‭1.

Cells‬
‭Plant cells‬

‭ ‬ ‭Basic structured and functional units of life.‬

●
‭●‬ ‭Cellular=slime mold.‬
‭●‬ ‭Very very small, use a microscope to see them.‬

‭Cells can exist:‬

‭●‬ ‭Singly as independent unicellular‬

‭organisms.‬
‭●‬ ‭As part of multicellular organisms‬
‭●‬ ‭(such cells are modified for specific‬
‭functions).‬
‭Cell Wall‬
‭●‬ ‭Every plant cell has a cell wall. The cell wall‬
‭is made of cellulose and is strong and stiff,‬
‭holding the plant cell in shape.‬

‭Cell membrane‬
‭●‬ ‭All cells have a cell membrane. The cell‬
‭membrane is very thin and flexible. It is like‬
‭the thin skin of a soap bubble. It lies along‬
‭the inner edge of the cell membrane and‬
‭Controls what goes in and out of the‬
‭cell—made of fats and proteins. These are‬
‭also present in all living cells.‬
‭●‬ ‭Porous (Permeable to water, air, or other‬
‭fluids.)‬
‭●‬ ‭Partially permeable.‬

‭Cytoplasm‬
‭●‬ ‭All cells have cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is like a‬
‭clear jelly. Chemical reactions happen‬
‭inside the cytoplasm. These reactions keep‬
‭the cell alive.‬

‭Nucleus‬
‭●‬ ‭Most cells have a nucleus. The nucleus‬
‭Controls the activities of the cell. This‬
‭contains genetic material.‬

‭Sap Vacuole‬
 ‭●‬ ‭This is a large, fluid-filled space inside a‬
‭plant cell. The liquid inside it is a solution‬
‭of sugars and other substances dissolved in‬
‭water. The solution is called cell sap.‬

‭Mitochondria‬
‭●‬ ‭All plant cells have mitochondria (singular:‬
‭mitochondrion). Inside mitochondria, energy‬
‭is released from food.‬

‭Chloroplast‬
‭●‬ ‭Plant cells exposed to sunlight often‬
‭contain chloroplasts. These are where plants‬
‭make food using photosynthesis.‬
‭Chloroplasts look green because they‬
‭contain a green substance called‬
‭chlorophyll.‬

‭Structure of genetic material:‬

‭●‬ ‭Genetic material is packed tightly into‬

‭chromatin‬
‭●‬ ‭Chromatin form chromosomes‬

‭What are chromosomes?‬

‭●‬ ‭They are thread-like structures located inside‬

‭the nucleus of animal and plant cells.‬
‭Animal cells‬

‭●‬ ‭The estimated 100 trillion animal cells in‬

‭animals/humans.‬
‭●‬ ‭Humans/We are animals, we have these cells in‬
‭our body.‬
‭●‬ ‭Like plant cells, they have cytoplasm, cell‬
‭membrane, mitochondria, and a nucleus.‬

‭Specialized cells‬
‭ ifferentiation (Modification/adaptation of cell‬
D
‭structure for specialized functions).‬

‭●‬ ‭Differences in size, shape, and structure‬

‭(specialized structures).‬
 ‭ ‬ ‭Perform different specific functions.‬
●
‭●‬ ‭Special chemical reactions in cytoplasm.‬
‭●‬ ‭E.g. Synthesis of special kinds of‬
‭proteins/enzymes.‬

‭What are specialized cells?‬

‭●‬ ‭Specialized cells are cells designed to carry out‬

‭a particular role in the body, like red blood cells‬
‭and nerve cells.‬

‭Red blood cells‬

‭Function: Carry oxygen‬

‭Nucleus absent‬
‭●‬ ‭Allows the cell to carry more Hb (hemoglobin) for‬
‭absorption of oxygen.‬

‭Cytoplasm‬
‭●‬ ‭Has hemoglobin (Hb)‬
‭●‬ ‭Hb binds with oxygen (reversibly)‬

‭Flattened biconcave shape‬

‭●‬ ‭Increases total surface area for diffusion of‬
‭oxygen into and out of the RBC.‬

‭Neurons‬
 ‭●‬ ‭Neurons are typically classified into three types‬
‭based on their function. Sensory neurons‬
‭respond to stimuli such as touch, sound, or light‬
‭that affect the cells of the sensory organs.‬

‭Ciliated cells‬
‭●‬ ‭Ciliated cells are adapted in the respiratory‬
‭tract to form an epithelial lining of coordinated‬
‭metachronal ciliary activity that provides the‬
‭propelling force for the transport of mucus‬
‭along the airways. This mechanism is central to‬
‭the maintenance of patent airways and‬
‭pulmonary homeostasis.‬

2‭ . Materials and their‬

‭structure‬

‭Solids, Liquids and Gasses‬

‭Solids‬
‭ articles are very close and have a fixed shape.‬
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‭Forces stop the particles from moving around; they‬
‭can only vibrate.‬
‭Liquids‬

I‭n liquid, the particles are very close together and‬

‭cannot be compressed. They touch each other and‬
‭can also move past each other.‬

‭Gases‬
‭ he particles can move quickly in all directions,‬
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‭they can also move easily because there are‬‭no‬
‭attractive forces‬‭between them.‬

‭Changes of state‬

‭Changing state‬
I‭f you heat water and it reaches 100‬‭o‬‭C, it will boil.‬
‭All of the water changes to steam.‬
‭Steam water is heated to the point that turns into‬
‭gas.‬

‭Measuring volume‬

‭ he curved thing on the top is called the meniscus.‬

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‭If you want to measure, always measure the bottom‬
‭side of the meniscus.‬
‭The water cycle‬

E‭ vaporation- liquid to gas‬

‭Transpiration- water evaporates into the‬
‭atmosphere through plants‬
‭Condensation- forming into a cloud‬

‭process‬ ‭Explanation‬

‭Evaporation‬ ‭the process of a liquid changing to a gas, especially by heating‬

‭ ranspiratio‬
T
‭n‬ ‭the process of losing water through the surface or skin of a body or a plant‬

‭ arm air‬
W ‭ arm air rises because it is less dense (crowded) than cold air. As it grows, it carries water‬
W
‭rises‬ ‭vapor upward.‬
‭ ondensatio‬
C
‭n‬ ‭The process by which water vapour in the air is changed into liquid water.‬
‭ he process in which atmospheric water falls onto the Earth's surface. This includes rain,‬
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‭Precipitation‬ ‭snow, sleet, and hail.‬
‭ urface‬
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‭runoff‬ ‭all water flowing downhill over the surface of land via spontaneously formed channels‬
‭Infiltration‬ ‭The process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil.‬
‭ roundwater‬
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‭store‬ ‭The water is stored underground in aquifers.‬
‭Throughflow‬ ‭The horizontal movement of water through the soil.‬

‭ toms, elements, and the Periodic‬

A
‭Table‬

‭Atoms‬
‭ here are different types of atoms. A substance‬
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‭made of just one kind of atom is called an‬‭element‬‭.‬
‭Each type of atom has different properties. (for‬
‭more info refer to page52)‬

‭ luminum - Al‬
A
‭Zinc, Zn‬
‭Lead, Pb‬
‭Copper, CU‬
‭Iron, Fe‬
‭Bromine, Br‬

‭Materials and their structure‬

‭Compounds‬

‭Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium Chloride‬

‭Particle diagrams‬

‭ alcium oxide, C‬‭a‭O

C ‬ ‬
‭Carbon Dioxide, CO‬‭2‬
‭Hydrogen Sulfide, H‬‭2‬‭S‬
‭Calcium Carbonate, CACO‬‭3‬
‭Sodium Hydroxide, N‬‭a‭O
‬ H‬
‭3. Forces and energy‬

‭Types of Energy‬

‭Energy name‬ ‭Description‬ ‭ tore,‬

S
‭Transfer‬
‭Kinetic‬ ‭ nergy stored due to‬
e ‭Store‬
‭the movement of an‬
‭object‬

‭Chemical‬ E‭ nergy stored in‬ ‭Store‬

‭food, batteries, and‬
‭chemical fuels such‬
‭as wood, oil, and‬
‭coal‬

‭Thermal‬ ‭ eat energy stored‬

h ‭ tore or‬
S
‭in hot objects and‬ ‭Transfer‬
‭transferred to colder‬
‭objects‬

‭Elastic potential‬ ‭ nergy stored When‬

e ‭Store‬
‭things are stretched‬
‭or squeezed to‬
‭change their shape‬
‭ ravitational‬
G E‭ nergy is stored‬ ‭Store‬
‭potential‬ ‭When an object is‬
‭lifted away from the‬
‭source of gravity‬
 ‭Electric‬ ‭ he flow of current in a‬
T ‭Store‬
‭circuit transfers electrical‬
‭energy‬

‭Sound‬ E‭ nergy transferred from‬ ‭Transfer‬

‭vibrating objects‬

‭Light‬ ‭ isible energy from‬

V ‭Transfer‬
‭luminous objects (objects‬
‭that give out their light)‬
‭that you can see‬

‭Kinetic:‬
‭ ny object that is moving has kinetic energy.‬
A
‭Eg: a car traveling down a highway‬

‭Chemical:‬
‭ n object that stores chemical energy.‬
A
‭Eg: batteries, food, candles Burning‬

‭Thermal:‬
‭ n object that Transfers heat to colder objects to store in.‬
A
‭Eg: toaster, kettle, baking in an oven‬

‭Elastic potential:‬
‭ . Grouping and‬
4
‭identifying organisms‬
‭4.1- Characteristics of living organisms‬
‭If a thing has all or one of these characteristics,‬
‭they are called an‬‭organism‬‭(a living thing)‬
‭Nutrition‬‭- eating for energy‬
‭Growth‬‭- growing throughout its life‬
‭Movement‬‭- living things move‬
‭Sensitivity‬‭- the ability to sense changes around‬
‭them‬
‭Excretion‬‭- getting rid of waste products‬
‭Reproduction‬‭- producing young‬
‭Respiration‬‭- food is broken down inside cells to‬
‭provide energy s‬

‭4.2- Viruses‬

‭-‬ V
‭ iruses‬‭are tiny. You need a special type of‬
‭microscope (‬‭electron microscope‬‭) to see them.‬

‭-‬ ‭They are not made of cells.‬

 ‭-‬ T ‭ his is a more complicated diagram (I need help‬
‭finding a simple one online). The green outer layer‬
‭is a coat made out of protein, and there are pegs‬
‭on the outside of it. The inner areas contain a‬
‭substance called RNA, which is a set of instructions‬
‭for making new viruses.‬
‭-‬ ‭How they replicate: Viruses cannot do anything on‬
‭their own. They have to go inside a living cell‬
‭before they can photocopy themselves(not really‬
‭heheh). When viruses are in the cell, each one‬
‭bursts open and forces the cell to do what the RNA‬
‭says (lowkey like a gangster hold up) this is called‬
‭replication.‬‭It kills the cell, and then the viruses‬
‭come out of the cell, ready to infect more.‬

‭ .3- What is a species?‬

4
‭-‬ ‭One kind of organism is called a species.‬
‭-‬ ‭Organisms‬‭in a‬‭species‬‭share the same‬
‭characteristics‬‭but are not identical.‬
‭-‬ ‭If animals from 2 different species breed, the‬
‭offspring is‬‭infertile‬‭.‬

‭4.4- Dichotomous keys‬

‭●‬ ‭A‬‭dichotomous key‬‭is a tool used to identify‬

‭organisms based on their characteristics. The word‬
‭"dichotomous" means "divided into two parts." It‬
‭works by providing a series of choices that lead‬
‭you step-by-step to the correct identification.‬
‭●‬ ‭At each step, you are given two options. Depending‬
‭on which one matches the organism's‬
 ‭ haracteristics, you move on to the next step, and‬
c
‭so on, until you identify the organism.‬
‭For example:‬
‭1.‬‭Does the organism have feathers?‬
‭○‬ ‭Yes → It is a bird.‬
‭○‬ ‭No → Go to step 2.‬
‭2.‬‭Does the organism have fur?‬
‭○‬ ‭Yes → It is a mammal.‬
‭○‬ ‭No → It might be a reptile or a fish.‬
‭6. Earth Physics‬
‭6.1-‬‭Sound waves‬
‭-‬ T ‭ hings that vibrate make sounds. For example,‬
‭when you hit a table, it vibrates and makes a‬
‭sound.‬
‭-‬ ‭Sounds come in all pitches and loudness.‬
‭-‬ ‭When an object vibrates forward, the air in front of‬
‭it is pushed forward, and particles in the air move‬
‭back and forward in time with the sound, and this‬
‭is called a sound wave.‬
‭-‬ ‭Speed of sound waves in air = 343 meters per‬
‭second‬
‭-‬ ‭Sound can travel through everything (solid, liquid,‬
‭gas) except for vacuums (space). Space has no‬
‭particles, so there is nothing to vibrate, and‬
‭therefore no sound in space.‬
‭6.2- Reflections of Sound‬
‭-‬ ‭All sound waves can be reflected off surfaces. If a‬
‭sound wave hits a wall, it will come back.‬
‭-‬ ‭They reflect best on smooth, flat surfaces, and not‬
‭very well, on soft, curvy surfaces.‬
‭-‬ ‭The reflection of a sound wave is called an echo.‬
‭-‬ ‭Usage of echoes in the real world: Dolphins and‬
‭whales use echolocation to communicate with one‬
‭another, and boats also use echoes to figure out‬
‭how deep the water is under the boat. Some‬
‭theaters and recording studios are designed to‬
‭stop echoes, with spiky walls and less flat surfaces‬
‭to minimize echoes ruining the music.‬
 ‭-‬ V
‭ ery important :Use this equation to figure out‬
‭distances using sound and and stuff: Speed x Time‬
‭÷ 2‬ ‭= Distance‬

‭6.3- Structure of the Earth‬

‭-‬ T ‭ he earth is about 4500 million years old and has 4‬

‭basic layers in it. The crust, mantle, outer core,‬
‭and inner core.‬
‭-‬ ‭The crust is solid rock, and the mantle is molten‬
‭rock. The outer core is molten metal, mainly‬
‭composed of iron and nickel, and the inner core is‬
‭solid and also composed of mainly iron and nickel.‬
‭-‬ ‭The earth’s crust is made up of tectonic plates. The‬
‭ones under the ocean are called oceanic plates,‬
‭and the ones that form the continents are called‬
‭continental plates.‬

‭6.4- Changes in the Earth‬

 ‭-‬ P
‭ late boundaries‬‭are where tectonic plates meet.‬
‭Geological change‬‭happens to them. Most GC is‬
‭slow, but some can be fast and violent. Geological‬
‭change includes earthquakes and volcanic‬
‭eruptions.‬

‭ he Pacific Ring Of Fire is where many plate boundaries‬

T
‭meet, and most volcanic eruptions happen here.‬
‭-‬ ‭Movement of plates-‬
‭Plates moving together: Some plates may slide under‬
‭one another, and the bottom plate usually sinks into‬
‭the mantle. This is called‬‭subduction‬‭.‬

‭ lates moving apart: When they move apart, they break‬

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‭and crack as they become thinner than normal. Lava‬
‭rises out from the mantle and forms a new crust with‬
‭new rock, which causes a‬‭volcano‬‭.‬

‭ lates sliding past: Plates are large and heavy, so there‬

P
‭is a lot of friction between them. Over time, they stick‬
‭together, which causes force on the tectonic plates,‬
‭and when the pressure eventually becomes too much,‬
‭ nd causes a violent shaking of the ground, also‬
a
‭known as an‬‭earthquake (Measured in magnitude)‬‭.‬

F‭ old mountains- Sometimes when plates move‬

‭together, rocks squash together and fold upwards,‬
‭forming‬‭fold mountains.‬

‭ olcanoes- Usually formed at plate boundaries, when‬

V
‭magma rises through cracks in the earth’s surface. At‬
‭the surface, it erupts to form lava flows and ash. (Lava‬
‭is the name for liquid rock on the surface, magma for‬
‭underground), when the lava and ash cool, they form‬
‭new rocks, so every time a volcano erupts, it grows in‬
‭size. Some volcanoes are active and may erupt at any‬
‭given moment, and others are dormant, which means‬
‭they have not erupted in years. Extinct volcanoes will‬
‭never erupt again.‬

‭6.5- Solar and Lunar eclipses‬

‭-‬ ‭Solar eclipse: Sun - Moon - Earth‬
‭-‬ ‭Lunar eclipse: Sun - Earth - Moon‬
‭-‬ ‭If you are in the middle of the shadows, you‬
‭observe a total eclipse, but otherwise, you get a‬
‭partial eclipse.‬
‭-‬ ‭Eclipses only happen when the sun, moon, and‬
‭earth are exactly in a straight line.‬
‭-‬ ‭The darkest part of the shadow is called the‬
‭umbra, and the lighter part is called the‬
‭penumbra.‬
‭-‬ ‭Annular solar eclipses are when the moon is the‬
‭farthest from Earth as it can go.‬
‭-‬ ‭Average amount per year:‬
‭Solar- 2-5 times or none‬
‭Lunar- 2 or none‬

‭ reat advice: SOME‬

G
‭So= sun‬
‭M= moon‬
‭E= earth‬
‭The moon is in-between the sun and the earth‬
‭which is s and E.‬

‭Solar:‬

‭Lunar:‬
‭ . Changes to‬
8
‭materials‬
‭Simple chemical reactions‬

‭Chemical Changes‬

‭Example: iron + sulfur= iron sulfide‬

‭Burning‬
‭Example: Carbon + oxygen= carbon dioxide‬
‭Reactions with water‬
‭Some substances do not work with water at all.‬
‭Reactions with acid‬
‭ agnesium + hydrochloric acid= magnesium chloride‬
M
‭+ hydrogen‬
‭Neutralisation‬
‭ cids and alkalis can cancel each other out. When‬
A
‭they get mixed together, they react and make a‬
‭neutral solution.‬
❤️ 💙 💚
👇🏻
‭ cid + Alkali = Neutral ‬
A
‭ Burnette, is used to neutralise an alkali‬
‭perfectly.‬

‭ is neutral like water and will turn green‬

7
‭Below 7 is acid and will turn red and acids can burn your skin‬
‭Above 7 is alkali which is blue and is safe and will not burn‬

‭ o member the colors‬

T
‭Red= danger which is acids Blue= safe which is alkalis‬

‭Investigating acids and alkalis‬

‭Variables- things that change‬

‭Detecting chemical reactions‬

‭ agnesium + hydrochloric acid = magnesium‬
M
‭chloride + hydrogen‬

‭Magnesium ribbon burning‬

‭9. Electricity‬
‭Flow of electricity‬
‭ cell stores chemical energy that can be changed‬
A
‭to electrical energy in a circuit.‬
‭A battery contains two or more cells joined‬
‭together.‬
‭The cell in the circuit has two connections, called‬
‭terminals.‬
‭All cells, batteries, power supplies, and many other‬
‭components have two terminals.‬
‭Electrical circuits‬

‭a normal circuit‬

‭the plus + and minus - of the‬

‭battery‬
 ‭using an ammeter‬
‭ n ammeter measures the electric current. By‬
A
‭measuring the current, you could tell if the cell‬
‭needs to be replaced. A smaller current means the‬
‭cell is low on stored energy.‬

‭Measuring the flow of current‬

‭ urrent is measured in units called amps. Amps have‬
C
‭the symbol A.‬
‭ mmeters are always connected in series with other‬
A
‭components in a circuit. If the components are‬
‭connected in series they are all connected end to‬
‭end.‬