Introduc)on*to*Solar*Energy* Annual PV Production by Technology

Worldwide (in GWp)

! Status&and&propects&of&PV&technology&
About 150* GWp PV module production in 2020
Professor&Arno&Smets&

2015
Thin film
Mono-Si
2010
Multi-Si

*2020 production numbers reported by

different analysts vary to some extend. 2005
Different sources report a total PV
module production between 135 and 152 © Fraunhofer ISE
GWp for year 2020.

2000
Data: from 2000 to 2009: Navigant; from 2010: IHS Markit. Graph: PSE Projects GmbH 2021

21
© Fraunhofer ISE
FHG-SK: ISE-PUBLIC

PV Module Production by Region 1990-2020 Global Cumulative PV Installation

Percentage of Total MWp Produced From 2010 to 2020

© Fraunhofer ISE

© Fraunhofer ISE

Data: Up to 2004 Strategies Unlimited; 2005 to 2009: Navigant Consulting; since 2010: IHS Markit. Graph: PSE Projects GmbH 2021 Data: IRENA 2021. Graph: PSE Projects GmbH 2021

12 15
© Fraunhofer ISE © Fraunhofer ISE
FHG-SK: ISE-PUBLIC FHG-SK: ISE-PUBLIC
 100 100

Inflation adjusted €2015/W p

Inflation adjusted €2015/W p

1975 1975

PV

PV
1985 1985 PV

m
Sy
Module price

Module price
od

od
1995 1995 ste

u
m

le

le
10 Q2-2006 10 Q2-2006
Q1-2009 Q1-2009

Q1-2011 Q1-2011

Q4-2015 Q4-2015
1 1

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Source: 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Source: 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Fraunhofer ISE Fraunhofer ISE
Navigant Consulting
Cumulative Production (GW p) Navigant Consulting
Cumulative Production (GW p)

100
Inflation adjusted €2015/W p

nominal capacity (GW)

1975
1000 Hydro

Cumulative installed
PV

1985 PV
m

Sy
Module price

od

1995 ste
u

m
le

10 Q2-2006
100 Nuclear
Q1-2009

Q1-2011
PV
no 10
n- Q4-2015
Wind
mo
1 du Solar
le

1
Source: 10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Fraunhofer ISE
Navigant Consulting
Cumulative Production (GW p) Time
 Introduc)on*to*Solar*Energy*
Effective installed Power (GW) 1000 Hydro CF=0,40 ! The$PV$cell$
Professor$Arno$Smets$
100
Nuclear CF=0,90

10

1 Wind CF=0,30
Solar CF=0,15
0.1
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Time

Longyangxia!Dam!Solar!Park! Silicon!ingots Solar!Cell

Installed!capacity:!850!MWp
Solar!cell!opera@on
front$contact$ Front$contact
n3type$
silicon$ n3type$c3Si n3type$c3Si$
depletion region
3$ +$ n3type$c3Si absorber$
+$ 3$ 3$+$ depletion region
p++-type Si membrane$
+$3$ pn$junc:on$ back contact
back$contact$ p3type$

Front$contact Front$contact

n3type$c3Si n3type$c3Si$ n3type$c3Si n3type$c3Si$

depletion region depletion region
n3type$c3Si absorber$ n3type$c3Si absorber$
depletion region depletion region
p++-type Si membrane$ p++-type Si membrane$
back contact back contact
 Basic!IVCCurve
Front$contact

n3type$c3Si n3type$c3Si$ ! qV $

Current$
depletion region I=IDARK =I0 exp## &&
n3type$c3Si absorber$ " kBT %
0$
depletion region
p++-type Si membrane$
back contact
30.2$ 0.0$ 0.2$ 0.4$ 0.6$ 0.8$ 1.0$

Reverse$Bias$ Voltage$(V)$ Forward$Bias$

Basic!IVCCurve

Open%circuit%voltage%VOC%
Current$

Under illumination I$
ID$ $
0$ IPH$ $ VOC$$
$ $ $
$ $
30.2$ 0.0$ 0.2$ 0.4$ 0.6$ 0.8$ 1.0$
Voltage$(V)$
 Basic!IVCCurve
Current$ Short%circuit%current%Jsc%

I$
ID$ $
0$ IPH$ $ JSC$$
VOC% $ $ $
$ $
30.2$ 0.0$ 0.2$ 0.4$ 0.6$ 0.8$ 1.0$
Voltage$(V)$

Basic!IVCCurve Basic!IVCCurve
ISC% ISC% PMPP*
Maximum$
Power$$
Point$

Power%P%
(MPP)$
Current$

Current$
0$ 0$

VOC% VOC%
30.2$ 0.0$ 0.2$ 0.4$ 0.6$ 0.8$ 1.0$ 30.2$ 0.0$ 0.2$ 0.4$ 0.6$ 0.8$ 1.0$
Voltage$(V)$ Voltage$(V)$
 Basic!IVCCurve Basic!IVCCurve
ISC% ISC% PMPP*
IMPP% IMPP%

Power%P%
Current$

Current$
0$ 0$
VMPP% VMPP%
VOC% VOC%
30.2$ 0.0$ 0.2$ 0.4$ 0.6$ 0.8$ 1.0$ 30.2$ 0.0$ 0.2$ 0.4$ 0.6$ 0.8$ 1.0$
Voltage$(V)$ Voltage$(V)$

ShiG!of!MPP
ISC% PMPP*
P’MPP$

Pmpp%%
Power%P%
Current$

0$
Efficiency%=%
VOC%
Pin%%
30.2$ 0.0$ 0.2$ 0.4$ 0.6$ 0.8$ 1.0$
Voltage$(V)$
Solar!cell!opera@on Introduc)on*to*Solar*Energy*
front$contact$
! PV#technologies#
Professor#Arno#Smets#
n3type$
silicon$

3$ +$

+$ 3$ 3$+$

+$3$ pn$junc:on$
back$contact$ p3type$

Records?!Let’s!scale!it!up….
40
36 3j-InGaP/GaAs/InGaAs
MODULE
32
WAFER
28 1j-GaA
s

Efficiency (%)
1j-FZ c-Si:
24 1j-mc-Si 1j-F
IBC
1j-CdTe Z c-S
i: HIT
20 1j-
pe
(no rov 1j-CIGS
16 ts
tab
ski
te
iliz 2j-TF Si
ed
12 )
3j-TF Si
8 LAB CELL 1j-organic PV
(not stabilized)
4
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
2
Area (cm )
 Main!PV!technologies

1st generation 2nd generation 3rd generation

Poly- Mono- CdTe CIGS Multi-

junction
Crystalline Silicon Thin film

Crystalline!silicon!wafer?types Typical!silicon!solar!cell
front contact
n-type
silicon

200 microns
Thickness

pn junction
back contact p-type
Monocrystalline Multicrystalline
 Top!Efficiency!Solar!Cells!–!MulE!JuncEon!Devices
Contact
AR
n+-GaAs
n-AllnP
n-GalnP
Contact
AR
n-GalnP
n+-GaAs
n-AllnP
p-AlGalnP BSF
n-GalnP
p++-tunnel junc.
n++-tunnel junc.
GaIP top cell n-GalnP
n-Ga(In)P window

p-AlGalnP BSF
p++-tunnel junc. n-Ga(In)As emitter
Wide-bandgap tunnel junction
n++-tunnel junc.

n-Ga(In)P window p-Ga(In)As base

n-Ga(In)As emitter p-GalnP BSF

Ge(In)As middle cell
p-Ga(In)As base

p-GalnP BSF
p++-tunnel junc. p++-tunnel junc.
Tunnel junction n++-tunnel junc.
n++-tunnel junc.

Buffer region N-Ga(In)As buffer N-Ga(In)As buffer

nucleation nucleation
n-Ge n-Ge

Ge bottom cell p-Ge substrate p-Ge substrate

Courtesy: Richard King
contact contact
Spectro Labs

III!–!V!PV!Technology!ApplicaEon
III?V!Semiconductor!Materials
Thin!Film!PV!modules:!glass%encapsulated
Thin!Film!PV!modules:!Flexible

CdTe CIGS Thin-film silicon

CdTe (First Solar) CIGS(Solar Frontier) EMPA MiaSolé HyET Solar
Switzerland

Organic!Solar!Cells Perovskites
Introduc)on*to*Solar*Energy*
! PV#systems#and#PV#modules#
Professor#Arno#Smets#

Grid!connected!system PV!modules

Grid

Grid connected Distribution AC load

inverter panel

PV array Balance of System Loads

 Solar#Cell# PV!modules
From#a#solar#cell#to##
an#array:#‘modularity'#

Cell# Module# Array#

PV!cell,!module!and!array Series!connec6on

Cells#current#I#in#A#
A# 3#
2#
v#
1# 3VOC$
VOC$ 2VOC$

0# 0.4# 0.8# 1.2# 1.6# 2.0#

Cell#voltage#V#in#V#
 3ISC$
9# Modules
VOCcell = 0.6 V VOCmodule = 21.6 V
8#

Cells#current#/#in#A#
ISCcell =5A ISCmodule = 5 A
7# $2I
6# SC$

5#
4#
I
3# SC$

_
v#
A#
2#

+
1#
VOC$
0# 0.1# 0.2# 0.3# 0.4# 0.5# 0.6#
Cell#voltage#V#in#V#

Modules Tilt!and!orienta6on
VOCcell = 0.6 V VOCmodule = 10.8 V
ISCcell =5A ISCmodule = 10 A

Tilt
_
+

Output Orientation
power
South
 Introduc)on*to*Solar*Energy*
Grid!connected!system ! The$Inverter$and$MPPT$
Professor$Arno$Smets$

Grid

Grid connected Distribution AC load

inverter panel

PV array Balance of System Loads

DC!and!AC!current

DC =

Current I
0 AC

Time t
 Inverter

DC AC

Grid!connected!system Off8grid!system
Battery DC load
bank
Grid

Grid connected Distribution AC load

inverter panel Charge Stand-alone Distribution AC load
controller inverter panel
PV array Balance of System Loads PV array Balance of System Loads
 Maximum!Power!Point!Tracking ImplementaBon!topologies
Central inverter Module inverter String inverter Multi-string inverter
ISC$ PMPP*
Maximum$
Current$I$

Power$P$
Power$$
Point$
(MPP)$

VOC$
Voltage$V$

Central!inverter Module!inverter
Pros* Cons*
Pros*
• Initial investment • DC wiring cost
• Performance loss mitigation
• Maintenance • Shading performance loss
• DC wiring cost
• Design and implementation
• Design

Cons*
• Initial investment
• Maintenance
 String!inverter MulB8string!inverter
Pros* Cons* Pros* Cons*
• Performance loss mitigation • Design and Implementation • Performance loss mitigation • Design and Implementation
• Initial investment • Initial investment • Maintenance
• Maintenance

CharacterisBcs!of!a!solar!inverter
η T, H2O

I
$I$ MPPT Low
$V$ harmonics t

Anti-Islanding Lifespan
 Introduc)on*to*Solar*Energy*
! Ba#eries(
Professor(Arno(Smets(

Solar!irradiance!and!demand!profile Types!of!ba5eries
Solar(irradiance((W/m2)(

A1 = A2
Load(demand(W)(

A1
Zinc(carbon( Lead(Acid(
Alkaline( Lithium(ion(
A2

Primary* Secondary*
Time((h)(
 Secondary!ba5eries Ba5ery!characteris9cs
Lead(acid(ba#eries( Lithium@ion(ba#eries(
V*
I* Rated(voltage:(12V,(24V,(48V(

Rated(capacity:(Ah,(mAh(

C* Rated(current:(A,(mA(

Ba5ery!characteris9cs Significance!of!Amp!hours

V*
I*=*1*A*

C* C = 10 Ah
Efficiency!of!storage Ba5ery!efficiency

10kWh 8kWh

SOC!and!DOD Cycle!life

10 Ah - 2Ah SOC = 80%

DOD = 20%
 Cycle!life!vs.!DOD

Introduc)on*to*Solar*Energy*
! Design'rules'
Professor'Arno'Smets'
 Net
Grid!connected!system metering
Grid!connected!system

Distribution Grid
panel

Grid connected
inverter
1000 W/m2 200 W/m2 196 W/m2 186.2 W/m2
AC load
186.2
ηsystem =
ηPV = 20% ηcables×100
= 98%= 18.62% ηinverter = 95%
1000
PV array Balance of System Loads η system = η PV ×ηcable ×ηinverter

Sizing!Example!–!Load Sizing!example!9!Irradia;on

Equivalent'sun'hours'
Item* Quan)ty* Power* Total* Time*of* Total*
per*item** power** use** energy**
(W)* (W)* (h)* (Wh)*
Light' 4' 25' 100' 4' 400'
TV' 1' 100' 100' 5' 500'
Desktop' 1' 100' 100' 9' 900'
~4.5 h/day
TOTAL* 300* 1800*
Sizing!example!–!PV!panels Sizing!example!–!PV!panels
Panel*specifica)ons*
Total'energy'demand'
Power'output'(Wp)' 240' MPPT'
VMPP'(V)' 48'
IMPP'(A)' 5' 45+5#"#!​/↓2 =​1800/ℎ/4.5​ℎ∕8*9 ×1.2=480/'
VOC'(V)' 60'
ISC'(A)' 6'
Account'for'''
Equivalent'sun'hours'
System'losses'
? !"#$%&!'(!)*+%,-=​480//240​/↓2 =2!2*+%,-'

Sizing!example!–!Grid!connec;on Sizing!example!9!Inverter

45+5#"#!!'#5+*,!)':%&!;*<5+==480/×1.2=576/

Safety'margin'
Total'power'from'the'panels'
Stand9alone!PV!System
DC Sizing!example!–!Charge!controller Short circuit current
load

Parallel
Charge Distribution
controller panel
Maximum current = 6 A × 2 = 12 A
Stand-alone
inverter
Series
4*>5#"#!?',<*=%=60?!×!2=120?
AC load
Battery
bank Steca Solarix MPPT Charge Controller
Open circuit voltage
PV array Balance Of System Loads

Sizing!example!–!Charge!controller Sizing!example!–!BaBery!sizing
BaIery*specifica)ons*
Charge*controller*specifica)ons* < Max I Depth'of'discharge' 60%'
Maximum'voltage'(V)' 140' BaUery'voltage'(V)' 12'
Maximum'current'(A)' 10' BaUery'capacity'(Ah)' 100'
OperaPonal'voltage' 12V/24V'
MPPT' Yes'

Operational Voltage Batteries : Hoppeke

Steca Solarix MPPT Charge Controller
?
Panels in Series
 Total energy demand

Sizing!example!–!BaBery!sizing Days of autonomy Sizing!example!9!Inverter

45+5#"#!​@↓$*<< =​1800/ℎ/0.6×24? ×1.2×2=300Aℎ Inverter*specifica)ons*
Efficiency' 96%'
OperaPonal'voltage' 12V/24V'
Depthofofbatteries
dischargein series =
24V Account for
Number = 2 batteries
12V System losses
Operational voltage
!"#$%&!'(!$*<<%&5%-!5+!2*&*,,%,=​300Aℎ/100Aℎ =3!$*<<%&5%-
of the system ?
Batteries: Hoppeke

!"#$%&!'(!$*<<%&5%-=3×2=6!$*<<%&5%-

Sizing!example!9!Inverter
Inverter*specifica)ons*
Efficiency' 96%'
OperaPonal'voltage' 12V/24V'

Total power demand

300W
Minimum Nominal Power Rating = = 312.5W
0.96
Inverter efficiency
 Introduc)on*to*Solar*Energy*
! Policy'and'Price'
Professor'Arno'Smets'

Payback!period

Investment'cost'

Returns'

Investment cost
Payback period =
Returns/year
Example!–!Payback!period Example!–!Payback!period
8,000'
Installa7on'
4000'€' Investment'

Costs'(€)'
4,000' Returns'
1'kWp'

Consump7on' 800'€/year'
0'
PV'electricity' 2000'€/year' 5*years*
0' 2' 4' 6' 8' 10'
800'€/year'
Time'(years)''

Loca5on!dependency!

Insola7on''

PV'system'cost''
Electricity'cost''
Feed8in!tariff Levelized!cost!of!electricity!(LCOE)
300'

Es)matedLCOE*($/MWh)*
250'
Gross'feedKin'tariff'
200'
150' Transmision'Investment'

100' Variable'O&M'
Levelized'Capital'Cost'
50'
Fixed'O&M'
0'
Net'feedKin'tariff'

Energy'Informa7on'Administra7on'

Levelized!cost!of!electricity!(LCOE) Grid!parity

N
At At = Total annual cost in year t
I0 + ∑ t

LCOE =
t =1 (1 + i ) I0 = Initial investment

N Et = Annual energy yield

Et
∑ (1 + i )
t =1
t
i = Discount rate
 Grid!parity Typical sites
Grid parity ! Thank*you*for*your*aBen)on!*
when lines cross

Solar'Power'Prices''
Best sites Latest
Earliest

Grid power
prices

Wholesale

Volume'of'PV'systems'installed'
Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics