Retrieved from https://research-methodology.net/
research-methods/

IT
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 CHAPTER

6
DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Table of Contents
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Learning Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Data Collection
6.2.1 Types of Data
Self Assessment Questions
6.3 Methods of Data Collection
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6.3.1 Methods of Primary Data Collection
6.3.2 Methods of Secondary Data Collection
Self Assessment Questions
6.4 Factors Affecting the Selection of Data Collection Methods
Self Assessment Questions
6.5 Summary
6.6 Key Words
6.7 Case Study
6.8 Exercise
6.9 Answers for Self Assessment Questions
6.10 Suggested Books and e-References
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
IT
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:



Outline the importance of data collection
Differentiate between primary data and secondary data
 Explain the different methods of data collection
 Discuss the factors affecting the selection of data collection methods
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 Data Collection Techniques

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, you studied about the construction of measurement
scales and different types of scaling techniques used for measurement of objects
in research. After completing this part of the research design, the next step is to
collect data from the respondents. This chapter focusses on methods of collection
of data. Data can be collected from two types of sources, i.e., primary or secondary.
Every researcher requires several data gathering tools and techniques. Data
collection methods form an integral part of the research design. There are various
data collection methods and each has its merits and demerits. These tools vary
in design, complexity, interpretation and administration. Each data collection
tool is suitable for gathering a certain type of information. The problems that are
researched with the usage of appropriate data collection method largely enhance
the value of research study. Different tools available for data collection are
interviews, questionnaires, schedules, observation techniques, etc. The researcher
should select a tool from the available ones which will best provide the data that
is sought for testing the research hypothesis. If the existing research tool does not
suit the purpose of research, then the researcher must modify the tool accordingly
or construct some other tool. Reliability and accuracy must be maintained in the
IT process of data collection.
This chapter begins by defining primary data and secondary data. The primary
data refers to the information gathered first-hand by the researcher on the interest
variables for the specific purpose of the research study. On the other hand, the
secondary data refers to information gathered from already existing sources
like records of companies, government publications, etc. In the latter part of the
chapter, various methods of primary data collection and secondary data collection
are discussed in detail. Factors affecting the selection of data collection methods
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are described at the end of the chapter.

6.2 DATA COLLECTION

A research can be done on any subject related to any stream, including management,
computers, medical engineering, etc. However, every type of research requires
data to be collected from various sources. The process of gathering data for the
research is known as data collection. Data collection can be defined as a process
of collecting information from all the relevant sources for finding answers to the
research problem, for testing the hypothesis, and for evaluating the results.

No research can be carried out without sufficient, useful and relevant data. To
obtain accurate data, it is important for a researcher to approach the right resource.
For instance, if the researcher wants to conduct research on the most prevailing
disease, then he/she would approach doctors to collect data for a number of
patients suffering from different types of diseases. After collecting data, the
researcher processes and analyses the data to obtain meaningful information.

6.2.1 TYPES OF DATA

Data is basically a collection of facts and figures retrieved from observations
or surveys. It is collected by a researcher keeping in view the objectives of the
research study.
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Research Methodology and Management Decision

There are mainly two types of data, which are explained below:
1. Primary data: Primary data are the data that are collected fresh and for the
first time. The researcher may himself collect this data directly from the
respondents or through his team. Since this data has not been published yet
anywhere, it proves to be more objective and authentic for research objectives.
The relevance of this data is higher than other data because it has not been
altered. The primary data can be collected through field observations,
surveys, questionnaires or through experiments. It can include a wide
geographical coverage and a large population. The degree of accuracy of
primary data is very high because they are specific to researcher’s needs and
relevant to the topic of the research study. Moreover, since the primary data
is current, it can provide a realistic view of the topic under consideration to
the researcher.
For example, For example, when an explorer visits an unexplored piece of
land or a new species of animal and records the same in photographs, audio
or video recordings; then, these serve as a source of primary data.
2. Secondary data: It refers to the data that was collected in the past but can be
utilised in the present scenario/research work. The collection of secondary
data requires less time in comparison to collecting primary data.
IT For example, census reports and records collected by Central Statistical
Organisation (CSO) are examples of secondary data.

1. ________________ refers to the data that does not have any prior existence
and is collected directly from the respondents.
S elf
A ssessment 2. ________________ refers to the data that has already been collected by
Q uestions other sources and is readily available.
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6.3 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Selecting the right method for data collection is important to get reliable data. The
different methods of primary and secondary data collection are described in the
upcoming section.

6.3.1 METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

There are various methods of primary data collection, as shown in Figure 1:

Methods of Primary Data Collection

Observation Method Survey Method

Schedule Interview
Method Method

Sociometric Questionnaire
Method Method

Figure 1: Methods of Primary Data Collection

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 Data Collection Techniques

Let us discuss these methods in detail.

€€ Observation method: In this method, the population of interest is observed to
find out relevant facts and figures. Observation method is a technique under
which data is collected by the observer from the field; through the process of
recording behavioural patterns of people, objects and occurrences without
communicating or questioning. It may be defined as the process of systematic
viewing coupled with a recording of the observed phenomenon. It is used
for studying the dynamics of a given situation, for making frequency counts
of target behaviours, or for reviewing any other behaviours as indicated by
the evaluation needs.
For example, site visits may be made to an after-school programme for
documenting the interactions between youth and staff present within the
programme. This method is generally suitable when the researcher wants to
gather currently prevailing real-life information for his research.
It offers the following advantages:
zz This technique can be stopped or begun at any time
zz It provides access to large sections of people
IT
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
zz It is a time-consuming activity
zz The result is dependent upon the performance of the observer
Observation is done using the following methods:
zz Natural method: In this method, the researcher observes the behaviour
of people without any intervention.
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For example, the researcher observes bikes passing on the road to study
the most popular brand in the city. In addition, the researcher can observe
the activities, movements, gestures and facial expressions of people. It
takes place when the people being observed have no idea that they are
being observed.
It offers the following advantages:
99 It is the simplest method
99 It does not require the willingness of the people to report
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
99 Not all occurrences may be open to observational studies
99 When the researchers are collecting natural observations, they usually
do not acquire the informed consent of the people being observed
which makes it somewhat unethical.
zz Contrived method: Under contrived observation method, a research
setting is created by the observer in order to carry out the research. All the
respondents are observed in this simulated environment. The researcher
can control all major aspects of the research environment. Therefore,
data can be collected easily and quickly. It takes place when people are
aware of their participation in the study but do not have an idea about
what aspects are being observed.
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Research Methodology and Management Decision

For example, when a group of people’s reaction towards a particular

situation such as impact of different types of bacteria and resistance level
of people is being observed in a laboratory set-up.
It offers the following advantages:
99 It is easier than the natural method
99 The researcher has full control over the method
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
99 The artificial environment may increase the frequency of certain
behavioural patterns to be observed
99 Contrived method is less natural than other forms of observation.
zz Direct method: In this method, the researcher waits for a particular
experiment or behaviour to occur. This process takes a longer time to get
a single response.
For example, the researcher is observing the sale of new products in an
automobile showroom. In this case, the researcher has to wait till the time
a customer comes in the showroom and asks for the new product. When
IT the customer comes and sees the new product, he/ she may or may not
purchase it on the same day. In such a situation, the researcher has to
wait till that customer comes back to buy the product. This method is
used when other data collection procedures like survey/questionnaire
are not effective or when the objective is to analyse an ongoing behaviour
process.
It offers the following advantages:
99 The physical outcomes can be readily counted
M
99 The method is easy to execute and complete
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
99 It is a time taking procedure
99 It requires high diligence on the part of the observer
In direct method, the researcher directly observes and records the actions
of the people under study. On the contrary, in indirect observation, the
researcher reports the event through documents or correspondence
diaries, or organisational files. The researcher usually observes the
effects of the behaviour which is recorded using mechanical or electronic
devices.
For example, the calls between customer care executives and customers
are recorded in various call centres for training and quality purposes.
zz Structured method: In this method, the researcher knows what is to be
observed.
For example, if the researcher has to know about a particular brand of
car, he/she would observe only that brand of car and would not pay
any attention to other car brands. The structured method consumes less
time and makes it easier for the researcher to analyse the data. It is used

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 Data Collection Techniques

when the researcher specifies in detail what has to be observed and how
measurements have to be recorded.
For example, an auditor doing inventory analysis.
It offers the following advantages:
99 It simplifies and systematises the data recording process
99 It is likely to produce quantitative data beneficial for analysing and
comparing information
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
99 Results are not detailed and in-depth
99 It is useful for studying small scale interactions only
zz Unstructured method: In this method, the researcher does not know
what exactly he/she has to observe. The unstructured method is used in
exploratory research. In this method, the researcher wants to search all
the aspects that can affect a particular problem.
For example, the researcher observes the buying behaviour of people
for different brands of the same product. He/she would study all factors
IT that can affect the buying decision of people. After that, he/she would
analyse the buying decision for a particular brand. Under this method,
the researcher enters the research field with some idea of what might be
important, but not of what exactly will be observed.
It offers the following advantages:
99 The observer has the freedom to decide and observe everything that
is relevant
M
99 It is more explorative than the structured method
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
99 It is an unfocused approach with the investigator documenting as
much as possible
99 It is more time-taking than the structured approach.
zz Mechanical method: In this method, the researcher uses some devices to
observe people’s response. Examples of these devices are video cameras
and audiometers. This method has application in real-time scenarios
such as voice pitch meters for measuring emotional reactions, analysing
traffic flows in the urban square, monitoring website traffic, etc.
It offers the following advantages:
99 It does not require the direct participation of the respondents
99 It is subject to a low level of observation bias
99 The method is more accurate as compared to natural method and its
recordings can also be reviewed later for further detailed study
This method suffers from the limitation of bearing the expenses of
advanced technology.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

In nutshell, the observation method helps in getting non-biased responses

from the respondents; and, therefore provides accurate data for the
research. However, this method does not allow the researcher to evaluate
the past data. This method is used to study only the present scenarios.
€€ Survey method: The essence of the survey method is explained as questioning
individuals on a certain topic and describing their responses accordingly.
It is used to test concepts, reflect the attitude of people, establish customer
satisfaction level, conduct market segmentation research, and so on. Surveys
can be conducted in a faster and cheaper manner as compared to other
methods of data collection such as observation method. However, they
are subject to the human bias of the respondents and their unwillingness
to provide information. The survey method is further categorised into four
types, i.e., interview method, questionnaire method, the sociometric method
and schedule method.
zz Interview method: The interview method is basically used to do an
in-depth study of the research problem. In this method, the researcher
asks the respondents to react or speak on a particular topic or situation.
In this method, the researcher is in a better condition to study the
attitudes, motivation level and opinions of the respondents. However,
IT the researcher should keep certain things in mind while conducting the
interviews. Sometimes, it is very difficult for the researcher to ask direct
or personal questions because the respondents are not willing to answer
such questions. Therefore, the researcher should make the interview
environment comfortable to get the answers to personal questions from
the respondents. An interview offers the researchers an opportunity to
uncover information that is otherwise not accessible using techniques
such as questionnaires and observations. However, this method has the
potential of being affected by subconscious bias; because interviewees
M
will only reveal information which they are prepared to give about their
perceptions of opinions and events.
For example, in a job interview, the recruiters usually try to get information
regarding the work attitude of the prospective employees. For instance,
if an organisation has a work culture of continuous and perpetual crisis
situation; then, the employer must question the candidate whether he/
she will be able to perform under conditions of stress and if yes, how?
The interview method is further divided into some sub-methods, which are:
99 Structured interviews: In these interviews, the researcher prepares
questions and decides their sequence before the interview. This
method is used for validating results when the number of participants
is quite large. Structured interviews are conducted using a set
of previously decided questions and the same set of questions is
administered to all the participants. Structured interviews should be
used in case of research related to areas where literature is highly
developed or after using observational or some other less structured
approach.
For example, a structured interview can include questions such as
1. How (as an HR) will you handle handle a situation of under-
staffing.
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 Data Collection Techniques

2. What were your major achievements in the previous job?

3. Which manager in your previous jobs was best according to you
and why?
4. Which organisations do you dream of working in at some point
in time and Why?
It offers the following advantages:
 They are easy to replicate because a fixed set of questions are used
 They are fairly quick to conduct and the results obtained are
representative of a large population
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
 This method is not flexible because a fixed interview schedule
has to be followed
 The answers lack detail and closed questions only generate the
quantitative data
99 Unstructured interviews: In these interviews, questions are not
predefined. The researcher asks questions according to the situation
IT and environment of the interview. This method is used for probing
more details of a participant so as to assess and judge his responses.
Unstructured interviews are carried out when the researcher wants
to explore detailed information about the thoughts or behaviour of
interviewees.
It offers the following advantages:
 This method is more flexible as questions can be adapted and
changed based upon the respondents’ answers
M
 It generates qualitative data with the use of open questions
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
 It may be time-consuming
 It is cost intensive as it includes the costs of employing and
training the interviewers
 The participants are interviewed one at a time.
99 Individual in-depth interviews: In these interviews, the researcher
takes the interview of one respondent at a time. These interviews
prove useful in getting in-depth knowledge of the topic under study
from each respondent. However, individual in-depth interviews are
time-consuming.
It offers the following advantages:
 More complete answers can be obtained if there are certain doubts
in the mind of the interviewer
 The researcher can analyse the body language of the interviewees
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
 It is time-consuming and capital intensive
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Research Methodology and Management Decision

 The respondents may be self-conscious and may not answer

trustfully
99 Focus Group interviews: In these interviews, the researcher takes
the interview of a group of respondents at a time. The groups of
respondents can be further classified into consumer panels. In one
consumer panel, there are 8 to 12 members and they are provided
with a topic for discussion. They are informed about the motive for
conducting the interview, the various aspects that would be covered
during the discussion, and the guidelines of the interview. Consumer
panels are used to collect in-depth data from a group of people about
their experiences and perceptions related to a specific matter. Group
interviews are more structured and, are thus, easy to evaluate. In
consumer panels, people are selected randomly and introduced to a
new product, flavour or advertisement. Thereafter, they are asked to
discuss their experiences with each other. This helps the researcher in
assessing interviewees’ responses with respect to the product.
For example, when a group of 10 members of a sales team are inter-
viewed and asked about their opinions related to a particular sales
strategy.
IT It offers the following advantages:
 It helps in collecting the inputs of multiple persons in one session
 Group interaction can provide in-depth discussion and greater
insight
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
 This method requires a skilled facilitator to conduct the interview
M
 Only a limited number of questions can be asked in group
interviews
99 Telephonic interviews: The researcher takes these interviews with
the help of a telephone. The researcher searches the telephone
numbers of people and contacts them to get information. Telephonic
interviews are convenient for the researcher, as they save traveling
cost and time.
For example, many organisations today prefer to conduct a telephonic
interview before calling candidates for the interview. The usual
questions included in a telephonic interview include:
1. Breifly describe about yourself.
2. Why do you want to change your job?
3. How did you come to know about this job?
4. What particular attributes of this position do you find interesting?
It offers the following advantages:
 It is cheaper and faster than the personal interview method

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 Data Collection Techniques

 Since there is no face to face contact, the respondents may be

willing to give information which they might reluctantly provide
in a personal interview
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
 Surveys have to be restricted to the respondents who have
telephonic facilities
 Designing effective telephonic surveys is a tedious and
challenging task
99 Computer-assisted interviews: As is clear from the name, the
researcher takes interviews with the help of computers. There are two
types of computer-assisted interviews, namely Computer-Assisted
Telephonic Interviews (CATI) and Computer-Assisted Personal
Interviews (CAPI). In the CATI, a computer system is connected with
the telephone of the interviewer. The questions appear on the screen
of the computer and the interviewer asks those questions through the
telephone. The interviewer feeds the responses of the interviewees in
the computer system. In the CAPI, interviewees can administer their
interviews themselves with the help of software installed in their
IT systems. They can directly feed their responses in computer systems.
This method is used for conducting business-to-business research at
various trade shows or conventions.
It offers the following advantages:
 It makes implementation of surveys possible in a shorter period
of time and with lesser costs
 Data collection is not limited by geographical or time constraints
M
of interviewees
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
 It requires expert knowledge of computer-aided tools and
technology
 Respondents or interviewers must have access to a computer
system
Interviews provide in-depth knowledge of the topic and help in get-
ting responses from a large population. Moreover, less cost and effort
are involved in telephonic interview and CAPI technique. However,
interviews do not rule out the influence of interviewer on the respon-
dent.
zz Questionnaire method: A questionnaire represents the written form of an
interview; however, there is one difference between a questionnaire and
an interview. It is easy to code a questionnaire than an interview because
the questions in a questionnaire are mostly in quantitative form while
the questions in an interview are mostly in qualitative or exploratory
form. A questionnaire is known as a research instrument comprised of a
series of questions, used for the purpose of gathering information from
the respondents. It is generally used to collect useful information from a
large population in a short period of time.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

It offers the following advantages:

99 Questionnaires are cheaper and do not require much effort on the part
of the questioner as compared to other verbal or telephonic surveys.
99 Data can be collected from a large number of people
99 Quantifiable answers provided by a standard questionnaire are easy
to compile and analyse
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
99 Questionnaires are limited by the fact that the respondents must be
able to correctly understand and respond to questions
99 Designing a good questionnaire requires a lot of effort and skill
A detailed explanation of the questionnaire method is given in Chapter 7
of this book.
zz Sociometric method: The sociometric method/test enables the researcher
to analyse a social group or workgroup by studying attractions and
repulsions among group members. In this method, a social group
is taken and its members are asked to perform some activities in a
IT particular situation. This method is used to understand the interaction,
communication, and choices of individuals in a group. The researcher
uses the sociometric test to find out the relationship pattern within a
group. On the basis of the choices of individuals, a sociogram or socio-
matrix is built to study these patterns. The process of the sociometric
method involves three steps which are as follows:
99 Introduction: The researcher informs the respondents how to perform
activities
M
99 Gathering information: The researcher asks questions from the
respondents
99 Drawing conclusion: The researcher starts interpreting the responses
of the team members and drawing conclusions from the data collected
This method presents an insight of flow of information within a social
group. However, at the same time, it increases the necessity to have a
skilled researcher. This method is generally used to describe and evaluate
social status, social structure, or social development by measuring the
extent of acceptance or rejection among individuals in the group. In
short, it is a graphical representation to study social relationships and
social problems.
zz Schedule method: The schedule method is same as the questionnaire
method as both the methods contain a set of questions in the written
form. The main difference between the two is that in the schedule method,
enumerators are appointed to conduct the research. These enumerators
meet the respondents personally and fill the questionnaires themselves.
Sometimes the responses can also be filled by the respondents but in the
presence of enumerator, who can guide them, if they face any problem.
The schedule method is the most used method by government agencies,
research institutes, or big organisations to make extensive enquires on

114
 Data Collection Techniques

a certain issue. This method increases the chances of getting accurate

responses and the number of responses as compared to the questionnaire
method. However, this method consumes more time and involves more
cost, as enumerators have to be appointed.
It offers the following advantages:
99 It reduces the non-response level of the respondents to a negligible
level as opposed to the higher level of non-response in the
questionnaire method
99 Information can also be collected from the illiterate respondents
99 The identity of persons is known to ensure that expected respondents
have filled the answers
It suffers from the following disadvantages:
99 It is costly than questionnaire method as it requires field workers
99 This method is difficult to use if the researcher wants to cover a wide
IT area

6.3.2 METHODS OF SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION

As secondary data has been collected in the past, it can be retrieved from various
sources by the researcher. The following are sources for collecting secondary data:
€€ Company records: They provide information in the form of balance sheets
and sales records. This information is used to perform trend analysis of the
data and forecasts the overall growth of a company in the future. It also helps
in deciding whether the company is moving on the right track to achieve its
vision or not. Company records are maintained every year by the company
M
itself.
€€ The Internet: It gives information regarding previous researches done on
the same topic. The Internet also provides lots of data related to research
from different sources.
€€ Print media: It offers information that is publicised. Print media includes
newspapers, magazines, books, research papers and journals. The data
collected from print media is used to get an overview of the present market
situation and experts’ opinions on different topics.
€€ Census and other government records: They include large data of each and
every individual of the state. This data contains personal information of
respondents. It is used mostly used by government and big organisations.
This type of data helps in conducting research on a big scale.
€€ Indirect method: In this method, the researcher observes the behaviours that
have occurred in the past. Using recordings, journals, magazines, industry
publications, etc. This method consumes less time and is less expensive as
compared to the other methods. Suppose a researcher needs to know the
sale of a particular brand in a store. In this case, data can be collected from
registers showing the sale of different products in the store.

115
Research Methodology and Management Decision

3. The sociometric method/test enables the researcher to analyse a social

group or workgroup by studying attractions and repulsions among the
S elf group members. (True/False)
A ssessment
Q uestions 4. The schedule method is same as the sociometric method as both the
methods contain a set of questions in the written form. (True/False)
5. Which of the following provide information in the form of balance sheets
and sales records?
a. Company records b. The Internet
c. Print media d. Census

6.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS

The selection of an appropriate method of data collection depends on a number of
factors, which are as follows:
€€ The objective of research: It plays an important role in determining the
IT €€
method of data collection. It defines the motive of conducting research,
which, in turn, helps in knowing the type of data (quantitative or qualitative)
that needs to be collected.
The time frame for research: This is the duration within which research
needs to be completed. If the time frame to complete the research is less, the
researcher would use data collection methods that are less time-consuming.
However, if the time to complete the research is more, then the researcher
can use data collection methods that take more time but provide relatively
authentic data such as an in-depth interview used for exploratory study.
M
€€ Availability of resources/funds: If the researcher has sufficient funds to
conduct the research, he/she can use expensive methods of the data collection;
otherwise, he/she has to look for economical methods.
€€ Precision: It refers to the measure of how close a result comes to its true
value. If the data collection is not done with precision, the findings of the
research would not be valid.
€€ Skills of the researcher: This makes or destroys the whole effort of data
collection. Selection of a skilled researcher is necessary because if the
researcher is unskilled, he/she may not be able to select the right method of
the data collection.
€€ Size of sample: Different types of data collection methods are suitable for
different sample sizes. Therefore, the researcher must select the type of data
collection method based on the sample size. For example, it would be highly
inconvenient to administer a questionnaire to the participants of a census
survey.

6. Selection of a skilled researcher is necessary because if the researcher is

S elf unskilled, he/she may not be able to select the right method of the data
A ssessment collection. (True/False)
Q uestions
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 Data Collection Techniques

Suppose you are given the responsibility by your organisation for conducting
A ctivit y research on the popularity of baby food brands among consumers. Which data
collection method would you prefer to select for conducting the research?

6.5 SUMMARY
€€ The process of collecting data for research purposes is known as data
collection.
€€ Primary data is the data that does not have any prior existence and is collected
directly from the respondents.
€€ The data that is collected in the past but can be utilised in the present scenario/
research work is known as secondary data.
€€ Observation method is a technique under which data is collected by the
observer from the field; through the process of recording behavioural patterns
of people, objects and occurrences without communicating or questioning.
€€ A questionnaire is known as a research instrument comprised of a series
IT €€
of questions, used for the purpose of gathering information from the
respondents.
The selection of an appropriate method of data collection depends on a
number of factors such as objectives of research, resource availability, etc.

6.6 KEY WORDS

€€ Observation: It is the process or action of closely monitoring something or
M
someone.
€€ Survey: A general investigation of the experiences or opinions of a group of
persons so as to record the facts or features.
€€ Enumerator: A person employed in executing a specific task, for example, in
taking a census of the population.

6.7 CASE STUDY: BUYERSYNTHESIS’S PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION FOR ABC

BuyerSynthesis is a consultancy organisation that provides primary data collection
services. It provides consumer insights to its various clients which include
consumer-facing companies, creative agencies and non-profit organisations.
This organisation was established in 2002 and is located in Denver, USA. The
organisation helps its clients by creating more effective marketing strategies and
plans by better understanding their buyers.

BuyerSynthesis believes that the consumers are the most important factor in
any business. Therefore, the organisations must become consumer-oriented.
BuyerSynthesis helps in taking the voice of an organisation’s consumers to
the concerned organisations which can then plan their marketing strategies
accordingly.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

BuyerSynthesis team carries out primary research projects along with their client’s
in-house teams to carry out their research.

BuyerSynthesis worked with an organisation ABC (a non-profit organisation). The

management of ABC wanted to research ways in which it can refresh its image
so as to attract new generation people without losing its loyal customers. The
organisation also wanted to bridge the gaps with its core audiences.

In order to carry out data collection for this, BuyerSynthesis started with an
internal audit of the marketing department of ABC so that they may assess the
challenges and the resources of ABC. This was essential in order to find out what
aspects of marketing required refurbishing and whether the recommendations of
BuyerSynthesis would be feasible for them or not.

To begin with their research, BuyerSynthesis roped in numerous participants

from ABC’s audience to carry out its focus group research. the focus groups were
segmented using three categories viz. generation, visitation frequency and when
their last visit to ABC was.

The focus groups were moderated and they discussed the following aspects:
IT €€

€€

€€
What ABC meant to them?
What changes in the organisation they would like to see?
What could the effect of innovations on them?
All the participants narrated their experiences with respect to the recent and
memorable experience.

Focus group research helped BuyerSynthesis in gaining information regarding who

ABC’s audience was and what attributes were important for them. BuyerSynthesis
M
also recognised that the organisational members felt a high degree of personal
attachment with ABC and they deeply appreciated it.

On the basis of research, BuyerSynthesis made certain recommendations which

helped ABC in enhancing the relationship between the organisation and its clients
and at the same time keep the costs under control. This research led ABC to
develop innovative audience engagement and delivery plans. In addition, process
of planning infrastructure improvement was also expedited.

QUESTIONS
1. Describe the nature of BuyerSynthesis as an organisation.
(Hint: BuyerSynthesis is a marketing research organisation and it helps its
clients by creating more effective marketing strategies and plans by better
understanding their buyers.)
2. What were the major topics that were discussed within the focus groups
created by BuyerSynthesis for ABC?
(Hint: The major topics that were discussed within the focus groups included:
What ABC meant to them?; What changes in the organisation they would
like to see, etc.)

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 Data Collection Techniques

6.8 EXERCISE
1. Define the data collection and describe the different types of data collection
in detail.
2. Explain the different methods of primary data collection.
3. How is data collected using the schedule method?
4. Explain the different methods of secondary data collection.
5. Which factors are to be considered while selecting the methods of data
collection?

6.9 ANSWERS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Topic Q. No. Answer
Data Collection 1. Primary data
2. Secondary data
Methods of Data Collection 3. True
IT Factors Affecting the Selection of Data
4.
5.
6.
False
a.
True
Company records

Collection Methods

6.10 SUGGESTED BOOKS AND E-REFERENCES

M
SUGGESTED BOOKS
€€ Babbie, E. The practice of social research.
€€ Biddle, J., & Emmett, R. Research in the history of economic thought and
methodology.
€€ Detterman, D. (1985). Research methodology. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.
€€ Goddard, W., & Melville, S. (2011). Research methodology. Kenwyn, South
Africa: Juta & Co.

E-REFERENCES
€€ Research Methodology: Approaches & Techniques - Video & Lesson
Transcript |Study.com. (2018). Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/
lesson/research-methodology-approaches-techniques-quiz.html
€€ Research Methods. (2018). Retrieved from https://research-methodology.
net/research-methods/

119
M
IT
 CHAPTER

7
INTRODUCTION TO QUESTIONNAIRE
DESIGNING

Table of Contents
IT
Learning Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Concept of Questionnaire Designing
7.2.1 Features of a Well-designed Questionnaire
Self Assessment Questions
7.3 Types of Questions in a Questionnaire Designing
M
7.3.1 Errors in Responses
Self Assessment Questions
7.4 The Steps of Questionnaire Designing
Self Assessment Questions
7.5 Designing an Effective Questionnaire
Self Assessment Questions
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
7.8 Case Study
7.9 Exercise
7.10 Answers for Self Assessment Questions
7.11 Suggested Books and e-References
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
IT
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:



Describe the concept of designing a questionnaire
Identify the different types of questions used in a questionnaire designing
 List the steps used in a questionnaire designing
 Discuss how to design an effective questionnaire
M
 Introduction to Questionnaire Designing

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Businesses operate on facts and data. Without data, an organisation would have
no idea on where it stands and where it needs to go. One of the simplest, cheapest
and quickest ways to gather data is to create questionnaires. The design of a
questionnaire determines the success of data collection.

Creating a questionnaire is an art as well as science. If it is well-designed, then it

will have better chances of inviting responses than a badly crafted questionnaire.
While creating a questionnaire, you must consider various factors, such as how
many questions to ask, whether to ask close-ended questions or open-ended
ones, how to keep the wording of questions simple and effective, how to create
questions that invite correct responses from respondents, how to place questions
in the questionnaire and when and where to distribute questionnaires.

This chapter will help you understand how to design an effective questionnaire.

7.2 THE CONCEPT OF QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNING

IT Questionnaires are often designed for collecting standardised information about
behaviour, opinion, experience or preference of a group of respondents. As
compared to other forms of surveys, questionnaires are cheap and require less
effort. Some advantages of the questionnaire are:
€€ Economical: The cost of creating and implementing questionnaires is very
low.
€€ Wide coverage: They are best to cover a large number of people. They make
M
it possible to contact many people who could not otherwise be reached.
€€ Rapidity: They provide speedy results.
€€ Easy to implement: They are easy to plan, create and administer.
€€ Less pressure on respondents: Respondents can take their time to answer
questions.
€€ Uniformity: They do not allow much variation in recording responses.
€€ Greater validity: Responses are interpreted without any bias or prejudice by
the recorder.
€€ Anonymity: They ensure anonymity of the respondents.
The questionnaires also have their set of disadvantages, as follows:
€€ Limited response: These are only applicable to an educated class; they cannot
be applied to illiterate or semi-literate class. There is also high possibility of
the respondents skipping questions.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

€€ Lack of personal contact: Even the best designed questionnaire may fail to
elicit a suitable response due to lack of proper personal contact, which may
result in failure to interpret questions or plain indifference.
€€ Poor response: The questionnaires sent on email generally have very poor
response rate.
€€ Incomplete entries: Often respondents may leave out some crucial fields,
making it difficult for the recorder to interpret their responses.
Thus, it is important to design a proper questionnaire to gather complete, relevant
and meaningful data.

As an example, consider the two questionnaires: Which one is well-designed?

Figure 1 shows a sample of a good questionnaire:

Thank you for taking the time to fill this questionnaire, you will remain anonymous, I just
need a sample of an audience (in this case media students) to use as an example for a research
project.

Are you Male Female When was the last time you saw a film, what was it?
IT How old are you: Years Months

Who do you live with at home (be specific please)

How many hours a day would you spend watching,
reading or listening to:
TV
Radio
Internet
Print (magazines)

Do you have a part-time job? Please list your top 3 TV programmes.

1.
M
YES NO PAID VOLUNTARY
2.
If so, please describe what you do
3.

Do you get pocket money/allowance? YES NO List in order of preference (I being you most
preferred, 5 being the least preferred) which genres
(types of programmes) you watch:
If Yes, how much do you get per week?
Sports
Soap
Sitcom
What do you spend it on, generally?
Documentaries
Film

Please list your top 3 favourite foods You are going to help organise some kind of music
1. event for your age group: what types of music/bands
would you want to play?
2.
3.

Figure 1: A Well-Designed Questionnaire

(Source: cs3240 Team 13)

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 Introduction to Questionnaire Designing

Figure 2 shows a sample of a bad questionnaire:

1. Which is your sex? _____ Male _____ Female

2. What is your class standing in the University?
Fresh _____ Soph _____ Jr _____ Sr _____ Special
3. How old were you at your last birthday? _____ Years
4. What is your major(s)?
(If unknown at this time write “Unknown” in space provided)
5. What is your current GPA for all college courses?
_____ 3.8 to 4.00 _____ 2.8 to 2.99 _____ 1.8 to 1.99
_____ 3.6 to 3.79 _____ 2.6 to 2.79 _____ 1.6 to 1.79
_____ 3.4 to 3.59 _____ 2.4 to 2.59 _____ 1.4 to 1.59
_____ 3.2 to 3.39 _____ 2.2 to 2.39 _____ 1.2 to 1.39
_____ 3.0 to 3.19 _____ 2.0 to 2.19 _____ Below 1.20
If you do not have any idea of what your GPA is check here
6. What is your current marital status? _____ Never Married, single
IT
_____ Divorced/Widowed/Separated
_____ Married
7. Do you have any children [adopted or natural or spouses?] _____Yes _____ No
8. What is your birth order? _____ I was an “only child”

_____ Raised in Institution _____ Oldest of siblings

_____ Youngest of Siblings _____ In Middle ( some siblings older & younger)
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Figure 2: A Bad Questionnaire

(Source: cs3240 Team 13)

Figure 1 shows a well-designed questionnaire, whereas Figure 2 shows a bad

questionnaire. Figure 1 depicts the characteristics of a good questionnaire because
of the following:
€€ It deals with a specific topic and target audience (i.e., media students)
€€ The structure is more clear as compared to Figure 2
€€ It consists of complete and clear directions, and important terms are clarified
€€ Its significance is clearly stated on the covering paragraph/questionnaire
itself
€€ Less number of private questions as compared to Figure 2 will make the
respondents more comfortable in answering
€€ It is properly arranged and visually appealing
Figure 2 depicts a bad questionnaire because the structure of this questionnaire
is not clear and it contains questions that people may not be comfortable in
answering.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

7.2.1 FEATURES OF A WELL-DESIGNED QUESTIONNAIRE

The development of a questionnaire is a complex and laborious process and
requires verification of its usefulness prior to its implementation. A well-designed
questionnaire must attain the following characteristics in order to achieve the
predefined objectives of research:
€€ Interest
€€ Precision
Let us discuss each feature.
€€ Interest: Respondents are more likely to complete a questionnaire, which is
interesting to them. Here are some tips to create an interesting questionnaires:
zz Visually appealing: Present questionnaire in an appealing and engaging
format. Try adding in colour and images to convey your organisation’s
brand and personality. Make your questionnaire usable and intuitive
with no possibility of doubt or confusion.
zz Intriguing and engaging options: Instead of boring choices like very
satisfied, satisfied, etc., try using more interesting language such as I love
IT zz
you guys, We’re still friends, I’m a little upset, and so on.
Make it brief: Ask only relevant questions. Value the time of the
respondents. They will thank you for it.
€€ Precision: The questions included in a questionnaire must be to the point.
Questions are considered precise when the researcher receives correct answers
for the given to-the point questions. Table 1 indicates some dos and don’ts of
a questionnaire design:
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Table 1: Dos and Don’ts of a Questionnaire Design
Dos Don’ts
1. Clearly 1. Avoid leading questions, which subtly prompt
define target the respondents to answer in a particular
respondents, their way. Such questions result in false or slanted
age, education information. Example:
level, etc.
Leading question: You are satisfied with our
customer service, aren’t you?
Non-leading question: How satisfied are you
with our customer service?
Leading question: Do you always consume fast
food?
Non-leading question: How frequently do you
consume fast food?
2. Decide if your 2. Avoid technical terms or jargons.
questionnaire
Jargon question: Which feature would you like
should be
baked into our new product?
anonymous or not.
Non-jargon question: Which feature would you
suggest to be included into our new product?

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 Introduction to Questionnaire Designing

Dos Don’ts
3. Carefully 3. Avoid using terms that the respondents may not
research and draft be familiar with.
questions so that
Bad question: Do you have a history of
they meet the
carcinomic cancer in your family? Yes/No
purpose of the
questionnaire and Good question: Do you have a history of lung/
get the desired prostate cancer in your family? Yes/No
data.

4. Start your 4. Avoid making the questionnaire too lengthy.

questionnaire with
the most relevant
questions and then
follow naturally.
5. Create engaging 5. Avoid repetitive questions.
questions
throughout the
questionnaire.
6. Word questions 6. Avoid double-barrelled questions — asking two
so that they are questions in one line. For example, do not ask:
IT clear and easy to
understand.

7. Give space for

Did this project teach you to discipline your
child and manage your home finances?

respondents
to write their
comments
on topics not
covered in the
questionnaire.
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7. Pilot test the
questionnaire
before launch.
8. Use multiple
formats of the
questionnaire: pen
and paper, online,
email, telephonic,
etc.

For convenience, you can build online questionnaires from the following sites:
N ote €€ Survey Monkey
€€ Typeform
€€ Google Forms
€€ Zoho Survey
€€ Survey Gizmo
€€ Survey Planet

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

1. What is the benefit of a questionnaire over other methods of conducting

a survey?
S elf
A ssessment a. Personal rapport with the recorder
Q uestions
b. Easy to convey feelings and emotions
c. Speedy results
d. None of these
2. Questionnaires with lengthy, well-formed questions elicit more response
than those with to-the-point questions. (True/False)
3. A question that subtly prompts the respondents to answer in a particular
way is called a __________ question.
a. Double-barrelled question
b. Focused question
c. Repetitive question
d. Leading question
IT 7.3 TYPES OF QUESTIONS IN A QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNING
You can add various types of questions in a questionnaire, including:
€€ Open-ended or close-ended questions
€€ Fixed alternative or multiple choice questions
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€€ Dichotomous questions
€€ Rating scale (continuum) questions
€€ Agree to disagree scale questions
€€ Rank ordering questions
€€ Projective methods questions
Let us discuss each type.
€€ Open-ended vs close-ended questions: Open-ended questions enable
respondents to elaborate their answers and express what they really want to
say. Such questions are usually asked during interviews and are most useful
in exploratory research.
In open-ended (or unstructured) questions, respondents give answers in
their own words, whereas in close-ended (or structured) questions, they
get to choose from a limited number of choices provided to them. The
open-ended questions take a longer time to administer and analyse. Close-
ended questions help the respondents to interpret the questions in the same
manner. Respondents are more likely to find such questions less stressful.
These questions may be multiple choice, dichotomous (yes/no) or rating
scale questions.

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 Introduction to Questionnaire Designing

Table 2 helps you to understand open-ended questions by comparing them

with close-ended ones:

Table 2: Close-Ended vs Open-Ended Questions

Close-Ended Questions Open-Ended Questions
Do you like working with us? Tell us about your experience with
zz Yes our organisation so far.

zz No
How satisfied are you with your current job What do you expect from this
role? appraisal?
zz Very satisfied
zz Somewhat satisfied
zz Somewhat unsatisfied
zz Very unsatisfied
How satisfied are you with your manager? How will you describe your relation
zz Very satisfied -ship with your manager?
zz Somewhat satisfied
IT
€€
zz

zz
Somewhat unsatisfied
Very unsatisfied
Fixed alternative or multiple choice questions: These questions provide
multiple choice answers. These questions are usually asked when the possible
responses are limited and clear such as age, gender, etc. For example:
1. How old are you?
99 12 or younger
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99 13 to 19
99 20 to 39
99 40 to 59
99 60 to 79
99 80 or older
2. Which product would you like to see in the showroom?
99 Sports Utility Vehicle
99 Sedan
99 Hatchback
99 Convertible
99 All the above
€€ Dichotomous questions: These are also close-ended questions, which can be
answered as Yes/No, True/False or Agree/Disagree. Examples:
1. Have you ever purchased a product or service from our website?
a. Yes
b. No
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Research Methodology and Management Decision

2. Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months?
a. Yes
b. No
€€ Rating scale/continuum questions: These are close-ended questions where
you can assign weights to each answer choice on a scale. The commonly used
rating scales are:
zz Likert rating scale: It is typically a five, seven or nine point scale used
to measure respondents’ agreement with a variety of statements. For
example:
The website has a user friendly interface.
a. Strongly disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neutral
d. Agree
e. Strongly agree
IT zz Graphic rating scale: This is a line on which respondents place a cross ‘X’
on any point on the line. For example:
The customer service person used check-back to confirm orders.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree

1 2 3 4 5 6
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zz Itemised rating scale: This scale is similar to the graphic scale, except
that there are a number of categories which can be marked. For example:
Evaluate each of the following attributes of our product by checking the
appropriate box.
Below
Excellent Very good Good Average Poor
Average
1. Quality □ □ □ □ □ □
2. Size □ □ □ □ □ □
3. Durability □ □ □ □ □ □
4. Brand
□ □ □ □ □ □
name

€€ Agree to disagree questions: In this type of question, respondents need to

answer on the agree and disagree responses. For example:
The sales representative spent enough time to explain the product features:
zz Strongly agree
zz Somewhat agree
zz Neutral
zz Somewhat disagree
zz Strongly disagree
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 Introduction to Questionnaire Designing

€€ Rank ordering questions: In this type of question, the respondent is asked

to rank a set of items against each other. For example:
Rank the following in order of importance from 1 to 4 where 1 is most
important to you and 4 is least important to you.
Speed of service □
Ease of parking □
Cleanliness □
Friendliness of staff □
€€ Projective test questions: Projective tests are designed to develop an in-depth
understanding of hidden motivations. These questions allow respondents
to ‘project’ their own thoughts or attitude in the response. These questions
can use techniques such as word associations or fill in the blanks. They are
difficult to analyse and are usually used in exploratory research. For example:
Complete the following sentences with the first word or phrase that comes
into your mind.
1. My father seldom __________________
2. Most people don’t know that I am afraid of ______________
IT 3. When I was a child, I __________________
4. When encountering frustration, I usually _____________

7.3.1 ERRORS IN RESPONSES

While creating questionnaires, you should be aware of the following errors which
may occur during responses:
Telescoping error: This error occurs where people remember recent events
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€€
as being more remote than they are (backward telescoping), or distant events
as being more recent than they are (forward telescoping). These errors may
lead to faulty marketing campaigns:
zz In case of backward telescoping, respondents may overstate their
intention to buy a replacement product, as they remember a recent
purchase as distant.
zz In case of forward telescoping, respondents may inaccurately recall the
time of their last purchase.
€€ Recall loss: This error occurs when people forget that an event occurred at
all. For events that happened in the distant past, recall loss dominates.
€€ Differences in responses: Sometimes responses may be inconsistent or
inaccurate due to the following reasons:
zz Different response styles
zz Different personal factors such as laziness, tiredness, etc.
zz Different situations, such as crowded atmosphere
zz Difference in administration of questionnaire, such as wording of
questions
zz Difference due to lack in clarity

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

4. Which question below is an open-ended question?

S elf a. Are you satisfied with this product?
A ssessment
b. Did it act as expected?
Q uestions
c. What more were you expecting?
d. Will you purchase it?
5. Dichotomous questions are a type of ____________ questions.
6. Which is not a rating scale used in questions?
a. Comparative b. Multiple choice
c. Graphic d. Itemised
7. You want to rate three items against each other, with 1 as most important
and 3 as least important. Which type of question should you create?
a. Rank ordering question b. Agree to disagree question
c. Itemised question d. Open-ended question
8. What do you call an error when people remember events as being more
IT recent than they are?
a. Recency error b. Recall loss
c. Halo effect d. Telescoping error

7.4 THE STEPS OF QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNING

M
The process of designing a questionnaire involves 10 steps, as illustrated in
Figure 3:

4. Decide the
1. Initial 2. Define the Target 3. Identify the Data Content and
Considerations Audience Required Format of the
Question

7. Design the
8. Add
5. Select the Type 6. Make a plan of Sequence and
Administrative
of Questions Statistical Analysis Layout and the
Instructions
Question

9. Pilot Test and 10. Finalise and

Revise Implement

Figure 3: Steps of Questionnaire Designing

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 Introduction to Questionnaire Designing

Let us discuss each step.

1. Initial considerations: Decide the purpose of your questionnaire. To do so,
get familiar with the subject, do a literature review, formulate a hypothesis
and then define the information required to test the hypothesis.
2. Define the target audience: Identify the target audience. Depending on
it, you can choose whether the questionnaire should be administered to
males/females, a particular ethnic group or race, or to people belonging to a
particular country, or any such criteria.
3. Identify the data required: Make a list of the information/data required.
4. Decide the content and format of the question: Develop the questions as
required. Decide on their phrasing and response format. A well-phrased
questions result in more accurate and useful data, as they can be easily
understood by the target audience.
5. Select the type of questions: Choose the type of questions to be used. In
explorative studies, open-ended questions are used, whereas in quantitative
ones close-ended questions are used.
6. Make a plan of statistical analysis: This should include the statistical tests
IT which you intend to use. It is helpful to draw a dummy table with the data
of interest. This will be helpful in determining the type of results you wish to
get.
7. Design the sequence and layout of the question: Design the sequence of
questions and the layout of the questionnaire. Start with easy questions
and then go on to the more difficult questions. Sensitive questions should
be placed somewhere in the middle. Avoid putting the most important
questions last.
8. Add administrative instructions: Add instructions for the administrator.
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Also, add definitions of keywords for the ease of participants.
9. Pilot test and revise: Conduct a pilot test and do revisions as necessary.
10. Finalise and implement: Finalise the questionnaire. Ensure that each
question is clear, simple and brief, and the layout is clear. Finally, launch it
on the appropriate media formats.

9. What is the first step to design a questionnaire?

S elf a. Define the target audience
A ssessment
b. Decide the statistical tests to be used
Q uestions
c. Define the purpose
d. Select the type of questions to be used
10. You want to administer a questionnaire to different groups simultaneously.
Which design should you use for your questionnaire?
a. Latitudinal design b. Longitudinal design
c. Cross-purpose design d. Cross-sectional design

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

11. Where should you place sensitive questions in a questionnaire?

a. In the beginning b. In the middle
c. In the last d. They should not be placed
12. The most important questions should be asked at the end of a
questionnaire. (True/False)

7.5 DESIGNING OF AN EFFECTIVE QUESTIONNAIRE

Finally, the effectiveness of your questionnaire depends on its layout —
respondents should be able to easily read, understand and answer each question
you ask. Below are some tips to consider:
€€ Introduction: Start your questionnaire with a brief introduction that:
zz Informs the purpose of the questionnaire
zz Explains how the information collected will be used
IT €€
zz Assures that the personal information of respondents will remain
confidential
Typeface: Use a clearly legible typeface. Allow for some blank space between
questions.
€€ No breaks: Avoid breaks between question text or instructions to turn pages.
Keep all text together for each question.
€€ Instructions: Give instructions in italics or bold font to distinguish them
from the questions.
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€€ Answer format: Arrange answers vertically under each question. If you need
to place any explanatory text or definition, then place them in parenthesis
immediately after the question.
€€ Logical: As far as possible, the questionnaire should reflect some natural
flow of thoughts, a sequence of events, or a logical conversation, depending
upon the subject matter.
€€ Sensitive information: Sensitive topics, whether personal or societal, should
be explored appropriately through indirect questions and are best suited to
be placed at the end of survey.
€€ Pilot study: Always pilot the questionnaire either with some colleagues or
people from the target audience. This will help in detecting any flows prior
to the main survey.
€€ Grouping: Section heading may be used appropriately, and similar questions
related to a particular topic should be grouped together.
€€ Neutral language: The terminology used should be such that it does not lead
the respondents to answer in one particular way, i.e., positive or negative.
€€ Brevity: Make use of relevant, clear, concise and efficient questions. Clear
and concise questions will be able to achieve desired results rather than
including too many questions.

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 Introduction to Questionnaire Designing

13. What should not be used while designing a questionnaire?

S elf a. Introduction stating the purpose of the questionnaire
A ssessment
b. Legible typeface
Q uestions
c. Blank space between questions
d. Breaks between question text
14. What can you use to distinguish instructions from the questions?
a. Black regular font b. Bold or italicised font
c. Black underlined font d. Red font
15. When should the important topics ideally be covered in a questionnaire?
a. In the beginning b. In the middle
c. In the last d. Somewhere between the middle and
the last
16. A good idea is start a questionnaire with specific questions and then
move on to general topics towards the end. (True/False)
IT Develop a complete questionnaire for a survey that you will administer to
A ctivit y fellow students in your university. Develop a topic for your questionnaire,
determine the set of constructs you want to measure in the questionnaire and
draft each questionnaire item. Make sure of the following requirements:
€€ The questionnaire will be administered to fellow students, so should be
appropriate for this population.
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€€ The questionnaire must include the following:
zz An introduction describing the purpose of the survey
zz At least 15 questions
zz At least three open-ended questions
zz At least three close-ended questions
zz At least one potentially sensitive question

7.6 SUMMARY
€€ Questionnaires are used to collect statistical data from a group of respondents.
They are economical, quick, easily implementable and cover a wide range
of population. However, they have the disadvantage of inviting limited
response. Therefore, it is important to design effective questionnaires.
€€ A well-designed questionnaire has the following features:
zz They are visually appealing, intriguing, engaging and brief
zz The questionnaire should be to the point and without any unnecessary
questions
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Research Methodology and Management Decision

€€ You can add various types of questions in a questionnaire, depending on the

purpose, question content and responses required:
zz Open-ended questions
zz Fixed alternative or multiple choice questions
zz Dichotomous questions
zz Rating scale/continuum questions
zz Agree to disagree questions
zz Rank ordering questions
zz Projective method questions
€€ Questionnaires are vulnerable to the following types of errors from
respondents:
zz Telescoping error
zz Recall loss
zz Differences in responses
IT €€ There are 10 steps to design a questionnaire:
1. Initial considerations
2. Define the target audience
3. Identify data required
4. Decide question content and format
5. Select the type of questions
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6. Make a plan of statistical analysis
7. Design the sequence and layout of the question
8. Add administrative instructions
9. Pilot test and revise
10. Finalise and implement
€€ While designing an effective questionnaire, you should consider the
following tips:
zz Start with a brief introduction
zz Use a legible typeface
zz Avoid breaks between question text/instructions
zz Give instructions in italics or bold
zz Arrange answers vertically under each question
zz Give easy questions in the beginning, which cover important topics of
interest
zz Go from generic to specific questions

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 Introduction to Questionnaire Designing

zz Use logical flow of questions

zz Use a transitional statement when switching to different topic areas
zz Be crisp and comprehensive

7.7 KEY WORDS

€€ Questionnaire: This is a set of written questions with a choice of answers for
the purpose of a survey.
€€ Validity: It is the quality of being logically sound.
€€ Face validity: It indicates whether a questionnaire appears to measure what
it claims to.
€€ Content validity: Content validity refers to the extent to which a questionnaire
fully measures the construct of interest.
€€ Construct validity: It measures the extent to which a questionnaire captures
a specific trait.
€€ Concurrent validity: It measures the degree to which a questionnaire
IT €€
compares to a currently existing criterion.
Predictive validity: It measures the degree to which a questionnaire predicts
a future criterion.
€€ Reliability: It is the quality of performing consistently well.
€€ Inter-interviewer reliability: It measures the degree of agreement among
interviewers.
€€ Test-retest reliability: It measures how close the results are when measured
M
successively under the same conditions.
€€ Internal consistency reliability: It measures how well a questionnaire is
actually measuring what you want to measure.
€€ Open-ended questions: These are unstructured questions, which enable
respondents to elaborate their answers and express what they really want
to say.
€€ Close-ended questions: These are structured questions, where respondents
get to choose from a limited number of choices provided to them. These
questions can be of multiple choices, dichotomous or rating scale questions.
€€ Likert rating scale: It is typically a five, seven or nine point scale used to
measure respondents’ agreement with a variety of statements.
€€ Projective tests: These tests are designed to develop an in-depth
understanding of hidden motivations.
€€ Telescoping error: This error occurs when people remember recent events
as being more remote than they are or distant events as being more recent
than they are.
€€ Recall loss: This error occurs when people forget that an event occurred at
all.

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Research Methodology and Management Decision

7.8 CASE STUDY: QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNING FOR MARKET RESEARCH

IN THE PET CARE INDUSTRY
The pet care industry is growing tremendously in India. From 2012 to 2017, the
industry moved ahead with the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 23%.
The industry is likely to grow with a CAGR of at least 20% up to 2021–22. Dog food
contributed to a majority share of 80% in value in the year 2017. The growth of the
pet care industry can be attributed to the following factors:
€€ Rise in disposable income
€€ Change in consumption patterns
€€ Urban lifestyle
In such a setup, various pet care and grooming companies have sprung up.
Buddy-Pets is one such venture. It assists people who would like to take their pets
along while they go on a vacation. The founder Amit Kumar got the idea for the
start-up when he needed to step out of town for a break and could not find a
suitable boarding facility for his 5-month old Labrador Lucy. So he decided to set
up a start-up to help like-minded people.
IT Buddy-Pets helps to plan their vacations by providing a 24x7 boarding and day
care facility for pets. It also helps to find the right grooming and pet supplies
services. It even provides a pet friendly environment where owners can come with
pets to dine in, socialise and play in a garden cafe.

Buddy-Pets faces the challenge of drawing out a strategic marketing plan to make
its venture fundable by the right target group. They want to position themselves in
the operational gap in the current pet care setup, which mostly consists of pet shops,
clinics and grooming centres with referral tie-ups for boarding establishments.
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They also want to study customer preferences regarding pet care facility. Thus,
Buddy-Pets wants to do a market research to:
€€ Analyse customer preferences for a desired pet care facility in a major city,
including Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore
€€ Identify and evaluate opportunities available in these cities
€€ Develop implementable marketing strategies
€€ Evaluate competitive dynamics from traditional pet shops and boarding
facilities
The purpose of this research is to design a marketing strategy for Buddy-Pets.

QUESTIONS
1. What considerations should you keep in mind while designing a questionnaire
for the market research?
(Hint: Initial considerations, target audience, type of design, data required,
type of questions, tips, etc.)

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 Introduction to Questionnaire Designing

2. What steps will you take to design a questionnaire?

(Hint: Initial considerations, define the target audience, make a plan of
statistical analysis, etc.)

7.9 EXERCISE
1. What are the attributes of a well-designed questionnaire?
2. List any five dos and dont’s of questionnaire design.
3. Explain any five types of questions which may be included in a questionnaire.
4. Describe the differences between open-ended and close-ended questions.
5. Enumerate the steps in a questionnaire designing.

7.10 ANSWERS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Topic Q. No Answer
IT The Concept of Questionnaire
designing
1.

2.
c.

False
Speedy results

3. d. Leading question
Types of Questions in a 4. c. What more were you expecting?
Questionnaire Designing
5. close-ended
6. b. Multiple choice
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7. a. Rank ordering question
8. d. Telescoping error
The Steps of Questionnaire 9. c. Define the purpose.
Designing
10. d. Cross-sectional design
11. b. In the middle
12. False
Designing an Effective 13. d. Breaks between question text
Questionnaire
14. b. Black italicised font
15. a. In the beginning
16. False

7.11 SUGGESTED BOOKS AND E-REFERENCES

SUGGESTED BOOKS
€€ Boynton P.M., Greenhalgh T. Selecting, designing, and developing your
questionnaire. BMJ. 2004 May 29;328((7451)):1312–5.

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