PRINCE ABUBAKAR UNIVERSITY, P.M.B.

1008, ANYIGBA
FACULTY OF NATURAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
COS101-INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM
FIRST SEMESTER 2024/2025 ACADEMIC SESSION

INTRODUCTION
The computer is fast becoming the universal machine of the twenty-first century. Early computers were
large in size and too expensive to be owned by individuals. Thus, they were confined to the laboratories
and few research institutes. They could only be programmed by computer engineers. The basic
applications were confined to undertaking complex calculations in science and engineering. Today, the
computer is no longer confined to the laboratory. Computers, and indeed, computing have become
embedded in almost every item we use. Computing is fast becoming ubiquitous. Its application
transcends science, engineering, communication, space science, aviation, financial institutions, social
sciences, humanities, the military, transportation, manufacturing, the extractive industries to mention but
a few.
Also, early computers were designed to accept numeric data, but over the years computers have been
developed to accept not only numeric data, but we also able to process multimedia data – text, audio and
video. The combination of computer technology and communications technology gave birth to what is
now widely known as Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). ICT has changed the face of
virtually all fields of human endeavour, ranging from science to engineering, commerce and industry,
international trade, transportation, culture and tourism, education and research, among others. Nowadays,
literacy is not only measured by the ability to read and write, but also includes computer literacy. The
wave of globalization which has been largely propelled by the collapse of barriers of distance between
nations and peoples in the world as a result of ICT, makes it imperative for the modern man to have at
least the basic knowledge of computers. This course is meant to introduce students to the historical
evolution of computers, the basic components of computers, and some of its applications in society.
COURSE CONTENTS
This Course Guide tells you what to expect from reading this material. The study of computers is not only
of academic importance but is also a universal tool of the twenty-first century. This course, therefore, is a
systematic approach to the understanding of computers and their applications.
COURSE AIMS
The aim of this course is to provide students with the basic understanding of the computer and its
applications in everyday life.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
The specific objectives of this course are to:
 Provide basic understanding of the historical evolution of the computer, types of computers and
the classification of computers.
 Enable the students to understand the components of the computer – the hardware and software.
 Help students to identify the different categories of computer software and their uses.
 Introduce students to computer programming with emphasis on the building blocks and stages of
programming and writing of computer programs using visual basic.
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  Enable students to identify and appreciate the areas of application of computers in society, thereby
stimulating their thought to regard the computer as a tool for human use rather than a master.
 Create awareness at the early stage of the study of computers about the potential threats that
computer viruses pose to the smooth operations of computers.

WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE

This course requires that you spend a lot of time to read. The material though presented in simple
language, coherent and in logical sequence, requires diligent study. The material is comprehensive and
would require full commitment and dedication to study on the part of the student. You are, therefore,
advised to avail yourself the opportunity of attending the tutorial sessions where you would have the
opportunity of comparing knowledge with your peers.

COURSE MATERIALS
You will be provided with the following materials:
• Course Guide
• Modules
• Study units

SUMMARY
This course intends to introduce you to the basic understanding of the computer and its application in
various areas of human endeavour. By the time you complete studying this course, you should be able to
answer basic questions such as:
• What is the computer?
• What are the evolutionary trends in the development of the computer?
• What are the different components of computers?
• What are the different categories of computer software?
• What are the areas of application of computers in society?
• How could you use the computer to create user-friendly, menu- driven and interactive
applications?
• What are the threats to the smooth operation of the computer?
• How can you detect, prevent and cure computer viruses?
We wish you success in this course. We do hope that this course will give you a good head start in the
understanding and use of computers.

Best wishes as you enjoy the course.

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 MAIN
COURSE

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Understanding the Computer …………………… 1

Unit 1 Basic Concepts……………………………….…..… 1

Unit 2 A Historical Overview of the Computer…………… 9
Unit 3 Classification of Computers…………………….….. 20

Module 2 Computer Hardware ……………………………. 27

Unit 1 Hardware Components (1)………………………... 27

Unit 2 Hardware Components (2) – Peripheral Devices…. 40
Unit 3 Auxiliary Equipment…………………………....…. 53

Module 3 Computer Software …………………………..…. 57

Unit 1 Computer Software (1)………………………….… 57

Unit 2 Computer Software (2)…………………………..… 69

Module 4 Programming the Computer ……………………. 75

Unit 1 Computer Languages…………………………….... 75

Unit 2 Basic Principles of Computer Programming……..... 84
Unit 3 Flowcharts and Algorithms……………………….… 91

Module 5 Computer Application Programming Using Visual

Basic ………………………………………. 102

Unit 1 Programming in Visual Basic (1)……………...…. 102

Unit 2 Visual Basic Project Window……………………. 109
Unit 3 Creating Menu Applications……………………... 117
Unit 4 Analysing Visual Basic Data…………………..…. 126

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 Module 6 Areas of Application of Computers …………..…. 134

Unit 1 Application of Computers in Education………..…. 134

Unit 2 Computer Applications in Business and
Industry…………………………………………….. 137
Unit 3 Computer Applications in Government, Science,
Engineering, Transport, Communications,
Recreation and the Military....................................................145

Module 7 Threats to the Computer.....................................................153

Unit 1 Computer Virus.......................................................................153

MODULE 1 UNDERSTANDING THE COMPUTER

Unit 1 Basic Concepts

Unit 2 Historical Overview of the
Computer Unit 3 Classification of
Computers

UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Methods of Data Processing
3.3 Characteristics of a Computer
3.4 The Computer System
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The computer is fast becoming the universal machine of the 21st century. Early computers were large in
size and too expensive to be owned by individuals. Thus, they were confined to the laboratories and few
research institutes. They could only be programmed by computer engineers. The basic applications were
confined to undertaking complex calculations in science and engineering. Today, the computer is no
longer confined to the laboratory. Computers and, indeed, computing have become embedded in almost
every item we use. Computing is fast becoming ubiquitous. Its application transcends science,
engineering, communication, space science, aviation, financial institutions, social sciences, humanities,
the military, transportation, manufacturing, and extractive industries to mention but a few. This unit
presents the background information about computers.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:

• define the computer

• explain data processing
• explain data and information
• identify methods of data processing
• mention the characteristics of a computer.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definitions
Computer: A computer is basically defined as a tool or machine used for processing data to give required
information. It is capable of:

• taking input data through the keyboard (input unit),

• storing the input data in a diskette, hard disk or other medium,
• processing it in the central processing unit (CPU) and
• giving out the result (output) on the screen or the Visual Display Unit (VDU).

DATA INFORMATION
Fig. 1: A schematic diagram to define a computer
Data: The term data refers to facts about a person, object or place, e.g. name, age, complexion, school,
class, height etc.
Information: This is referred to as processed data or a meaningful statement, e.g. net pay of workers,
examination results of students, list of successful candidates in an examination or interview etc.
3.2 Methods of Data Processing
The following are the three major methods that have been widely used for data processing over the years:
• The Manual method,
• The Mechanical method and
• The Computer method.
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The Manual Method
The manual method of data processing involves the use of chalk, wall, pen, pencil and the like. These
devices, machines or tools facilitate human efforts in recording, classifying, manipulating, sorting and
presenting data or information. The manual data processing operations entail considerable manual efforts.
Thus, the manual method is cumbersome, tiresome, boring, frustrating and time consuming. Furthermore,
the processing of data by the manual method is likely to be affected by human errors. When there are
errors, then the reliability, accuracy, neatness, tidiness, and validity of the data would be in doubt. The
manual method does not allow for the processing of large volumes of data on a regular and timely basis.
The Mechanical Method
The mechanical method of data processing involves the use of machines such as the typewriter, roneo
machines, adding machines and the like. These machines facilitate human efforts in recording,
classifying, manipulating, sorting and presenting data or information. The mechanical operations are
basically routine in nature. There is virtually no creative thinking. Mechanical operations are noisy,
hazardous, error prone and untidy. The mechanical method does not allow for the processing of large
volumes of data continuously and timely.
The Computer Method
The computer method of carrying out data processing has the following major features:
• Data can be steadily and continuously processed
• The operations are practically not noisy
• There is a store where data and instructions can be stored temporarily and permanent.
• Errors can be easily and neatly corrected.
• Output reports are usually very neat, decent and can be produced in various forms such as adding
graphs, diagrams and pictures etc.
• Accuracy and reliability are highly enhanced
• Below are further attributes of a computer which make an indispensable tool for humans.
3.3 Characteristics of a Computer
• Speed: The computer can manipulate large data at incredible speed and response time can be very
fast.
• Accuracy: Its accuracy is very high and its consistency can be relied upon. Errors committed in
computing are mostly due to human rather than technological weakness. There are in-built error
detecting schemes in the computer.
• Storage: It has both internal and external storage facilities for holding data and instructions. This
capacity varies from one machine to the other. Memories are built up in K (Kilo) modules where
K=1024 memory locations.
• Automatic: Once a program is in the computer’s memory, it can run automatically each time it is
opened. The individual has little or no instruction to give again.

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• Reliability: Being a machine, a computer does not suffer human traits of tiredness and lack of
concentration. It will perform the last job with the same speed and accuracy as the first job every
time even if ten million jobs are involved.
• Flexibility: It can perform any type of task once it can be reduced to logical steps. Modern
computers can be used to perform a variety of functions like on-line processing, multi-
programming, real time processing etc.

3.4 The Computing System

The computing system is made up of the computer system, the user and the environment in which the
computer is operated.
The Computer System
The computer system is made up of the hardware and the software.
The Hardware
The computer hardware comprises the input unit, the processing unit and the output unit. The input unit
comprises those media through which data is fed into the computer. Examples include the keyboard,
mouse, joystick, trackball and scanner.
The processing unit is made up of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), the control unit and the main
memory. The main memory also known as the primary memory is made up of the Read Only Memory
(ROM) and the Random Access Memory (RAM).
The output unit is made up of those media through which data, instructions for processing the data
(program), and the result of the processing operation are displayed for the user to see. Examples of the
output unit are the monitor (Visual Display Unit) and the printer.
Software
Computer software is the series of instructions that enable the computer to perform a task or group of
tasks. A program is made up of a group of instructions to perform a task. Series of programs linked
together make up software. Computer programs could be categorised into system software, utility
software, and application programs.
Computer Users
Computer users are the different categories of personnel that operate the computer. We have expert users
and casual users. The expert users could be further categorised into computer engineers, computer
programmers and computer operators.
The Computing Environment
The computing environment includes the building housing the other elements of the computing system
namely the computer and the users, the furniture, auxiliary devices such as the voltage stabiliser, the
Uninterruptible Power Supply System (UPS), the fans, the air conditioners etc. The schematic diagram of
the computing system is presented in Fig. 2a. to Fig. 2d.

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Fig 2a: A Schematic diagram of the computing system

Software

System software Utility software Application software

Operating Anti Scandisk Word Spread Statistical

system virus processo sheet packages

Fig. 2b: Computer software

Fig. 2c: Computer users

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 Computing

Building Furniture Auxiliary devices

and

Air Voltage UPS

conditione stabilizer

Fig. 2d: Computing environment

4.0 CONCLUSION
The computer is a machine used for a variety of purposes. Its use transcends all areas of human
endeavours owing to the advantages of the computer method of data processing over the manual and
mechanical methods of data processing.

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has taught the following:

• The computer is any electronic device that can accept data, process it and produce an output
• The computer method of data processing is superior to the manual and mechanical methods of
data processing
• The computing system is made up of the computer system, the users and the computing
environment.

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 UNIT 2 A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
OF THE COMPUTER

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 A Brief History of Computer Technology
3.2 First Generation Electronic Computers (1937-1953)
3.3 Second Generation (1954-1972)
3.4 Third Generation (1903-1972)
3.5 Fourth Generation (1972-1984)
3.6 Fifth Generation (1984-1990)
3.7 Sixth Generation (1990-Date)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The computer as we know it today has evolved over the ages. An attempt is made in this unit to present in
chronological order the various landmarks and milestones in the development of the computer. Based on
the milestone achievement of each era, the computer evolution is categorised into generations. The
generational classification, however, is not rigid as we may find one generation eating into the next.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:

• explain the processes leading to the emergence of the modern computer

• predict the direction of research in computer technology in the near future.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 A Brief History of Computer Technology
A complete history of computing would include a multitude of diverse devices such as the ancient
Chinese abacus, the Jacquard loom (1805) and Charles Babbage’s “analytical engine” (1834). It would
also

include a discussion of mechanical, analog and digital computing architectures. As late as the 1960s,
mechanical devices, such as the Marchant calculator, still found widespread application in science and
engineering. During the early days of electronic computing devices, there was much discussion about the
relative merits of analog vs. digital computers. In fact, as late as the 1960s, analog computers were
routinely used to solve systems of finite difference equations arising in oil reservoir modeling. In the end,

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digital computing devices proved to have the power, economics and scalability necessary to deal with
large scale computations. Digital computers now dominate the computing world in all areas ranging from
the hand calculator to the supercomputer and are pervasive throughout society. Therefore, this brief
sketch of the development of scientific computing is limited to the area of digital, electronic computers.
The evolution of digital computing is often divided into generations. Each generation is characterised by
dramatic improvements over the previous generation in the technology used to build computers, the
internal organisation of computer systems, and programming languages. Although not usually associated
with computer generations, there has been a steady improvement in algorithms, including algorithms used
in computational science. The following history has been organised using these widely recognized
generations as mileposts.

3.2 First Generation Electronic Computers (1937 – 1953)

Three machines have been promoted at various times as the first electronic computers. These machines
used electronic switches, in the form of vacuum tubes, instead of electromechanical relays. In principle
the electronic switches were more reliable, since they would have no moving parts that would wear out,
but technology was still new at that time and the tubes were comparable to relays in reliability. Electronic
components had one major benefit, however: they could “open” and “close” about 1,000 times faster than
mechanical switches.
The earliest attempt to build an electronic computer was by J. V. Atanasoff, a professor of physics and
mathematics at Iowa State, in 1937. Atanasoff set out to build a machine that would help his graduate
students solve systems of partial differential equations. By 1941, he and graduate student Clifford Berry
had succeeded in building a machine that could solve 29 simultaneous equations with 29 unknowns.
However, the machine was not programmable, and was more of an electronic calculator.
A second early electronic machine was Colossus, designed by Alan Turning for the British military in
1943. This machine played an important role in breaking codes used by the German army in World War
II. Turning’s main contribution to the field of computer science was the idea of the Turning Machine, a
mathematical formalism widely used in the study of computable functions. The existence of Colossus
was kept secret until long after the war ended, and the credit due to Turning and his colleagues for
designing one of the first working electronic computers was slow in coming.
The first general purposes programmable electronic computer was the Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer (ENIAC), built by J. Presper Eckert and John V. Mauchly at the University of
Pennysylvania. Work began in 1943, funded by the Army Ordinance Department, which needed a way to
compute ballistics during World War II. The machine wasn’t completed until 1945, but then it was used
extensively for calculations during the design of the hydrogen bomb. By the time it was decommissioned
in 1955 it had been used for research on the design of wind tunnels, random number generators, and
weather prediction. Eckert, Mauchly, and John Von Neumann, a consultant to the ENIAC project, began
work on a new machine before ENIAC was finished. The main contribution of EDVAC, their new
project, was the notion of a stored program.
There is some controversy over who deserves the credit for this idea, but no one knows how important
the idea was to the future of general-purpose computers. ENIAC was controlled by a set of external
switches and dials; to change the program required physically altering the settings on these controls.
These controls also limited the speed of the internal electronic operations. Through the use of a memory
that was large enough to hold both instructions and data, and using the program stored in memory to
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control the order of arithmetic operations, EDVAC was able to run orders of magnitude faster than
ENIAC. By storing instructions in the same medium as data, designers could concentrate on improving
the internal structure of the machine without worrying about matching it to the speed of an external
control.
Regardless of who deserves the credit for the stored program idea, the EDVAC project is significant as an
example of the power of interdisciplinary projects that characterise modern computational science. By
recognising that functions, in the form of a sequence of instructions for a computer, can be encoded as
numbers, the EDVAC group knew the instructions could be stored in the computer’s memory along with
numerical data. The notion of using numbers to represent functions was a key step used by Goedel in his
incompleteness theorem in 1937, work which Von Neumann, as a logician, was quite familiar with. Von
Neumann’s background in logic, combined with Eckert and Mauchly’s electrical engineering skills,
formed a very powerful interdisciplinary team.
Software technology during this period was very primitive. The first programs were written out in
machine code, i.e. programmers directly wrote down the numbers that corresponded to the instructions
they wanted to store in memory. By the 1950s programmers were using a symbolic notation, known as
assembly language, then hand-translating the symbolic notation into machine code. Later programs
known as assemblers performed the translation task.
As primitive as they were, these first electronic machines were quite useful in applied science and
engineering. Atanasoff estimated that it would take eight hours to solve a set of equations with eight
unknowns using a Marchant calculator, and 381 hours to solve 29 equations for 29 unknowns. The
Atanasoff-Berry computer was able to complete the task in under an hour. The first problem run on the
ENIAC, a numerical simulation used in the design of the hydrogen bomb, required 20 seconds, as
opposed to forty hours using mechanical calculators. Eckert and Mauchly later developed what was
arguably the first commercially successful computer, the UNIVAC; in 1952, 45 minutes after the polls
closed and with 7% of the vote counted, UNIVAC predicted Eisenhower would defeat Stevenson with
438 electoral votes (he ended up with 442).
3.3 Second Generation (1954 – 1962)
The second generation saw several important developments at all levels of computer system design, from
the technology used to build the basic circuits to the programming languages used to write scientific
applications.
Electronic switches in this era were based on discrete diode and transistor technology with a switching
time of approximately 0.3 microseconds. The first machines to be built with this technology include
TRADIC at Bell Laboratories in 1954 and TX-0 at MIT’s Lincoln Laboratory. Memory technology was
based on magnetic cores which could be accessed in random order, as opposed to mercury delay lines, in
which data was stored as an acoustic wave that passed sequentially through the medium and could be
accessed only when the data moved by the I/O interface.
Important innovations in computer architecture included index registers for controlling loops and
floating-point units for calculations based on real numbers. Prior to this accessing successive elements in
an array was quite tedious and often involved writing self-modifying codes (programs which modified
themselves as they ran; at the time viewed as a powerful application of the principle that programs and
data were fundamentally the same, this practice is now frowned upon as extremely hard to debug and is
impossible in most high-level languages). Floating point operations were performed by libraries of
software routines in early computers, but were done in hardware in second generation machines.

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During this second generation many high-level programming languages were introduced, including
FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958), and COBOL (1959). Important commercial machines of this era
include the IBM 704 and 7094. The latter introduced I/O processors for better throughput between I/O
devices and main memory.
The second generation also saw the first two supercomputers designed specifically for numeric
processing in scientific applications. The term “supercomputer” is generally reserved for a machine that
is an order of magnitude more powerful than other machines of its era. Two machines of the 1950s
deserve this title. The Livermore Atomic Research Computer (LARC) and the IBM 7030 (aka Stretch)
were early examples of machines that overlapped memory operations with processor operations and had
primitive forms of parallel processing.
3.4 Third Generation (1963 – 1972)
The third generation brought huge gains in computational power. Innovations in this era include the use
of integrated circuits, or ICs (semiconductor devices with several transistors built into one physical
component), semiconductor memories starting to be used instead of magnetic cores, microprogramming
as a technique for efficiently designing complex processors, the coming of age of pipelining and other
forms of parallel processing, and the introduction of operating systems and time-sharing.
The first ICs were based on small-scale integration (SSI) circuits, which had around 10 devices per circuit
(or “chip”), and evolved to the use of medium-scale integrated (MSI) circuits, which had up to 100
devices per chip. Multilayered printed circuits were developed and core memory was replaced by faster,
solid state memories. Computer designers began to take advantage of parallelism by using multiple
functional units, overlapping CPU and I/O operations, and pipelining (internal parallelism) in both the
instruction stream and the data stream. In 1964, Seymour Cray developed the CDC 6600, which was the
first architecture to use functional parallelism. By using 10 separate functional units that could operate
simultaneously and 32 independent memory banks, the CDC 6600 was able to attain a computation rate
of 1 million floating point operations per second (1 Mflops). Five years later
CDC released the 7600, also developed by Seymour Cray. The CDC 7600, with its pipelined functional
units, is considered to be the first vector processor and was capable of executing at 10 Mflops. The IBM
360/91, released during the same period, was roughly twice as fast as the CDC 6600. It employed
instruction look ahead, separate floating point and integer functional units and pipelined instruction
stream. The IBM 360-195 was comparable to the CDC 7600, deriving much of its performance from a
very fast cache memory. The SOLOMON computer, developed by Westinghouse Corporation, and the
ILLIAC IV, jointly developed by Burroughs, the Department of Defence and the University of Illinois,
was representative of the first parallel computers. The Texas Instrument Advanced Scientific Computer
(TI-ASC) and the STAR-100 of CDC were pipelined vector processors that demonstrated the viability of
that design and set the standards for subsequent vector processors.
Early in this third generation, Cambridge and the University of London cooperated in the development of
CPL (Combined Programming Language, 1963). CPL was, according to its authors, an attempt to capture
only the important features of the complicated and sophisticated ALGOL. However, the ALGOL CPL
was large with many features that were hard to learn. In an attempt at further simplification, Martin
Richards of Cambridge developed a subset of CPL called BCPL (Basic Computer Programming
Language, 1967).
3.5 Fourth Generation (1972 – 1984)

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The next generation of computer systems saw the use of large-scale integration (LSI –1000 devices per
chip) and very large-scale integration (VLSI –100,000 devices per chip) in the construction of computing
elements. At this scale entire processors will fit onto a single chip, and for simple systems the entire
computer (processor, main memory, and I/O controllers) can fit on one chip. Gate delays dropped to
about Ins per gate.
Semiconductor memories replaced core memories as the main memory in most systems; until this time
the use of semiconductor memory in most systems was limited to registers and cache. During this period,
high speed vector processors, such as the CRAY 1, CRAY X-MP and CYBER 205 dominated the high-
performance computing scene. Computers with large main memory, such as the CRAY 2, began to
emerge. A variety of parallel architectures began to appear; however, during this period the parallel
computing efforts were of a mostly experimental nature and most computational science was carried out
on vector processors. Microcomputers and workstations were introduced and saw wide use as alternatives
to time-shared mainframe computers.
Developments in software include very high-level languages such as FP (functional programming) and
Prolog (programming in logic). These languages tend to use a declarative programming style as opposed
to the imperative style of Pascal, C. FORTRAN, et al. In a declarative style, a programmer gives a
mathematical specification of what should be computed, leaving many details of how it should be
computed to the compiler and/or runtime system. These languages are not yet in wide use, but are very
promising as notations for programs that will run on massively parallel computers (systems with over
1,000 processors). Compilers for established languages started to use sophisticated optimisation
techniques to improve codes, and compilers for vector processors were able to vectorise simple loops
(turn loops into single instructions that would initiate an operation over an entire vector).
Two important events marked the early part of the third generation: the development of the C
programming language and the UNIX operating system, both at Bell Labs. In 1972, Dennis Ritchie,
seeking to meet the design goals of CPL and generalise Thompson’s B, developed the C language.
Thompson and Ritchie then used C to write a version of UNIX for the DEC PDP-11. This C-based UNIX
was soon ported to many different computers, relieving users from having to learn a new operating
system each time they change computer hardware. UNIX or a derivative of UNIX is now a de facto
standard on virtually every computer system.
An important event in the development of computational science was the publication of the Lax report. In
1982, the US Department of Defence (DOD) and National Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored a panel
on Large Scale Computing in Science and Engineering, chaired by Peter D. Lax. The Lax Report stated
that aggressive and focused foreign initiatives in high performance computing, especially in Japan, were
in sharp contrast to the absence of coordinated national attention in the United States. The report noted
that university researchers had inadequate access to high performance computers. One of the first and
most visible of the responses to the Lax report was the establishment of the NSF supercomputing centres.
Phase I on this NSF program was designed to encourage the use of high-performance computing at
American universities by making cycles and training on three (and later six) existing supercomputers
immediately available. Following this Phase I stage, in 1984 – 1985 the NSF provided funding for the
establishment of five Phase II supercomputing centres.
The Phase II centres, located in San Diego (San Diego Supercomputing Centre); Illinois (National Centre
for Supercomputing Applications); Pittsburgh (Pittsburgh Supercomputing Centre); Cornell (Cornell
Theory Centre); and Princeton (John Von Neumann Centre), have been extremely successful at providing
computing time on supercomputers to the academic community. In addition, they have provided many
valuable training programmes and have developed several software packages that are available free of
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charge. These Phase II centres continue to augment the substantial high performance computing efforts at
the National Laboratories, especially the Department of Energy (DOE) and NASA sites.
3.6 Fifth Generation (1984 – 1990)
The development of the next generation of computer systems is characterised mainly by the acceptance of
parallel processing. Until this time, parallelism was limited to pipelining and vector processing, or at
most to a few processors sharing jobs. The fifth generation saw the introduction of machines with
hundreds of processors that could all be working on different parts of a single program. The scale of
integration in semiconductors continued at an incredible pace, so that by 1990 it was possible to build
chips with a million components – and semiconductor memories became standard on all computers.
Other new developments were the widespread use of computer networks and the increasing use of single-
user workstations. Prior to 1985, large scale parallel processing was viewed as a research goal, but two
systems introduced around this time are typical of the first commercial products to be based on parallel
processing. The Sequent Balance 8000 connected up to 20 processors to a single shared memory module
(but each processor had its own local cache). The machine was designed to compete with the DEC VAX-
780 as a general-purpose Unix system, with each processor working on a different user’s job. However,
Sequent provided a library of subroutines that would allow programmers to write programs that would
use more than one processor, and the machine was widely used to explore parallel algorithms and
programming techniques.
The Intel iPSC-1, nicknamed “the hypercube”, took a different approach. Instead of using one memory
module, Intel connected each processor to its own memory and used a network interface to connect
processors. This distributed memory architecture meant memory was no longer a bottleneck and large
systems (using more processors) could be built. The largest iPSC-1 had 128 processors. Toward the end
of this period, a third type of parallel processor was introduced to the market. In this style of machine,
known as a data-parallel or SIMD, there are several thousand very simple processors. All processors work
under the direction of a single control unit; i.e. if the control unit says “add a to b” then all processors find
their local copy of a and add it to their local copy of b. Machines in this class include the Connection
Machine from Thinking Machines, Inc., and the MP-1 from MasPar, Inc.

Scientific computing in this period was still dominated by vector processing. Most manufacturers of
vector processors introduced parallel models, but there were very few (two to eight) processors in these
parallel machines. In the area of computer networking, both wide area network (WAN) and local area
network (LAN) technology developed at a rapid pace, stimulating a transition from the traditional
mainframe computing environment towards a distributed computing environment in which each user has
their own workstation for relatively simple tasks (editing and compiling programs, reading mail) but
sharing large, expensive resources such as file servers and supercomputers. RISC technology (a style of
internal organisation of the CPU) and plummeting costs for RAM brought tremendous gains in
computational power of relatively low-cost workstations and servers. This period also saw a marked
increase in both the quality and quantity of scientific visualisation.
3.7 Sixth Generation (1990 to date)
Transitions between generations in computer technology are hard to define, especially as they are taking
place. Some changes, such as the switch from vacuum tubes to transistors, are immediately apparent as
fundamental changes, but others are clear only in retrospect. Many of the developments in computer
systems since 1990 reflect gradual improvements over established systems, and thus it is hard to claim
15
they represent a transition to a new “generation”, but other developments will prove to be significant
changes.
In this section, we offer some assessments about recent developments and current trends that we think
will have a significant impact on computational science.
This generation is beginning with many gains in parallel computing, both in the hardware area and in
improved understanding of how to develop algorithms to exploit diverse, massively parallel architectures.
Parallel systems now compete with vector processors in terms of total computing power and, most
especially, parallel systems to dominate the future.
Combinations of parallel/vector architectures are well established, and one corporation (Fujitsu) has
announced plans to build a system with over 200 of its high and vector processors. Manufacturers have
set themselves the goal of achieving teraflops (1012 arithmetic operations per second) performance by
the middle of the decade, and it is clear this will be obtained only by a system with a thousand processors
or more. Workstation technology has continued to improve, with processor designs now using a
combination of RISC, pipelining, and parallel processing. As a result, it is now possible to procure a
desktop workstation that has the same overall computing power (100 megaflops) as fourth generation
supercomputers. This development has sparked an interest in heterogeneous computing: a program
started on one workstation can find idle workstations elsewhere in the local network to run parallel
subtasks.
One of the most dramatic changes in the sixth generation is the explosive growth of wide area
networking. Network bandwidth has expanded tremendously in the last few years and will continue to
improve for the next several years. T1 transmission rates are now standard for regional networks, and the
national “backbone” that interconnects regional networks uses T3. Networking technology is becoming
more widespread than its original strong base in universities and government laboratories as it is rapidly
finding application in K-12 education, community networks and private industry. A little over a decade
after the warning voiced in the Lax report, the future of a strong computational science infrastructure is
bright.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The development of the computer spans through many generations with each generation chronicling the
landmark achievements of the period.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit teaches that the development of the computer has spanned through six generations.

16
 UNIT 3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Categories of Computers
3.2 Classification Based on Signal Type
3.3 Classification by Purpose
3.4 Classification by Capacity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The computer has passed through many stages of evolution from the days of the mainframe computers to
the era of microcomputers. Computers have been classified based on different criteria. In this unit, we
shall classify computers based on three popular methods.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• classify computers based on size, type of signal and purpose
• identify the features that differentiate one class of computers from the others.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Categories of Computers
Although there are no industry standards, computers are generally classified in the following ways:
3.2 Classification Based on Signal Type
There are basically three types of electronic computers. These are the Digital, Analog and Hybrid
computers.
The Digital Computer
This represents its variables in the form of digits. The data it deals with, whether representing numbers,
letters or other symbols, are converted into binary form on input to the computer. The data undergoes a
processing after which the binary digits are converted back to alpha numeric form for output for human
use. Because of the fact that business applications like inventory control, invoicing and payroll deal with
discrete values (separate, disunited, discontinuous), they are best processed with digital computers. As a
result of this, digital computers are mostly used in commercial and business places today.
The Analog Computer

17
It measures rather than counts. This type of computer sets up a model of a system. The common type
represents its variables in terms of electrical voltage and sets up circuit analog to the equation connecting
the variables. The answer can be either by using a voltmeter to read the value of the variable required, or
by feeding the voltage into a plotting device. Analog computers hold data in the form of physical
variables rather than numerical quantities. In theory, analog computers give an exact answer because the
answer has not been approximated to the nearest digit. Whereas, when we try to obtain the answers using
a digital voltmeter, we often find that the accuracy is less than that which could have been obtained from
an analog computer.
It is almost never used in business systems. It is used by scientists and engineers to solve systems of
partial differential equations. It is also used in controlling and monitoring of systems in such areas as
hydrodynamics and rocketry in production. There are two useful properties of this computer once it is
programmed:
• It is simple to change the value of a constant or coefficient and study the effect of such changes.
• It is possible to link certain variables to a time pulse to study changes with time as a variable, and
chart the result on an X-Y plotter.
The Hybrid Computer
In some cases, the computer user may wish to obtain the output from an analog computer as processed by
a digital computer or vice versa. To achieve this, he set up a hybrid machine where the two are connected
and the analog computer may be regarded as a peripheral of the digital computer. In such a situation, a
hybrid system attempts to gain the advantage of both the digital and the analog elements in the same
machine. This kind of machine is usually a special-purpose device which is built for a specific task. It
needs a conversion element which accepts analog inputs, and outputs digital values. Such converters are
called digitisers. There is a need for a converter from analog to digital also. It has the advantage of giving
real-time response on a continuous basis. Complex calculations can be dealt with by the digital elements,
thereby requiring a large memory, and giving accurate results after programming. They are mainly used
in aerospace and process control applications.
3.3 Classification by Purpose
Depending on their flexibility in operation, computers are classified as either special purpose or general
purpose.
Special-Purpose Computers
A special purpose computer is one that is designed to solve a restricted class of problems. Such
computers may even be designed and built to handle only one job. In such machines, the steps or
operations that the computer follows may be built into the hardware. Most of the computers used for
military purposes fall into this class. Other examples of special purpose computers include:
• Computers designed specifically to solve navigational problems.
• Computers designed for tracking airplanes or missiles
• Computers used for process control applications in industries such as oil refinery, chemical
manufacture, steel processing and power generation
• Computers used as robots in factories like vehicle assembly plants and glass industries.

18
General Attributes of Special-Purpose Computers
Special-purpose computers are usually very efficient for the tasks for which they are specially designed.
They are very much less complex than the general-purpose computers. The simplicity of the circuiting
stems from the fact that provision is made only for limited facilities.
They are very much cheaper than the general-purpose type since they involve fewer components and are
less complex.
General-Purpose Computers
General-purpose computers are computers designed to handle a wide range of problems. Theoretically, a
general-purpose computer can be adequate by means of some easily alterable instructions to handle any
problems that can be solved by computation. In practice, however, there are limitations imposed by
memory size, speed and the type of input/output devices. Examples of areas where general purpose
computers are employed include the following:
• Payroll
• Banking
• Billing
• Sales analysis
• Cost accounting
• Manufacturing scheduling
• Inventory control
General Attributes of General-Purpose Computers
• General-purpose computers are more flexible than special purpose computers. Thus, the former
can handle a wide spectrum of problems.
• They are less efficient than the special-purpose computers due to such problems as the following:
- They have inadequate storage
- They have low operating speed
- Coordination of the various tasks and subsections may take time
- General-purpose computers are more complex than special purpose computers.

3.4 Classification of Computers According to Capacity

In the past, the capacity of computers was measured in terms of physical size. Today, however, physical
size is not a good measure of capacity because modern technology has made it possible to achieve
compactness.
A better measure of capacity today is the volume of work that a computer can handle. The volume of
work that a given computer handles is closely tied to the cost and to the memory size of the computer.

19
Therefore, most authorities today accept rental price as the standard for ranking computers. Here, both
memory size and cost shall be used to rank (classify) computers into three main categories as follows:
• Microcomputers
• Medium/mini/small computers
• Large computer/mainframes.
Microcomputers
Microcomputers, also known as single board computers, are the cheapest class of computers. In the
microcomputer, we do not have a Central Processing Unit (CPU) as we have in the larger computers.
Rather we have a microprocessor chip as the main data processing unit. They are the cheapest and
smallest, and can operate under normal office conditions. Examples are IBM, APPLE, COMPAQ,
Hewlett Packard (HP), Dell and Toshiba, etc.
Different Types of Personal Computers (Microcomputers)
Normally, personal computers are placed on the desk; hence they are referred to as desktop personal
computers. Still other types are available under the categories of personal computers. They are:
• Laptop Computers: These are small size types that are battery- operated. The screen is used to
cover the system while the keyboard is installed flat on the system unit. They could be carried about like
a box when closed after operation and can be operated in vehicles while on a journey.
• Notebook Computers: These are like laptop computers but smaller in size. Though small, the
notebook computer comprises all the components of a full system.
• Palmtop Computers: The palmtop computer is far smaller in size. All the components are
complete as in any of the above, but it is made smaller so that it can be held on the palm.
Uses of the Personal Computer
A personal computer can perform the following functions:
• It can be used to produce documents like memos, reports, letters and briefs.
• It can be used to calculate budgets and accounting tasks
• It can analyse numeric functions
• It can create illustrations
• It can be used for electronic mails
• It can help in making schedules and planning projects
• It can assist in searching for specific information from lists or from reports.

Advantages of the Personal Computer

• The personal computer is versatile: it can be used in any establishment

20
• It has faster speed for processing data
• It can deal with several data at a time
• It can attend to several users at the same time, thereby being able to process several jobs at a time
• It is capable of storing several data
• Operating the personal computer gives less fatigue
• It is possible to network personal computers, that is, linking of two or more computers.

Disadvantages of the Personal Computer

• The personal computer is costly to maintain
• It is very fragile and complex to handle
• It requires special skill to operate
• With inventions and innovations every day, the personal computer is at the risk of becoming
obsolete
• It can lead to unemployment, especially in less developed countries
• Some computers cannot function properly without the aid of a cooling system, e.g. air
conditioners or fans in some locations.
Mini Computers
Mini computers have memory capacity in the range ‘128- 256 Kbytes’ and are also not expensive but
reliable and smaller in size compare to mainframe. They were first introduced in 1965; when DEC
(Digital Equipment Corporation) built the PDP – 8. Other mini computers are WANG VS.
Mainframe Computers
The mainframe computers, often called number crunchers have memory capacity of the order of ‘4
Kbytes’, and are very expensive. They can execute up to 100 MIPS (Meanwhile Instructions per Second).
They have large systems and are used by many people for a variety of purposes.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Computers are classified based on three major criteria namely size, type of signal being processed, and
purpose. The classification adopted at any point in time depends on the issues involved. For instance, if
our goal is to process different kinds of signals or to accept one type of signal and convert to another form
of signal, we should look in the realm of analog or digital or even the hybrid computers. This, of course,
calls for a converter such as analog to digital converter or digital to analog converter as the case may be.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we have been able to study the following:
• Computers can be classified based on three major criteria: size, type of signal being processed,
and purpose.
• Based on size, computers are classified as mainframe, minicomputer and microcomputer.
21
• Based on the type of signal being processed, computers are classified as analog, digital and
hybrid.
• Based on purpose, computers are classified as general-purpose or special-purpose computers.
• Microcomputers now come in different forms due to the continued reduction in size as a result of
advances in electronic technology. Microcomputers could be desktop, laptop or palmtop.

MODULE 2 COMPUTER HARDWARE

Unit 1 Hardware Components (1)

Unit 2 Hardware Components (2) – Peripheral
Devices Unit 3 Auxiliary Equipment

UNIT 1 HARDWARE COMPONENTS (1)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The System Unit
3.2 The Front of the System Unit
3.3 The Back of the System Unit
3.4 Inside the System Unit
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Your personal computer (PC) is really a collection of separate items working together as a team, with you
as the captain. Some of these components are essential; others simply make working more pleasant or
efficient. Adding extra items expands the variety of tasks you can accomplish with your machine.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
• identify the components of the computer
• explain the importance of each component of the computer.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The System Unit
The system unit is the main unit of a PC. It is the computer itself while other units attached to it are
regarded as peripherals. It could be viewed as the master conductor orchestrating your PC’s operation. It

22
is made up of several components like the motherboard, processor, buses, memory, power supply unit,
etc. This unit (the system unit) has been confused over the years by novices as the CPU. This is not true.
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) or simply processor is a component within the system unit and is not
the only thing that makes up the system unit. Hence, it will be wrong to equate the system unit with the
CPU.

3.2 The Front of the System Unit

Lights
Your unit may display a variety of coloured lights on the front panel, including power and turbo signals,
and light to indicate if the hard or floppy disk is being read or written to.
Key Lock
You can stop intruders from tampering with your PC by using the lock on the front panel. Turning the key
prevents the keyboard from working.
Turbo Button
Some PCs offer a choice of speeds at which they can run. A turbo switch is usually left so the computer
runs at its fastest speed.
Reset Button
If your PC “freezes” and won’t respond to any command, try starting it up again using the reset button.
Pressing the reset button loses all the work you have not saved in that session, so use it only as a last
resort.
Power On/Off
All PCs have main power switch on the system unit.Sometimes this control is placed on the outside back
panel.
Floppy Disk Drives
Either, or both, of two standard types of floppy disk drive may be found at the front of the system unit.
Some systems also have internal CD- ROM or tape drives.

23
Fig. 3: CD-ROM or DVD drive
3.3 The Back of the System Unit
The Fan Housing
The electronic components in your PC generate a lot of heat. To prevent overheating, a fan at the back of
the unit removes hot air from the system.
Power “in” and “out” Sockets
Cables plugged into these sockets carry power from the electrical outlet to the system unit and from the
system unit to the monitor.
The Joystick Port
Using a joystick is often much better than pressing keys to control movements when playing a computer
game.
Serial Ports
Serial ports often connect the PC to the modem or mouse. Most PCs are fitted with two serial ports that
may be labeled “S101” and “S102”, “Serial 1” and “Serial 2”, or “COM 1” and “COM 2”.
Sound Jacks
If you have a sound fitted inside your system unit, you will see a jack or jacks at the back. These can be
used to connect your PC to speakers, a microphone, or an external sound source.
The Keyboard Port
The cable from your keyboard ends with a round connector, which plugs into the keyboard port.
The Network Adapter
If an expansion card is fitted to link your PC with other PCs in your office you will see a network
connector at the back of the system unit.
The Monitor Port
24
A cable from your monitor plugs into this port and carries display information to the monitor.
Bays for Expansion Cards
PCs are easily expanded, perhaps to provide modem, sound or faster graphics. You can plug cards into
expansion slots inside the PC. The end of an expansion card shows at the back of your machine, allowing
you to connect items.
3.4 Inside The System Unit

Fig. 4: Inside the system unit

The brain behind everything that happens in your PC is contained within the system unit. Inside the unit
are the impressive electronics that run programs, handle instructions, and determine the results. Most of
the more important items are described below.
The Battery
A small battery powers a clock to keep track of the time when the PC is turned off. It also maintains low
electricity to certain RAM chips that record which components are installed.
The Disk Drive Controller Card
This card controls the PC’s disk drive motors and transfers data. The serial and parallel ports at the back
of the card link internal PC components with external devices such as mouse and printer.
The Display Adapter Card (Video Card)
All the information your computer will display is stored in its memory. To be useful, you need to see the
information. The display adapter card is the link between the PC’s memory and the monitor.
Expansion Slots
These long narrow connectors allow you to plug in expansion cards (also known as adapter cards), which
offer extra options not available on a basic PC.
ROM Chips
Read-only memory (ROM) chips have data written on them during manufacturing that tells the CPU what
to do when the PC is switched on. The data is always there, even when you switch the PC off.
RAM Chips

25
When a computer is switched on and is running a program, RAM (Random Access Memory) is used for
purposes such as holding the program and its data. But when the PC is switched off, anything held in
RAM is lost.
Empty RAM Chip Slots
These slots let you expand your computer’s memory by adding extra RAM chips or modules. Some PCs
work even faster because they come equipped with Cache Memory. Cache memory consists of expensive
and very fast memory chips that store the data or instructions that the CPU will look at next. Cache
memory can speed up work on your computer enormously.

Fig. 5: A RAM chip

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Fig. 6: An Intel processor

The microprocessor, or central processing unit (CPU), is the computer’s most important single item. It
does all the PC’s thinking and runs the programs (series of instructions) that you request.
CPU Support Chips
These chips help the CPU manage all the other parts of the computer.
The Math Coprocessor Slot
A math coprocessor, present in some PCs, assists the CPU in its number-crunching activities (if programs
have been designed to use it).

26
Fig. 7: The CPU fan
The Speaker
The speaker emits the computer’s sound output.
The Power Supply Unit
All the components in a PC need electrical supply. Most need a 5-volt supply although floppy disk drive
motors require 12 volts. If the components were connected to normal household current, they would blow
up, so the power supply unit converts high voltage electrical current to a low voltage.
The Hard Disk Drive
The hard disk is your computer’s main permanent storage unit, holding large amount of data and
programs. Unlike data held in RAM, the information on the hard disk is not affected when the PC is
turned off – it remains there unless you instruct the PC to overwrite it or the hard disk is damaged.

27
Fig. 8: The hard drive (Hard disk) The Motherboard
All the electronic components in a PC are mounted on a piece of fiberglass called the motherboard.
Fiberglass cannot conduct electricity, so each component is insulated from all the others. Thin lines of
metal on the surface of the fiberglass connect pins from one component to another, forming the
computer’s electrical circuits.

Fig. 9: Components of a motherboard Intel CPUs

The earliest PCs were equipped with a CPU from Intel Corporation called the 8088. The next generation
of PCs used CPU known by the number “80286” and were called “PC/AT” computers. Subsequently, PCs
have been supplied with more and more powerful CPUs – the 80386, the 80486, and the more recent and
impressive of all, the Intel Pentium (I, II, III, IV& M).
All these PC processors belong to a family called 80 x 86. In general, you can run the same software on
PCs containing different CPUs within this family. From the outside, the chips look different only in sizes
and number of pin-put inside. An 80486 has over one million components to the 3,500 that were in the
first 8088. Because of these differences, the latest Pentiums runs over ten times faster.
What is the CPU
The CPU is certainly the most important PC component. CPU stands for Central Processing Unit. Let us
briefly study that name:
• It is a processor, because it processes (moves and calculates)
data.
• It is central, because it is the centre of PC data processing.
• It is a unit, because it is a chip, which contains millions of transistors.

CPU Speed
The speed of a CPU is measured in megahertz (MHz). A computer has a central clock that keeps all the
components in time with each other; one hertz is similar to a clock tick and megahertz is equal to one
million ticks per second. If your PC runs at 333 or 400MHz, the central clock ticks 333 or 400 million
times every second. As you might imagine, the faster the clock ticks, the faster the computer runs.

28
Without the CPU, there would be no PC. Like all other hardware components, CPUs are continually
undergoing further development. You can see the explosive technological development in data processing
most clearly in the development of newer and faster CPUs. The CPUs have for years doubled their
performance about every 18 months and there are no indications that this trend will stop.
When we now look at all the CPUs from a broader perspective, we can see that:
• The CPU history is closely tied to the companies IBM and, especially, Intel.
• The CPUs have their roots back to Intel's chip 4004 from 1971.
• The compatibility concept has been important throughout the development.
Generations of CPUs
There are CPUs of many brand names (IBM, Texas, Cyrix, AMD), and often they make models which
overlap two generations. This can make it difficult to keep track of CPUs. Here is an attempt to identify
the various CPUs according to generations:
History of CPUs
The following table shows the different CPU generations.
Table 1: Different Generations of the CPU

29
 PC CPUs Year Number
of
Transistors
1st Generation 8086 and 8088 1978- 29,000
81
2nd Generation 80286 1984 134,000
3rd Generation 80386DX and 80386SX 1987- 275,000
88
4th Generation 80486SX, 80486DX, 1990- 1,200,000
80486DX2 and 80486DX4 92
5th Generation Pentium 1993- 3,100,000
Cyrix 6X86 95 --
AMD K5 1996 --
IDT WinChip C6 1996 3,500,000
1997
Improved Pentium MMX 1997 4,500,000
5th Generation IBM/Cyrix 6x86MX 1997 6,000,000
IDT WinChip2 3D 1998 6,000,000
6th Generation Pentium Pro 1995 5,500,000
AMD K6 1997 8,800,000
Pentium II 1997 7,500,000
AMD K6-2 1998 9,300,000
Improved 6th Mobile Pentium II 1999 27,400,000
Generation Mobile Celeron 18,900,000
Pentium III 9,300,000
AMD K6-3 ?
Pentium III CuMine 28,000,000
7th Generation AMD original Athlon AMD 1999 22,000,000
Athlon Thunderbird 2000 37,000,000
Pentium 4 2001 42,000,000

DISKS
Floppy Disks
Computers use disks to store information. Although there is a permanent hard disk that lives inside the
system unit, you can use floppy disks to store and move data easily from one PC to another. Floppy disks
come in two sizes, either 5¼ or 3½ inches in diameter. The smaller disks are able to store more data and
are also less easily damaged, because of their thicker plastic cases. As both sizes can be either “high” or
“low” capacity (or density), there are four main varieties of disks available. High-capacity disks are more
expensive, but they can store much more information. Low-capacity disks are generally labeled DS/DD,
which stands for “double sided/double density”, while the high- capacity floppy disks are labelled DS/HD
(double sided/high-density).
Caring for Disks
Treat floppy disks carefully, and you can take them almost anywhere safely. Don’t leave the disks in your
PC when you finish a session. Also avoid putting anything heavy on top of your disks or leaving them in
extremes of hot or cold temperature. Try not to carry disks loose in pockets or handbags where dust and
30
dirt may get inside the containers. Take care to store them vertically, preferably in a special storage box.
Remember too that you should keep floppy disks away from magnetic fields, including hidden magnets
such as those in telephone, radio and television speakers, amplifiers, desk fans, and photocopiers. If you
do leave floppy disks near a magnetic field, your data may become corrupted and will no longer be
usable.
Write Protecting Disks
Write-protecting a disk means that you prevent the computer from erasing or writing over important data
or programs that are already there. However, the PC can still read a write-protected disk.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The system unit is a box housing many components. It is, in fact, the most important part of the computer
because it houses the processor (CPU) and other essential components that enables the computer to
function.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have studied the components of the system unit which include the components in the front, the back
and those that are inside the unit.

31
 UNIT 2 HARDWARE COMPONENTS (2) –
PERIPHERAL DEVICES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Input Devices
3.1.1 The Computer Keyboard
3.1.2 The Mouse and Joystick
3.2 Output Devices
3.2.1 Printers
3.2.2 Monitors
3.2.3 Scanners
3.2.4 Speakers and Sound
4.0 Conclusion
Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The computer peripheral devices are those devices which are attached to the system unit. The devices are
necessary to ensure that the computer is able to accept input and display the result for the user. This
section therefore discusses the input unit and the output unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
• identify those components that make up the input unit and the output unit of the computer
• explainthe functions of the input and the output units of the computer
• identify and explain the type of input unit and output unit suitable to a particular computing
environment.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Input Devices
3.1.1 The Computer Keyboard
A computer keyboard is identical to the conventional typewriter keyboard. However, it has more keys
than the typewriter keyboard. A computer keyboard can be a dummy type or intelligent type. A computer
keyboard is considered to be intelligent if, in addition to performing the routine functions characteristic of
a typewriter keyboard, it can initiate a series of actions for a computer to carry out by mere pressing a key
or combination of two or more keys. Thus, an intelligent computer keyboard has a set of keys which,
when one of them is pressed, the computer can be made to carry out a specific function. For example, the
pressing of a key may cause the computer to display a menu list from which the user may be prompted to
select one.

32
The intelligent computer keyboard has four major divisions, namely: Function keys, Alphanumeric keys,
Numeric keys and Control keys.
In addition to the four types of keys, there are some special or important keys such as the following:
(a) Return or Enter key
(b) Escape key denoted by ESC
(c) Control key denoted by CTRL
(d) Alternate key denoted by ALT
(e) Delete key denoted by DEL
(f) Insert key denoted by INS
(g) Backspace key
(h) Shift key.
Function Keys
The effects of the function keys are software package dependent. That is, they mean different translations
depending on which software package one is running on the computer. The function keys are traditionally
labelled F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6, F7, F8, F9, F10, F11 and F12. The function keys are often arranged to
the left of the main keyboard in two columns or they are arranged in a row above the main keyboard. In
most software packages, the function key F1 is used to run the HELP program. Word perfect, for
example, uses F3 for HELP program and F1 to cancel the last command issued on the computer. The
function keys F7 and F12 are used to save a text and block a section of a text respectively in word
perfect. Function keys can be programmed to carry out the functions desired by a programmer. For
example, the function key F10 may be programmed to display menus. Thus, the operations of the
function keys can be determined by the user or programmed by the software package being used at any
point in time.
Alphanumeric Keys
The Alphanumeric keys can be likened with the conventional typewriter keys. They contain alphabetic
characters, numeric characters and special characters such as comma, full stop, open bracket, close
bracket, asterisk, semicolon, colon, question mark, and so on. Usually, each key carries a character at the
lower part and another character at the upper part. The SHIFT key is used to switch on or off the lower
and upper characters by the programmer.
Cursor Control Keys
The cursor marks the active or current spot on the screen. It is an indicator that tells the user where in the
midst of a document the system is pointing to. It may be a rectangular bar of light or a blinking
underscore. When a text is being typed, the cursor moves as the carriage on a keyboard moves and
character are typed in. The cursor control keys include four directional arrow keys.
Table 2: Control Keys and their Functions
Control Key Functions

33
 Moves the cursor one line up.

Moves the cursor one line down

Moves the cursor one character to the right

Move the cursor one character to the left.

Home Moves the cursor to the beginning of a line or
Page
Move the cursor to the bottom left of a page or to the
End end of the current line in most text editors.
Moves the cursor to the top of the next page in the
PGDN document or text. For example, pressing this key
while on page 5 of the text will place the
cursor at the top of page 6 of the text.
PGUP Moves the cursor to the top of the previous page. For
example, if you are on page 3 of a document,
pressing this key will place the cursor at the top
of page 2 of the document.

Other cursor control keys are Home, Page Up, Page Down, and End. These keys may be part of the
numeric keypad or separated from the numeric keypad. Moving the cursor around on the screen is one of
the most common tasks in an application program. In fact, cursor movement is so important in an
application such as word processing that it can usually be accomplished by additional key-driven
commands. The control keys and their functions are documented in Table 5.1.
The Numeric Keypad
The numeric keypad contains a set of keys required for typing or entering number digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, and 9 into the computer store. A numeric key is often activated by pressing the Numlock Key. The
numeric keypad is also used in combination with the Alternate (Alt) key to produce extended characters.
Extended characters are characters not normally found on most keyboards. For example, to produce the
character alpha, denoted ‘’, one holds down the Alt key and presses 224; to produce character beta
denoted by ‘’, one holds down the Alt key and presses 255; and to produce the pound sterling sign
denoted by ‘₤’, one holds down the Alt key and presses 156.
The Shift Key
When the shift key is pressed, the capital letters on the alphanumeric keys are activated. It also serves as
the activator of characters that are at the upper part of each alphanumeric key. The Shift key has no
effects on itself; its effects are realised when some other keys are pressed. Thus, if one presses the shift
key and then ‘equals’ sign key, the ‘plus’ sign which is at the upper part of the ‘equal’ sign is activated,
and it then appears on the screen.
The Caps Lock Key
The Caps Lock shifts all alphabetic characters into the upper case (capital letters). Thus all characters
typed are in lower case (small letters) when not pressed.

34
The Alternate Key (Alt)
The alternate key can be used in combination with numeric keys to generate characters not shown on the
keyboard, that is, extended characters. For example, holding the Alt key down and pressing 228 produces
the summation () sign; holding the Alt key down and pressing 235 produces the sign. To restart or
reboot your computer, press Alt, Ctrl and Del keys simultaneously.
The Num Lock Key
The Num Lock key activates the numeric keypad. Neither the Num Lock key nor the Caps Lock key
affects the function keys.
The Control Key (Ctrl)
The control key is often used in most text mode to perform block operations like mass deletion, insertion
and so on. For example, Ctrl + Y deletes a line in most text documents. It can also be used in combination
with other keys to move the cursor to different locations in a text or document. In some application
packages, the Alt, Ctrl and Shift keys are used in combination with the function keys to perform several
operations. For example, in the Word-Perfect word-processing package, to centre a text, press Shift and
F6; to print a text, press Shift and F7.
The Escape Key (Esc)
The escape key cancels an operation in progress. For example, when one is editing a file or issuing a
command, Esc cancels any changes one might have made or terminates the command.
The Return or Enter Key
The return key serves as one of the most important keys on most keyboards. It is actually used to inform
the computer of the end of an input or command. It performs two functions depending on the program on
which it is used. For example, suppose you are asked to respond to an operating system command at the
prompt or other entries, the operating system will wait until the return key is pressed before continuing.
Pressing the return key also positions the cursor at the beginning of the next line (in text mode), which is
the equivalent of pressing the carriage return on a typewriter.
The Insert Key (Ins)
Pressing the insert key puts one’s keyboard in the insert mode, pressing it again returns to the overstrike
(type over) mode. In the insert mode, the characters one types are inserted at the cursor position, the
character at the cursor position and all characters to the right shift to make room for them. In overstrike or
type over mode, newly typed characters overwrite the characters at the current cursor position. In most
applications, the insert mode is indicated by a symbol in the status line.
The Delete Key (Del)
The delete key deletes the character at the cursor position when pressed and the remaining text moves to
the left while the cursor remains at the same position.
The Back Space Key
The back space key deletes the characters to the left of the cursor when pressed and all other characters to
the right of the cursor are shifted one space to the left.
The Spacebar

35
The spacebar is the longest key found on most keyboards. It erases characters at the cursor position or
gives a blank space when pressed.
The Tab Key
The tab key moves the cursor by five spaces to the right when pressed. The number of positions moved
depends on the software or the Tab Set by the operator. The Tab is normally pressed to insert paragraphs
during typing. In some programs, when this key is pressed in combination with shift the key, the same
number of positions is moved backwards.
The Print Screen Key (Prtsc)
When the print screen key is pressed in combination with the shift key, whatever in is on the screen will
be printed on a printer. The same effect can be achieved by pressing the key alone on some keyboards.
Keeping Your Keyboard Clean and Working
Never spill liquids on your keyboard. Coffee, soda, and other beverage spills can ruin your keyboard.
Liquid spills on the keyboard have even been known to cause electrical damage to the PC itself. With that
in mind, though you may not stop drinking coffee around your computer, you should at least get a spill-
proof mug or keep the coffee on the other side of the desk.
Another enemy of the keyboard is static electricity. Static electricity can have the same damaging effect
on your keyboard as does liquid. If your keyboard doesn't respond properly after a strong static charge,
you may just need to turn off the PC and turn it back on to reset the keyboard. In some cases, however,
the static discharge can zap the keyboard and even parts of the PC. If you shuffle your feet across the
carpet or your PC is
in a room with dry air, avoid touching the PC or the keyboard until you have touched something metal to
discharge any static electricity. If you don't have a metal desk or bookcase in your work area, consider
buying an anti-static mat and keeping it where you can touch it before touching the PC.
Dust, dirt, food crumbs, and hair are other enemies of the keyboard. Try to avoid eating over the
keyboard and if your computer is in a dirty, dusty area, keep the keyboard covered when not in use.
Some dirt and dust are unavoidable. To keep the keyboard working well, you should occasionally clean it.
3.1.2 The Mouse and Joystick
A mouse looks like the electrical clipper in a barber’s shop. It consists of a pointing device very sensitive
to movements. It has a roller ball and two or more buttons which can be pressed to make a selection. By
moving the mouse on a flat smooth surface and clicking one or a combination of two buttons on its upper
surface, a computer to which it is connected can be sensitised and commanded to carry out some specific
tasks.
A mouse can be used to draw diagrams on the computer screen more effectively and efficiently than the
computer keyboard. Generally, the keyboard and the mouse do complement each other. For example, the
mouse can be used to highlight an item in a menu list while the keyboard Enter Key can be pressed to
activate or evoke the command associated with the highlighted item.
A mouse is the primary input device for modern computers that feature operating systems with a
graphical user interface, such as Windows 98 or Windows XP. While keyboards obviously excel at
entering text, numbers, and symbols, your mouse is the tool you'll use to tell your computer what to do
with all the data you've entered.
36
Joysticks are almost exclusively used with game software and help the user more effectively control the
actions of computer-simulated airplanes or arcade-style games.
All modern PC operating systems (Windows 98, Windows XP, and the Macintosh) rely on an on-screen
pointer to select and execute commands. A mouse is simply an input device built to help the user control
this on-screen pointer in as natural and efficient a manner as possible.
The pointer on the screen mimics the movements of your mouse. As you move your mouse, a ball
encased in the bottom of your mouse rolls on the desk and in turn sends signals to the computer as to
which direction to move the pointer on the screen. Move the mouse side to side, or up and down, and the
on-screen pointer moves in a similar manner.
Once you have the mouse positioned to select the command or data you want to act on, you use the
mouse buttons to execute the command. The mouse controls the on-screen pointer and lets you select
program icons, manipulate property sheets, and access data.
3.2 Output Devices
3.2.1 Printers
A printer is the computer component that lets you create copies of the information stored in your
computer on paper. The printed material is often called the hard copy, to differentiate it from the data
stored on a disk, or held in the computer's memory.
There are three basic types of printers available for use with personal computers:
Laser Printers: These combine a magnetic roller with powdered ink called toner to transfer high-quality
characters or images onto a page.
Inkjet Printers: These have small nozzles that actually spray fast- drying ink onto the page to form
characters or images. Inkjet printers spray a fine, quick-drying ink through small nozzles to produce
characters and images on paper. Although the results are not quite as sharp as those of laser printers,
inkjet printers provide very good quality output at a lower cost.
Dot-matrix Printers: These use a print head to strike an inked ribbon against paper, like a typewriter,
creating characters out of a series of dots. Dot-matrix printers are the cheapest printers available. They
create text and images on the page by hammering several small pins against an inked ribbon. The more
pins used, the better the image. The 9-pin and 24-pin are common options. The 24-pin printers produce a
better-quality output, but are somewhat slower than the 9-pin printers.
Print quality for dot-matrix printers is often described in terms of mode: draft mode (low resolution),
near-letter-quality mode (medium resolution), or letter-quality mode (high resolution). The speed depends
on the mode, with the draft mode being the fastest.
The type of printer you choose depends on your budget and the type of output you need. For example, if
all you need to print are grocery lists, you may be happy with a dot-matrix printer. In general, dot-matrix
printers are noisier, slower, and produce a poorer-quality image than do laser or inkjet printers, but they
are also less expensive. If you need to print newsletters, brochures, or illustrated reports, you will
probably want a high-quality laser printer. Laser printers cost more than other printers, but they may be
worth the price because they are fast, quiet, and produce high-quality text and graphics.
3.2.2 Monitors

37
The monitor does not do any processing itself. It only displays the information that the video card tells it
to display.
Monitor Sizes
The two most common monitor sizes are 15-inch and 17-inch. If you have an older, hand-me-down PC or
a very inexpensive starter PC, you may have a smaller 14-inch monitor. 21-inch monitors are also
available but mostly used by graphics professionals.
VGA and SVGA Monitors
The two most common acronyms you will see on current monitors are VGA or SVGA. Both of these
terms generally refer to how many dots (or pixels) in each direction the monitor can display. VGA is
640x480 (width by height) and SVGA is 800x600. This measurement is called the monitor's resolution,
and more is better! Most new monitors are capable of displaying at least SVGA quality. In fact,
1,024x768 is somewhat of a minimum to look for.
Almost any VGA or SGVA monitor made in the last few years is capable of displaying any of these
resolutions. However, it's actually the video card that determines what resolution your monitor displays at
any time. The monitor is capable of switching from one resolution to another on command from the video
card.
3.2.3 Scanners
Scanners are peripheral devices used to digitise (convert to electronic format) artwork, photographs, text,
or other items from hard copy. In a sense, a scanner works as a pair of eyes for your PC. Your eyes see an
image and translate the image into electrical impulses that travel to and are interpreted by your brain.
Similarly, a scanner captures images and converts them to digital data that travel to and are interpreted by
the computer.
A scanner works by dividing an image into microscopic rows and columns and measuring, like the film in
a camera, how much light (or lack of it) reflects from each individual intersection of the rows and
columns. Each reflection is recorded as a dot, or picture element (pixel). After the scanner collects
information from each dot, it compiles the result into a digital file on the computer.
There are a wide variety of scanners that work in a number of different ways, but the technology behind
them is essentially the same. The following sections discuss the more popular types of scanners available
today.
Types of Scanners Flatbed Scanners
Flatbed scanners look and behave a lot like a photocopier. You lay the item to be scanned on a glass plate
and the scanning head passes below the glass.
Flatbed scanners are very versatile: you can scan objects in a variety of sizes and shapes, including pages
from a book, without damaging the original. While flatbed scanners are the best choice for a wide variety
of uses, if you plan to do a lot of text scanning (called OCR for Optical Character Recognition) work,
keep in mind that flatbeds only accommodate one page at a time. Scanning multi-page documents can be
a slow, tedious process, because you have to manually remove one page and insert the next.
Sheet Fed Scanners
Sheet fed scanners look and act more like fax machines. The page or item is fed into the machine,
scanned, then spat out on the other end. A sheet fed scanner is a good choice for large volumes of text, but
38
not for handling delicate original photographs. Scanning directly from a book or other three-dimensional
objects is impossible.
Hand Scanners
Hand scanners are a low-cost alternative to their larger, more sophisticated counterparts. As their name
implies, hand scanners are manual devices you move over a flat surface, just as you do your PC's mouse.
The hand scanner’s advantages are many, but so are its disadvantages. Generally, hand scanners work
best for small, uncomplicated images such as company logos or small black-and-white photographs. You
might want a hand scanner if you do not plan to use it on a regular basis, because it usually does not
require adding internal cards to your CPU, and it's easily disconnected and stored away. Most hand
scanners can only scan a four-inch-wide image at one time and require a steady hand. You’re usually
provided with software that helps you “sew up” a series of these 4-inch, side-by-side scans into one
image, but this is obviously not as convenient as getting the full image at once.
3.2.4 Speakers and Sound
The built-in speakers in most PC cases are used just for making system sounds, such as warning beeps
and action indicators. To play more sophisticated sounds on your PC, you need a set of external speakers.
Usually speakers come in pairs, and there is a plug that connects them to your sound card. Arrange the
speakers with one on the left and one on the right of your desk or work area to get a stereo effect.
Optionally, some speakers come with a subwoofer. This improves the bass (low notes) sound. If you have
a subwoofer with your speakers, it should go on the floor under your desk. Sound is one of the favourite
options on today's PCs. In fact, sound is a standard feature of most new PCs.
Everyone has their own uses for sound. You may just want to play a few music CDs with your CD-ROM
drive while you are working, or you may use multimedia applications for presentations or educational
programs. You may just like the sound of your jet engines roaring as you punch the throttle in a flight
simulator.
Components for Sound on Your PC
To produce sound on your PC, you need a sound card and speakers. The sound card is an expansion card
that plugs into one of the slots on your motherboard. This card processes all of the instructions that have
to do with sound, and then sends the sounds to the speakers to be played.
Sound Cards
Sound cards plug into an expansion slot in your PC. The card has a set of connectors that are exposed on
the back of the PC; you can plug a microphone and speakers into the connectors. Some cards include an
optional connector for a line input, which is used to connect another input source such as the output from
a tape player or portable CD player. Other optional connectors can include a joystick connector and a
MIDI connector (for connecting a MIDI keyboard). The card may include a volume control, which
controls the volume of the speakers and/or headphones.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The system unit cannot function without the peripheral devices. The input and the output units are very
important peripheral devices that must be taken care of in setting up a computer system.
5.0 SUMMARY

39
This unit has handled the following:
(a) Input unit which comprises
(i) the keyboard – (the different categories of keys on the keyboard and their functions)
(ii) the scanner – different types of scanners
(b) The output unit which is made up of the
(i) monitor
(ii) the printer and
(iii) the speakers.

40
 UNIT 3 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Air Conditioner
3.2 The Voltage Stabiliser
3.3 The Line Voltage Transformer
3.4 The Uninterruptible Power Supply System (UPS)
4.0 Conclusion
Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The auxiliary equipment, as its name suggests, is not a computer but is necessary in a computing
environment in order to ensure proper functioning and smooth running of computing activities. In this
module, we shall address in some detail the importance of equipment such as the air conditioner, the
voltage stabiliser, the uninterruptible power system and the line transformer in a data processing
environment.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• identify the auxiliary equipment in a computing environment
• discuss the importance of the auxiliary equipment to the smooth running of a computing centre.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Air Conditioner
A computer is an electronic machine. It is, therefore, capable of generating heat. A computer is
manufactured to operate in an environment with a specific temperature range. When the temperature of
the environment in which a computer is kept falls outside the specific range, the computer may function
badly and consequently get damaged.

The free air is, basically, dust laden. Dust is metallic in nature and, as such, capable of conducting
electricity. If dust is allowed to settle on a computer, particularly the electronic circuits, the dust can
bridge two circuits. The bridging of two electronic circuits may cause a serious damage to the computer.
Thus, air conditioners are needed in a computer environment to:
• condition the temperature, and

41
• prevent dust.
3.2 The Voltage Stabiliser
A computer when switched on, takes off in a cold state, warms up and gradually gets to a hot state. In a
hot state, a computer is always roaming in an attempt to find something to do. In a situation where the
public electricity, such as that of PHCN in Nigeria, is cut suddenly, the computer would suddenly be
brought to a halt. The sudden power cut may cause the computer to lose the memory of some basic
housekeeping operations when power eventually returns and the computer is switched on. The sudden
power cut may also cause irreparable damage to the file the computer was processing at the time the
power was suddenly cut.
3.3 The Line Voltage Transformer
We have noted that computers are built to operate within a specific range of voltages. In the United States
of America, computers are built to operate on 110V. A voltage transformer is a device meant to step up or
step down a voltage as the case may be. In Nigeria, for example, a 110V computer requires a voltage
transformer to step down the 240V to 110V. Similarly, in the USA, if a 240V current is connected directly
to a 110V computer, the computer power unit will blow up almost immediately.
Today, the technology has improved tremendously such that if a 240V current is connected directly to a
110V computer, only a fuse, rather than the power unit will blow up. It is worth mentioning, too, that
there is an advanced technology today which permits a computer to operate effectively and efficiently
with the power line voltage ranging between 110V and 240V. The technology supports an inbuilt switch
which can be operated at two terminals, namely the 110V terminus and 240V terminus. In recent times,
the technology has been improved upon such that computers are manufactured in such a way that they
can sense the voltage that is adequate. Thus, if one connects a 110V computer to a 240V current, the
110V computer has an in-built line transformer which automatically steps down the 240V current to
110V.
3.4 The Uninterruptible Power Supply System (UPS)
An Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is an auxiliary hardware that is capable of:
• Converting the public electricity raw line into fine line, that is, conditioning the voltage that is fed
into the computer.
• Storing electrical energy when the public electricity line is live
• Releasing the stored electrical energy to the computer when the public electricity line is dead.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The computer is an expensive resource and as such requires adequate protection from electrical damage.
Similarly, the UPS is an expensive resource; hence there is the need for it to be protected from electrical
damage, too. Therefore, in practice, it is desirable that the UPS be protected by a voltage stabiliser which
is rugged and less expensive. The configuration presented in Figure 5.1 is an example of a computer
environment characterised by multiple levels of protection from electrical damage. This arrangement is
desirable in a situation of electrical surge and blow out.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we have examined the following:

42
• Auxiliary devices create a facilitative and conducive environment for smooth operation of
computers and the user.
• Voltage stabilisers help to protect computing equipment from damage due to power surge.
• UPS protects the computing equipment and the software from power outage during computing
sessions. The UPS with the help of its internal battery stores electrical energy while power is on
and releases power stored to the computer whenever power is off. This enables the user to end the
working session and shut down normally.
• A voltage transformer is a device meant to step up or step down a voltage as the case may be.

43
MODULE 3 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Unit 1 Computer Software (1)
Unit 2 Computer Software (2)
UNIT 1 COMPUTER SOFTWARE (1)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Computer Software
3.2 Classification of Computer Software
3.2.1 System Software
3.2.2 Operating System
3.3 Types of Operating Systems
3.3.1 Batch Operating System
3.3.2 Time Sharing Operating System
3.3.3 Real Time Operating System
3.3.4 Multiprogramming Operating System
3.3.5 Distributed Operating System
3.3.6 Network Operating System
3.4 Operating System Components
3.4.1 Process Management
3.4.2 Memory Management
3.4.3 Secondary Storage Management
3.4.4 I/O System
3.4.5 File Management
3.4.6 Protecting System
3.4.7 Networking
3.4.8 Command Interpreter System
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION

44
Computer hardware is driven by the software. The usefulness of the computer depends on the programs
that are written to manipulate it. Computer software comes in different forms: the operating system,
utility software, language translators and application software. This unit therefore presents detailed
discussions of each category of computer software.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• identify the different types of computer software
• discuss the importance of each type of software.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Computer Software
The physical components of the computer are called the hardware while all the other resources or parts of
the computer that are not hardware, are referred to as the software. The software is the set of programs
that make the computer system active. In essence, the software is the set of programs that run on the
computer.
Then, what is a program? A program is a series of coded instructions showing the logical steps the
computer follows to solve a given problem.
3.2 Classification of Computer Software
The computer software could be divided into two major groups, namely system software (programs), and
application software (programs).
3.2.1 System Software
This refers to the suits of programs that facilitate the optimal use of the hardware systems and/or provide
a suitable environment for the writing, editing, debugging, testing and running of user programs. Usually,
every computer system comes with a collection of these suits of programs which are provided by the
hardware manufacturer.
3.2.2 Operating Systems
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between a user of a computer and the computer
hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user may execute
programs.
The operating system is the first component of the systems programs that interest us here. Systems
programs are programs written for direct execution on computer hardware in order to make the power of
the computer fully and efficiently accessible to applications programmers and other computer users.
Systems programming is different from application programming because the former requires an intimate
knowledge of the computer hardware as well as the end users’ needs. Moreover, systems programs are
often large and more complex than application programs, although that is not always the case. Since
systems programs provide the foundation upon which application programs are built, it is most important
that systems programs are reliable, efficient and correct.
In a computer system the hardware provides the basic computing resources. The applications programs
define the way in which these resources are used to solve the computing problems of the user. The

45
operating system controls and coordinates the use of the hardware among the various systems programs
and application programs for the various users.
The basic resources of a computer system are provided by its hardware, software and data. The operating
system provides the means for the proper use of these resources in the operation of the computer system.
It simply provides an environment within which other programs can do useful work. We can view an
operating system as a resource allocator. A computer system has many resources (hardware and software)
that may be required to solve a problem: CPU time, memory space, file storage space, input/output
devices, etc.
The operating system acts as the manager of these resources and allocates them to specific programs and
users as necessary for their tasks. Since there may be many, possibly conflicting, requests for resources,
the operating system must decide which requests are allocated resources to operate the computer system
fairly and efficiently. An operating system is a control program. This program controls the execution of
user programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer.
Operating systems exist because they are a reasonable way to solve the problem of creating a usable
computing system. The fundamental goal of a computer system is to execute user programs and solve
user problems. The primary goal of an operating system is convenience for the user. Operating systems
exist because they are supposed to make it easier to compute with an operating system than without an
operating system. This is particularly clear when you look at the operating system for small personal
computers.
A secondary goal is the efficient operation of computer system. This goal is particularly important for
large, shared multi-user systems. Operating systems can attain this goal. It is known that sometimes these
two goals, convenience and efficiency, are contradictory.
While there is no universally agreed definition of the concept of an operating system, we offer the
following as a reasonable starting point:
A computer’s operating system (OS) is a group of programs designed to serve two basic purposes:
• To control the allocation and use of the computing system’s
resources among the various users and tasks.
• To provide an interface between the computer hardware and the programmer that simplifies and
makes feasible the creation, coding, debugging, and maintenance of application programs.
Specifically, we can imagine that an effective operating system should accomplish all of the following:
• Facilitate creation and modification of program and data files through an editor program.
• Provide access to compilers to translate programs from high-level languages to machine language.
• Provide a loader program to move the complied program code to the computer’s memory for
execution.
• Provide routines that handle the intricate details of I/O
programming.
• Assure that when there are several active processes in the computer, each will get fair and non-
interfering access to the central processing unit for execution.
• Take care of storage and device allocation.
46
• Provide for long term storage of user information in the form of files.
• Permit system resources to be shared among users when appropriate, and be protected from
unauthorised or mischievous intervention as necessary.
Though systems programs such as editor and translators and the various utility programs (such as sort and
file transfer program) are not usually considered part of the operating system, the operating system is
responsible for providing access to these system resources.
3.3 Types of Operating Systems
Modern computer operating systems may be classified into three groups, which are distinguished by the
nature of interaction that takes place between the computer user and his or her program during its
processing. The three groups are called batch, time-shared and real time operating systems.
3.3.1 Batch Processing Operating System
In a batch processing operating system environment users submit jobs to a central place where these jobs
are collected into a batch, and subsequently placed on an input queue at the computer where they will be
run. In this case, the user has no interaction with the job during its processing, and the computer’s
response time is the turnaround time - the time from submission of the job until execution is complete,
and the results are ready for return to the person who submitted the job.
3.3.2 Time Sharing Operating System
Another mode for delivering computing services is provided by time sharing operating systems. In this
environment a computer provides computing services to several or many users concurrently on-line.
Here, the various users are sharing the central processor, the memory, and other resources of the computer
system in a manner facilitated, controlled, and monitored by the operating system. The user, in this
environment, has nearly full interaction with the program during its execution, and the computer’s
response time may be expected to be no more than a few seconds.
3.3.3 Real Time Operating System
The third class of operating systems, the real time operating systems, are designed to service those
applications where response time is of the essence in order to prevent error, misrepresentation or even
disaster. Examples of real time operating systems are those which handle airlines reservations, machine
tool control, and monitoring of a nuclear power station. The systems, in this case, are designed to be
interrupted by external signal that require the immediate attention of the computer system.
In fact, many computer operating systems are hybrids, providing for more than one of these types of
computing service simultaneously. It is especially common to have a background batch system running in
conjunction with one of the other two on the same computer.
A number of other definitions are important towards gaining an understanding of operating systems:

3.3.4 Multiprogramming Operating System

A multiprogramming operating system is a system that allows more than one active user program (or part
of user program) to be stored in main memory simultaneously.
Thus, it is evident that a time-sharing system is a multiprogramming system, but note that a
multiprogramming system is not necessarily a time-sharing system. A batch or real time operating system
47
could, and indeed usually does, have more than one active user program simultaneously in main storage.
Another important, and all too similar, term is ‘multiprocessing’.
A multiprocessing system is a computer hardware configuration that includes more than one independent
processing unit. The term multiprocessing is generally used to refer to large computer hardware
complexes found in major scientific or commercial applications.
A networked computing system is a collection of physically interconnected computers. The operating
system of each of the interconnected computers must contain, in addition to its own stand- alone
functionality, provisions for handing communication and transfer of program and data among the other
computers with which it is connected.
A distributed computing system consists of a number of computers that are connected and managed so
that they automatically share the job processing load among the constituent computers, or separate the job
load as appropriate to particularly configured processors. Such a system requires an operating system
which, in addition to the typical stand- alone functionality, provides coordination of the operations and
information flow among the component computers.
The networked and distributed computing environments and their respective operating systems are
designed with more complex functional capabilities. In a network operating system the users are aware of
the existence of multiple computers, and can log in to remote machines and copy files from one machine
to another. Each machine runs its own local operating system and has its own user (or users).
3.3.5 Distributed Operating System
A distributed operating system, in contrast, is one that appears to its users as a traditional uniprocessor
system, even though it is actually composed of multiple processors. In a true distributed system, users
should not be aware of where their programs are being run or where their files are located; that should all
be handled automatically and efficiently by the operating system.
3.3.6 Network Operating Systems
Network operating systems are not fundamentally different from single processor operating systems.
They obviously need a network interface controller and some low-level software to drive it, as well as
programs to achieve remote login and remote files access, but these additions do not change the essential
structure of the operating systems.
True distributed operating systems require more than just adding a little code to a uniprocessor operating
system, because distributed and centralised systems differ in critical ways. Distributed systems, for
example, often allow programs to run on several processors at the same time, thus requiring more
complex processor scheduling algorithms in order to optimize the amount of parallelism achieved.

3.4 Operating System Components

An operating system provides the environment within which programs are executed. To construct such an
environment, the system is partitioned into small modules with a well-defined interface. The design of a
new operating system is a major task. It is very important that the goals of the system be will defined
before the design begins. The type of system desired is the foundation for choices between various
algorithms and strategies that well be necessary.

48
A system as large and complex as an operating system can only be created by partitioning it into smaller
pieces. Each of these pieces should be a well-defined portion of the system with carefully defined inputs,
outputs, and functions. Obviously, not all systems have the same structure. However, many modern
operating systems share the system components outlined below.
3.4.1 Process Management
A process is the unit of work in a system. Such a system consists of a collection of processes, some of
which are operating system processes, those that execute system code, and the rest being user processes,
those that execute user code. All of those processes can potentially execute concurrently.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with processes managed:
• The creation and deletion of both user and system processes
• The suspension and resumption of processes.
• The provision of mechanisms for process synchronisation
• The provision of mechanisms for deadlock handling.
3.4.2 Memory Management
Memory is central to the operation of a modern computer system. Memory is a large array of words or
bytes, each with its own address. Interaction is achieved through a sequence of reads or writes of specific
memory address that the CPU fetches from and stores in memory.
In order for a program to be executed, it must be mapped to absolute addresses and loaded in to memory.
As the program executes, it accesses program instructions and data from memory by generating this
absolute is declared available, and the next program may be loaded and executed.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with memory management:
• Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
• Deciding which processes are to be loaded into memory when memory space becomes available.
• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed.
3.4.3 Secondary Storage Management
The main purpose of a computer system is to execute programs. These programs, together with the data
they access, must be in main memory during execution. Since the main memory is too small to
permanently accommodate all data and programs, the computer system must provide secondary storage
to back-up main memory. Most modem computer systems use disks as the primary on-line storage of
information, of both
programs and data. Most programs, like compilers, assemblers, sort routines, editors, formatters, and so
on, are stored on the disk until loaded into memory, and then use the disk as both the source and
destination of their processing. Hence the proper management of disk storage is of central importance to a
computer system.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk management:
• Free space management

49
• Storage allocation
• Disk scheduling.
3.4.4 I/O System
One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from
the user. For example, in Unix, the peculiarities of I/O devices are hidden from the bulk of the operating
system itself by the I/O system. The I/O system consists of:
• A buffer caching system
• A general device driver code
• Drivers for specific hardware devices
Only the device driver knows the peculiarities of a specific device.
3.4.5 File Management
File management is one of the most visible services of an operating system. Computers can store
information in several different physical forms. The magnetic tape, disk, and drum are the most common
forms. Each of these devices has it own characteristics and physical organisation.
For the convenient use of the computer system, the operating system provides a uniform logical view of
information storage. The operating system abstracts from the physical properties of its storage devices to
define a logical storage unit, the file. Files are mapped, by the operating system, onto physical devices.
A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator. Commonly, files represent programs
(both source and object forms) and data. Data files may be numeric, alphabetic or alphanumeric. Files
may be free-form, such as text files, or may be rigidly formatted. In general a file is a sequence of bits,
bytes, lines or records whose meaning is defined by its creator and user. It is a very general concept.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file management:
• The creation and deletion of files
• The creation and deletion of directory
• The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
• The mapping of files onto disk storage.
• Backup of files on stable (non-volatile) storage.
3.4.6 Protection System
The various processes in an operating system must be protected from each other’s activities. For that
purpose, various mechanisms are used to ensure that the files, memory segment, CPU and other resources
can be operated on only by those processes that have gained proper authorisation from the operating
system.
For example, memory addressing hardware ensures that a process can only execute within its own
address space. The timer ensures that no process can gain control of the CPU without relinquishing it.
Finally, no process is allowed to do its own I/O, to protect the integrity of the various peripheral devices.

50
Protection refers to a mechanism for controlling the access of programs, processes, or users to the
resources defined by a computer control to be imposed, together with some means of enforcement.
Protection can improve reliability by detecting latent errors at the interfaces between component
subsystems. Early detection of interface errors can often prevent contamination of a healthy subsystem by
a subsystem that is malfunctioning. An unprotected resource cannot defend against use (or misuse) by an
unauthorised or incompetent user.
3.4.7 Networking
A distributed system is a collection of processors that do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each
processor has its own local memory, and the processors communicate with each other through various
communication lines, such as high-speed buses or telephone lines. Distributed systems vary in size and
function. They may involve microprocessors, workstations, minicomputers, and large general purpose
computer systems.
The processors in the system are connected through a communication network, which can be configured
in a number of different ways. The network may be fully or partially connected. The communication
network design must consider routing and connection strategies, and the problems of connection and
security. A distributed system provides the user with access to the various resources the system maintains.
Access to a shared resource allows computation speed-up, data availability, and reliability.
3.4.8 Command Interpreter System
One of the most important components of an operating system is its command interpreter. The command
interpreter is the primary interface between the user and the rest of the system.
Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements. When a new job is started in a
batch system or when a user logs in to a time-shared system, a program which reads and interprets control
statements is automatically executed. This program is variously called (1) the control card interpreter, (2)
the command line interpreter, (3) the shell (in UNIX), and so on. Its function is quite simple: get the next
command statement, and execute it.
The command statements themselves deal with process management, I/O handling, secondary storage
management, main memory management, file system access, protection, and networking.

Fig.10: Relationship between the operating system and other components of the computer system
51
4.0 CONCLUSION
Operating system occupies a central place in computer operations. It manages the hardware, other
software, the computer peripherals and the user. Operating systems have also evolved in line with the
evolutionary trends in computers. This has led to a variety of types of operating systems. This and other
issues relating to operating system have been discussed in this unit.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we have examined the following:
• The operating system as the executive manager of the computer
• Types of operating systems
• Functions of the operating system.

UNIT 2 COMPUTER SOFTWARE (2)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Language Translator
3.2 Utility Software
3.3 Application Software
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit 2, we discussed, in detail, the operating system as the executive manager of the computer, its
peripheral devices and the users. In this unit, we shall look at other types of software such as utility
programs and the application programs.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• conclude our discussion of system software with language translators
• discuss different categories of utility programs and application programs in greater detail.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Language Translators
A programming language is a set of notations in which we express our instructions to the computer. At
the initial stage of computer development, programs were written in machine language conducting the
52
binary system i.e. 0 and 1. Such programs were hard to write, read, debug and maintain. In an attempt to
solve these problems, other computer languages were developed. However, computers can run programs
written only in machine language. There is therefore the need to translate programs written in these other
languages to machine language. The suites of languages that translate other languages to machine
language are called language translators. The initial program written in a language different from machine
language is called the source program and its equivalent in machine language is called object program.

Three examples of classes of language translators are assemblers, interpreters and compilers.
1. Assemblers: An assembler is a computer program that accepts a source program in assembly
language program and reads and translates the entire program into an equivalent program in machine
language called the object program or object code. Each machine has its own assembly language,
meaning that the assembly language of one machine cannot run on another machine.
2. Interpreters: An interpreter is a program that accepts program from a source language, reads,
translates and executes it, line by line, into machine language.
3. Compilers: A compiler is a computer program that accepts a source program in one high-level
language, reads and translates the entire user’s program into an equivalent program in machine language,
called the object program or object code.
The stages in compilation include:
• Lexical analysis
• Syntax analysis
• Semantic analysis
• Code generation
For each high-level language, there are different compilers. We can therefore talk of COBOL Compilers,
FORTRAN Compilers, BASIC Compilers, etc. A compiler also detects syntax errors, that is, errors that
arise from the use of the language. Compilers are portable, i.e. a COBOL Compiler on one machine can
run on a different machine with minimum changes.
3.2 Utility Software
This is a set of commonly used programs in data processing departments, also called service or general-
purpose programs. They perform the following operations.
• File Conversion: This covers data transfer from any medium to another, making an exact copy or
simultaneously editing and validating. For example, copying from a hard disk to a diskette.
• File Copy: It makes an exact copy of a file from one medium to another or from an area of a
medium to another area of the same medium.
• Housekeeping Operations: These include programs to clear areas of storage, writing file labels
and updating common data. They are not involved in solving the problem in hand. They are
operations that must be performed before and after actual processing.
3.3 Application Software

53
Application software is a set of programs designed to solve problems of a specific nature. It could either
be supplied by the computer manufacturer, or in some cases, the users produce their own application
program called user programs. Hence, application software could be subdivided into two classes, namely;
generalized software and user- defined software.
Under generalised software, we have as examples: Word Processing Programs e.g. Word Perfect, Word
Star, Microsoft Word. Also included are Desktop Publishing e.g. Ventura, PageMaker, CorelDraw,
likewise the Spreadsheet program e.g. LOTUS 1,2,3, Excel, Super-Q. Under the user-defined, software,
we could have some user-defined packages for a particular company or organisation, for accounting,
payroll or some other specialised purposes.
• The Word Processor: A word processor is used to create, edit, save and print reports. It affords
the opportunity to make amendments before printing is done. During editing a character, word, sentence
or a number of lines can be removed or inserted as the case may be. Another facility possible is spell
checking. A document can be printed as many times as possible. Word processors are mainly used to
produce letters, mailing lists, labels, greeting cards, business cards, reports, manuals and newsletters.
Examples are: WordPerfect, WordStar, Display Writer, Professional Writer, LOTUS Manuscript, Ms-
Word, LOCO Script and MM Advantage II etc.
• The Spreadsheet: This is an application mainly designed for numerical figures and reports.
Spreadsheets contain columns and rows, in which numbers can be entered. It is possible to change
numbers before printing is done. Other features of spreadsheets are the ability to use formulas to
calculate, use sum and average function, ability to perform automatic recalculation, and the capacity to
display reports in graphical modes. The spreadsheet is used for budgets, tables, cost analysis, financial
reports, tax and statistical analysis. Examples are: LOTUS 123, Supercalc, MS Multiplan, MS-Excel, VP
Planner etc.
• Integrated Packages: They are programs or packages that perform a variety of different
processing operations using data that is compatible with whatever operation is being carried out. They
perform a number of operations like word processing, database management and spread sheeting.
Examples are: Office Writer, Logistic Symphony, Framework, Enable, Ability, Smart Ware II, and
Microsoft Works V2.
• Graphic Packages: These are packages that enable you to bring out images, diagrams and
pictures. Examples are PM, PM Plus, Graphic Writer, Photoshop.
• Database Packages: These are software for designing, setting up and subsequently managing a
database. (A database is an organised collection of data that allows for modification, taking care of
different users view). Examples are Dbase II, III, IV, FoxBASE, Base Data Perfect, Paradox III,
Revelation Advanced and MS-Access.
• Statistical Packages: These are packages that can be used to solve statistical problems, e.g. Stat
Graphical, and SPSS (Statistical Packages for Social Scientists).
• Desktop Publishing: These are packages that can be used to produce books and documents in
standard form. Examples are PageMaker, Ventura, Publishers, Paints Brush, Xerox Form Base, News
Master II, and Dbase Publisher.
• Game Packages: These are packages that contain a lot of games for children and adults.
Examples are Chess, Scrabble, Monopoly, Tune Trivia, Star Trek 2, California Game, Soccer Game, War
Game, Spy Catcher and Dracula in London.

54
• Communication Packages: Examples are Carbon Plus, Data Talk V3.3, Cross Talk, SAGE Chit
Chat and Data Soft.
There are so many packages around, virtually for every field of study but these are just to mention a few
of them. Advantages of these packages include that they are quicker to and cheaper implement, time
saving, minimum time for its design, they have been tested and proven to be correct, they are usually
accompanied by full documentation, and are also very portable.

User Programs
This is a suite of programs written by programmers for computer users. They are required for the
operation of their individual business or tasks. An example is a payroll package developed for the salary
operation of a particular company.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Apart from the operating systems, we need program translators for us to be able to program and use the
computer effectively. Since computers do not understand natural languages, there is the need to have
language translators such as assemblers, interpreters and compilers. Utility programs such as file
conversion and scandisk, on the other hand, enable us to maintain and enhance the operations of the
computer. Application and user programs such as word processors, spreadsheet and the like help us to
perform specific tasks on the computer. These have been discussed in this unit.
5.0 SUMMARY
In unit, we have discussed the following:

• Language translators such as the assembler, interpreters and the compilers.

• Utility programs such as file conversion, file copy programs, and housekeeping programs such as
scandisk.
• Application programs such as word processors, spreadsheets and statistical packages.

55
 MODULE 4 PROGRAMMING THE COMPUTER

Unit 1 Computer Languages

Unit 2 Basic Principles of Computer
Programming Unit 3 Flowcharts and Algorithms

UNIT 1 COMPUTER LANGUAGES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 An Overview of Computer- Programming Language
3.2 Types of Programmes, Language
3.2.1 Machine Language
3.2.2 Assembly (Low Level) Language
3.2.3 High Level Language
3.2.4 High Level Language
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall take a look at computer programming with emphasis on:
a. The overview of computer programming languages.
56
b. Evolutionary trends of computer programming languages.
c. Programming computers in a Beginner All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC) language
environment.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to provide background information about programming the
computer.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 An Overview of Computer Programming Languages
Basically, human beings cannot speak or write in computer language, and since computers cannot speak
or write in human language, an intermediate language had to be devised to allow people to communicate
with the computers. These intermediate languages, known as programming languages, allow a computer
programmer to direct the activities of the computer. These languages are structured around a unique set of
rules that dictate exactly how a programmer should direct the computer to perform a specific task. With
the powers of reasoning and logic of human beings, there is the capability to accept an instruction and
understand it in many different forms. Since a computer must be programmed to respond to specific
instructions, instructions cannot be given in just any form. Programming languages standardise the
instruction process. The rules of a particular language tell the programmer how the individual instructions
must be structured and what sequence of words and symbols must be used to form an instruction.
• An operation code
• Some operands.
The operation code tells the computer what to do such as add, subtract, multiply and divide. The operands
tell the computer the data items involved in the operations. The operands in an instruction may consist of
the actual data that the computer may use to perform an operation, or the storage address of data.
Consider for example the instruction: a = b + 5. The ‘=’ and ‘+’ are operation codes while ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘5’
are operands. The ‘a’ and ‘b’ are storage addresses of actual data while ‘5’ is an actual data.
Some computers use many types of operation codes in their instruction format and may provide several
methods for doing the same thing. Other computers use fewer operation codes, but have the capacity to
perform more than one operation with a single instruction. There are four basic types of instructions,
namely:
(a) input-output instructions;
(b) arithmetic instructions;
(c) branching instructions; and
(d) logic instructions.
An input instruction directs the computer to accept data from a specific input device and store it in a
specific location in the store. An output instruction tells the computer to move a piece of data from a
computer storage location and record it on the output medium.
All of the basic arithmetic operations can be performed by the computer. Since arithmetic operations
involve at least two numbers, an arithmetic operation must include at least two operands.

57
Branch instructions cause the computer to alter the sequence of execution of instruction within the
program. There are two basic types of branch instructions; namely unconditional branch instruction and
conditional branch instruction. An unconditional branch instruction or statement will cause the computer
to branch to a statement regardless of the existing conditions. A conditional branch statement will cause
the computer to branch to a statement only when certain conditions exist.
Logic instructions allow the computer to change the sequence of execution of instruction, depending on
conditions built into the program by the programmer. Typical logic operations include: shift, compare and
test.
3.2 Types of Programming Language
The effective utilisation and control of a computer system is primarily through the software of the system.
We note that there are different types of software that can be used to direct the computer system. System
software directs the internal operations of the computer, and applications software allows the programmer
to use the computer to solve user made problems. The development of programming techniques has
become as important to the advancement of computer science as the developments in hardware
technology. More sophisticated programming techniques and a wider variety of programming languages
have enabled computers to be used in an increasing number of applications.
Programming languages, the primary means of human-computer communication, have evolved from
early stages where programmers entered instructions into the computer in a language similar to that used
in the application. Computer programming languages can be classified into the following categories:
(a) Machine language
(b) Assembly language
(c) High level symbolic language
(d) Very high-level symbolic language

3.2.1 Machine Language

The earliest forms of computer programming were carried out by using languages that were structured
according to the computer stored data, that is, in a binary number system. Programmers had to construct
programs that used instructions written in binary notation 1 and 0. Writing programs in this fashion is
tedious, time-consuming and susceptible to errors.

Each instruction in a machine language program consists, as mentioned before, of two parts namely:
operation code and operands. An added difficulty in machine language programming is that the operands
of an instruction must tell the computer the storage address of the data to be processed. The programmer
must designate storage locations for both instructions and data as part of the programming process.
Furthermore, the programmer has to know the location of every switch and register that will be used in
executing the program, and must control their functions by means of instructions in the program.
A machine language program allows the programmer to take advantage of all the features and capabilities
of the computer system for which it was designed. It is also capable of producing the most efficient
program as far as storage requirements and operating speeds are concerned. Few programmers today
write applications programs in machine language. A machine language is computer dependent. Thus, an
58
IBM machine language will not run on NCR machine, DEC machine or ICL machine. A machine
language is the First Generation (computer) Language (IGL).

3.2.2 Assembly (Low Level) Language

Since machine language programming proved to be a difficult and tedious task, a symbolic way of
expressing machine language instructions is devised. In assembly language, the operation code is
expressed as a combination of letters rather than binary numbers, sometimes called mnemonics. This
allows the programmer to remember the operations codes easily than when expressed strictly as binary
numbers. The storage address or location of the operands is expressed as a symbol rather than the actual
numeric address. After the computer has read the program, operation software is used to establish the
actual locations for each piece of data used by the program. The most popular assembly language is the
IBM Assembly Language.
Because the computer understands and executes only machine language programs, the assembly language
program must be translated into a machine language. This is accomplished by using a system software
program called an assembler. The assembler accepts an assembly
language program and produces a machine language program that the computer can actually execute. The
schematic diagram of the translation process of the assembly language into the machine language is
shown in fig.9.1. Although, assembly language programming offers an improvement over machine
language programming, it is still an arduous task, requiring the programmer to write programs based on
particular computer operation codes. An assembly language program developed and run on IBM
computers would fail to run on ICL computers. Consequently, the portability of computer programs in a
computer installation to another computer installation which houses different makes or types of
computers were not possible. The low-level languages are, generally, described as Second Generation
(Computer) Language (2GL).

Low Machine Operating

Assembler
Level Language
Language Program System
Program

59
Fig.11: The assembly language program translation process
3.2.3 High Level Language
The difficulty of programming and the time required to program computers in assembly
languages and machine languages led to the development of high-level languages. The symbolic
languages, sometimes referred to as problem-oriented languages reflect the type of problem being
solved rather than the computer being used to solve it. Machine and assembly language
programming is machine dependent but high-level languages are machine independent, that is, a
high-level language program can be run on a variety of computers.
While the flexibility of high-level languages is greater than that of machine and assembly
languages, there are close restrictions in exactly how instructions are to be formulated and written.
Only a specific set of numbers, letters, and special characters may be used to write a high-level
program and special rules must be observed for punctuation. High level language instructions do
resemble English language statements and the mathematical symbols used in ordinary
mathematics. Among the existing and popular high level programming languages are Fortran,
Basic, Cobol, Pascal, Algol, Ada and P1/1. The schematic diagram of the translation process of a
high-level language into the machine language is shown in fig.9.2. The high-level languages are,
generally, described as Third Generation (Computer) Language (3GL).

Low Level
Compiler Machine Language Operating System
Language
Program
Program
Store
Fig. 12: The high-level language program translation process
The general procedure for the compilation of a computer program coded in any high-level
language is conceptualised in Fig. 13.
Main Memory

Specific
Compile

Source code in Object Code

High Level Language

Machine
Code
Link
Loader

Library
60 Subroutines
Subroutines
Fig. 13: General procedure for compiling a high-level language program

3.2.4 Very High-Level Language

Programming aids or programming tools are provided to help programmers do their programming
work more easily. Examples of programming tools are:
• Program development systems that help users to learn programming, and to program in a
powerful high-level language. Using a computer screen (monitor) and keyboard under the
direction of an interactive computer program, users are helped to construct application
programs.
• A program generator or application generator that assists computer users to write their
own programs by expanding simple statements into program code’.
• A database management system
• Debuggers that are programs that help the computer user to locate errors (bugs) in the
application programs they write.
The very high-level language generally described as the Fourth Generation (computer) Language
(4GL), is an ill-defined term that refers to software intended to help computer users or computer
programmers to develop their own application programs more quickly and cheaply. A 4GL, by
using a menu system for example, allows users to specify what they require, rather than describe
the procedures by which these requirements are met. The detailed procedure by which the
requirements are met is done by the 4GL software which is transparent to the users.
A 4GL offers the user an English-like set of commands and simple control structures in which to
specify general data processing or numerical operations. A program is translated into a
conventional high- level language such as COBOL, which is passed to a compiler. A 4GL is,
therefore, a non-procedural language. The program flows are not designed by the programmer but
by the fourth-generation software itself. Each user request is for a result rather than a procedure to
obtain the result. The conceptual diagram of the translation process of very high-level language to
machine language is given Fig.14.

4GL High Level

4GL Translator Compiler
Program Language Program
Machine
Operating
Language
System
Program

61
Fig. 14: The program translation process
The 4GL arose partly in response to the applications backlog. A great deal of programming time is
spent maintaining and improving old programs rather than building new ones. Many
organisations, therefore, have a backlog of applications waiting to be developed. 4GL, by
stepping up the process of application design and by making it easier for end-users to build their
own programs, helps to reduce the backlog.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Computer programming languages are means by which programmers manipulate the computer.
The programming languages emanate from the need to program the computer in languages that
would be easy for non- experts to understand and to reduce the enormity of tasks involved in
writing programs in machine code. Programming languages have evolved from the machine
language to assembly language, high level language and very high-level programming language.
5.0 SUMMARY
We summarise the study of computer programming language as follows:
• Machine language is the binary language and it is made up of only 0s and 1s which
represent the ‘off’ and ‘on’ stages of a computer’s electrical circuits.
• Assembly language has a one-to-one relationship with machine language, but uses
symbols and mnemonics for particular items. Assembly language, like machine language,
is hardware specific, and is translated into machine language by an assembler.
• High level languages are usable on different machines and are designed for similar
applications rather than similar hardware. They are procedural in that they describe the
logical procedures needed to achieve a particular result. High level languages are
translated into machine language by a compiler or an interpreter.
• In a high-level language one specifies the logical procedures that have to be performed to
achieve a result. In a fourth-generation language, one needs to simply define the result one wants,
and the requisite program instructions will be generated by the fourth-generation software. Fourth
generation languages are used in fourth generation systems in which a number of development
tools are integrated in one environment.

62
 UNIT 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
COMPUTER
PROGRAMMING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Problem Solving with the Computer
3.2 Programming Methodology
3.3 Stages of Programming
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Computer programming is both an art and a science. In this unit you will be exposed to some arts
and science of computer programming, including principles of programming and stages of
programming.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• state the principles of computer programming
• explain the stages involved in writing computer programs.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Problem Solving With the Computer
The computer is a general-purpose machine with a remarkable ability to process information. It
has many capabilities, and its specific function at any particular time is determined by the user.
This depends on the program loaded into the computer memory being utilised by the user.
There are many types of computer programs. However, the programs designed to convert the
general-purpose computer into a tool for a specific task or applications are called “Application
programs”. These are developed by users to solve their peculiar data processing problems.
Computer programming is the act of writing a program which a computer can execute to produce
the desired result. A program is a series of instructions assembled to enable the computer to
carry out a specified procedure. A computer program is the sequence of simple instructions into
which a given problem is reduced and which is in a form the computer can understand, either
directly or after interpretation.
3.2 Programming Methodology
Principles of Good Programming

63
It is generally accepted that a good computer program should have the characteristics shown
below:
• Accuracy: The program must do what it is supposed to do correctly and must meet the
criteria laid down in its specification.
• Reliability: The program must always do what it is supposed to do, and never crash.
• Efficiency: Optimal utilisation of resources is essential. The program must use the
available storage space and other resources in such as way that the system speed is not
wasted.
• Robustness: The program should cope with invalid data and not stop without an indication
of the cause of the source of error.
• Usability: The program must be easy enough to use and be well documented.
• Maintainability: The program must be easy to amend, having good structuring and
documentation.
• Readability: The code of a program must be well laid out and explained with comments.

3.3 Stages of Programming

The preparation of a computer program involves a set of procedure.
These steps can be classified into eight major stages, viz
(i) Problem definition
(ii) Devising the method of solution
(iii) Developing the method using suitable aids, e.g. pseudo code or flowchart.
(iv) Writing the instructions in a programming language
(v) Transcribing the instructions into “machine sensible” form
(vi) Debugging the program
(vii) Testing the program
(viii) Documenting all the work involved in producing the program.

(i) Problem definition

The first stage requires a good understanding of the problem. The programmer (i.e. the person
writing the program) needs to thoroughly understand what is required of a problem. A complete
and precise unambiguous statement of the problem to be solved must be stated. This will entail
the detailed specification which lays down the input, processes and output required.
(ii) Devising the method of solution

64
The second stage involved is spelling out the detailed algorithm. The use of a computer to solve
problems (be it scientific or business data processing problems) requires that a procedure or an
algorithm be developed for the computer to follow in solving the problem.
(iii) Developing the method of solution
There are several methods for representing or developing methods used in solving a problem.
Examples of such methods are: algorithms, flowcharts, pseudo code, and decision tables.
(iv) Writing the instructions in a programming language
After outlining the method of solving the problem, a proper understanding of the syntax of the
programming language to be used is necessary in order to write the series of instructions required
to get the problem solved.
(v) Transcribing the instructions into machine sensible form
After the program is coded, it is converted into machine sensible form or machine language.
There are some manufacturers written programs that translate user programs (source programs)
into machine language (object code). These are called translators and instructions that machines
can execute at a go, while interpreters accept a program and execute it line-by-line. During
translation, the translator carries out syntax check on the source program to detect errors that may
arise from wrong use of the programming language.

(vi) Program debugging

A program seldomly executes successfully the first time. It normally contains a few errors (bugs).
Debugging is the process of locating and correcting errors. There are three classes of errors.
• Syntax errors: Caused by mistake coding (illegal use of a feature of the programming
language).
• Logic errors: Caused by faulty logic in the design of the program. The program will work
but not as intended.
• Execution errors: The program works as intended but illegal input or other circumstances
at run-time makes the program stop. There are two basic levels of debugging. The first
level called desk checking or dry running is performed after the program has been coded
and entered or key punched. Its purpose is to locate and remove as many logical and
clerical errors as possible.
The program is then read (or loaded) into the computer and processed by a language translator.
The function of the translator is to convert the program statements into the binary code of the
computer called the object code. As part of the translation process, the program statements are
examined to verify that they have been coded correctly, if errors are detected, a series of
diagnostics referred to as an error message list is generated by the language translator. With this
list in the hand of the programmer, the second level of debugging is reached.
The error message list helps the programmer to find the cause of errors and make the necessary
corrections. At this point, the program may contain entering errors, as well as clerical errors or

65
logic errors. The programming language manual will be very useful at this stage of program
development.
After corrections have been made, the program is again read into the computer and again
processed by the language translator. This is repeated over and over again until the program is
error-free.
(vii) Program testing
The purpose of testing is to determine whether a program consistently produces correct or
expected results. A program is normally tested by executing it with a given set of input data
(called test data), for which correct results are known.
For effective testing of a program, the testing procedure is broken into three segments.
a. The program is tested with inputs that one would normally expect for an execution of the
program.
b. Valid but slightly abnormal data is injected (used) to determine the capabilities of the
program to cope with exceptions. For example, minimum and maximum values allowable
for a sale- amount field may be provided as input to verify that the program processed
them correctly.

c. Invalid data is inserted to test the program’s error-handling routines. If the result of the
testing is not adequate, then minor logic errors still abound in the program. The
programmer can use any of these three alternatives to locate the bugs.

Other methods of testing a program for correctness include:

• Manual walk-through: The programmer traces the processing steps manually to find the
errors, pretending to be the computer, following the execution of each statement in the
program, noting whether or not the expected results are produced.
• Use of tracing routines: If this is available for the language, this is similar to (1) above but
is carried out by the computer; hence it takes less time and is not susceptible to human
error.
• Storage dump: This is the printout of the contents of the computer’s storage locations. By
examining the contents of the various locations, when the program is halted, the
instruction at which the program is halted can be determined. This is an important clue to
finding the error that caused the halt.
• Program documentation: Documentation of the program should be developed at every
stage of the programming cycle. The following are documentations that should be done for
each program.

(a) Problem Definition Step

66
• A clear statement of the problem
• The objectives of the program (what the program is to accomplish)
• Source of request for the program.
• Person/official authorising the request
(b) Planning the Solution Step
• Flowchart, pseudo code or decision tables
• Program narrative
• Descriptive of input, and file formats
(c) Program source coding sheet
(d) User’s manual to aid persons who are not familiar with the program to apply it correctly.
The manual it contains a description of the program and what it is designed to achieve.
(e) Operator’s manual to assist the computer operator to successfully
run the program. This manual contains:
(i) Instructions about starting, running and terminating the program.
(ii) Message that may be printed on the console or VDU (terminal) and their meanings.
(iii) Setup and take down instruction for files.
Advantages of Program Documentation
a. It provides all necessary information for anyone who comes in contact with the program.
b. It helps the supervisor in determining the program’s purpose, how long the program will
be useful and future revision that may be necessary.
c. It simplifies program maintenance (revision or updating).
d. It provides information as to the use of the program to those unfamiliar with it.
e. It provides operating instructions to the computer operator.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The intelligence of a computer derives to a large extent from the quality of the programs. In this
unit, we have attempted to present, in some detail, the principles and the stages involved in
writing a good computer program.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have discussed the following:
• Principles of computer programming
• Stages of computer programming
• The interrelationship between different stages of programming.

67
UNIT 3 FLOWCHARTS AND ALGORITHMS
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Flowcharts
3.2 Flowchart Symbols
3.3 Guidelines for Drawing
3.4 Flowcharting the Problem
3.5 Algorithms
3.6 Pseudo Codes
3.7 Decision Tables
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces to the principles of flowcharts and algorithms. The importance of these
concepts is presented and the detailed steps and activities involved are also presented.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• explain the principles of good programming ethics through flowcharting and algorithms.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Flowcharts
A flowchart is a graphical representation of the major steps of work in process. It displays in
separate boxes the essential steps of the program and shows by means of arrows the directions of
information flow. The boxes, most often referred to as illustrative symbols, may represent
documents, machines or actions taken during the process. The area of concentration is on where
or who does what, rather than on how it is done. A flowchart can also be said to be a graphical
representation of an algorithm, that is, it is a visual picture which gives the steps of an algorithm
and also the flow of control between the various steps.
3.2 Flowchart Symbols
Flowcharts are drawn with the help of symbols. The following are the most commonly used
flowchart symbols and their functions:

68
 Symbols Function
Used to show the START or STOP
May show exit to a closed subroutine.
Terminator
Used for arithmetic calculations of process.
E.g. Sum = X + Y + Z

Used for Input and Output instructions,

PRINT, READ, INPUT AND WRITE.

Used for decision making. Has two or

more lines leaving the box. These lines are
labeled with different decision results, that
is,’ Yes’, ‘No’, ‘TRUE’ or ‘FALSE’ or
‘NEGATIVE’ or ‘ZERO’.

Used for one or more named operations or

program steps specified in a subroutine
or another set of flowchart.

Used for entry to or exit from another part

of flowchart. A small circle identifies a
junction point of the program

Used for entry to or exit from a page

Used to show the direction of travel. They are used

in linking symbols. These show operations sequence
and data flow directions.

Fig.15: Flowchart symbols and their functions

3.3 Guidelines for Drawing Flowcharts
• Each symbol denotes a type of operation: Input, Output, Processing, Decision, Transfer or
Branch or Terminal.
• A note is written inside each symbol to indicate the specific function to be performed.
• Flowcharts are read from top to bottom.
• A sequence of operations is performed until a terminal symbol designates the end of the
run or “branch” connector transfer controls.
3.4 Flowcharting the Problem
The digital computer does not do any thinking and cannot make unplanned decisions. Every step
of the problem has to be taken care of by the program. A problem which can be solved by a digital
computer need not be described by an exact mathematical equation, but it does need a certain set

69
of rules that the computer can follow. If a problem needs intuition or guessing, or is so badly
defined that it is hard to put into words, the computer cannot solve it. You have to define the
problem and set it up for the computer in such a way that every possible alternative is taken care
of. A typical flowchart consists of special boxes, in which are written the activities or operations
for the solution of the problem. The boxes, linked by means of arrows, show the sequence of
operations. The flowchart acts as an aid to the programmer, who follows the flowchart design to
write his programs.
3.5 Algorithms
Before a computer can be put to any meaningful use, the user must be able to come out with or
define a unit sequence of operations or activities (logically ordered) which gives an unambiguous
method of solving a problem or finding out that no solution exists. Such a set of operations is
known as an ALGORITHM.
Definition: An algorithm, named after the ninth century scholar Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Musu
Al-Khowarizmi, is defined as follows:

• An algorithm is a set of rules for carrying out calculations either by hand or a machine.
• An algorithm is a finite step-by-step procedure to achieve a required result.
• An algorithm is a sequence of computational steps that transform the input into the output.
• An algorithm is a sequence of operations performed on data that have to be organised in
data structures.
• An algorithm is an abstraction of a program to be executed on a physical machine (model
of computation).
The most famous algorithm in history dates well before the time of the ancient Greeks: this is
Euclids algorithm for calculating the greatest common divisor of two integers. Before we go into
some otherwise complex algorithms, let us consider one of the simplest but common algorithms
that we encounter every day.
The classic multiplication algorithm

For example, to multiply 981 by 1234, this can be done

using two methods (algorithms) viz:

a. Multiplication the American way:

Multiply the multiplicand one after another by each

digit of the multiplier taken from right to left.
981
1234

3924
2943

70
 1962
981
1210554

b. Multiplication, the British way:

Multiply the multiplicand one after another by each

digit of the multiplier taken from left to right.
981
1234

981
1962
2943
3924
1210554

An algorithm therefore can be characterised by the following:

(i) A finite set or sequence of actions
(ii) This sequence of actions has a unique initial action
(iii) Each action in the sequence has unique successor
(iv) The sequence terminates with either a solution or a statement that the problem is
unresolved.
An algorithm can therefore be seen as a step-by-step method of solving a problem.
Examples
1. Write an algorithm to read values for three variables. U, V, and W and find a value for
RESULT from the formula: RESULT = U + V2/W. Draw the flowchart.
Solution Algorithm
(i) Input values for U, V, and W
(ii) Computer value for result
(iii) Print value of result
(iv) Stop
Flowchart

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 Flowchart

START

INPUT U,V,W

RESULT U+(V^2)/V

PRINT RESULT

STOP

2. Suppose you are given 20 numbers. Prepare the algorithm that adds up these numbers and
find the average. Draw the flowchart.
Solution Algorithm
• Set up a Counter (1) which counts the number of times the loop is executed. Initialise
Counter (1) to 1.
• Initialize sum to zero.
• Input value and add to sum.
• Increment the counter (1) by 1.
• Check how many times you have added up the number, if it is not up to the required
number of times, to step (iii).
• Compute the average of the numbers.
• Print the average.
• Stop.
3. Prepare an algorithm that indicates the logic for printing the name and telephone number
for each female in a file (Code field is 2 for female). Draw the flowchart.
Solution Algorithm
(i) Read a record
(ii) Determine if the record pertains to a female (that is, determine if the code field is equal to
2).

72
(iii) If the code field is not equal to 2, then do not process this record any further, since it
contains data for a male. Instead, read the next record; that is, go back to step (i).
(iv) If the record contains data for a female (that is, code is equal to 2), then print out the
following fields: first name, last name, telephone number.
(v) Go back to step (i) to read the next record.
Flowchart

START

1 1, SUM 0

INPUT 1

SUM SUM +1

1 1+1

IS
1 < =20

AVE SUM/

PRINT AVE

STOP

73
Note: Nothing indicates the end of records processing here.

4. Prepare an algorithm that prints name and weekly wages for each employee out of 10
where name, hours worked, and hourly rate are read in. Draw the flowchart.
Solution Algorithm
(i) Initialise Counter (A) to 1
(ii) Read name, hours and rate and number of workers
(iii) Let the wage be assigned the product of hours and rate
(iv) Print name and wages.
(v) Increment the counter (A) by 1.
(vi) Make a decision (Check how many times you have calculated the wages).
(vii) Stop processing, if you have done it the required number of times.

Flowchart

START

READ & RECORD

NO
IS
CODE = 2
YES

PRINT FIRST NAME,

LAST NAME, TEL. NO

3.6 Pseudocodes

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A pseudocode is a program design aid that serves the function of a flowchart in expressing the
detailed logic of a program. Sometimes a program flowchart might be inadequate for expressing
the control flow and logic of a program. By using Pseudocodes, program algorithms can be
expressed as English-language statements. These statements can be used both as a guide when
coding the program in a specific language and as documentation for review by others. Because
there is no rigid rule for constructing pseudocodes, the logic of the program can be expressed in a
manner that does not conform to any particular programming language. A series of structured
words is used to express the major program functions. These structured words are the basis for
writing programs using a technical term called “structure programming”.
Example
Construct a pseudocode for the problem in the example above. BEGIN
STORE 0 TO SUM
STORE 1 TO COUNT
DO WHILE COUNT not greater than 10 ADD COUNT to SUM
INCREMENT COUNT by 1 ENDWILE
END

3.7 Decision Tables

Decision tables are used to analyse a problem. The conditions applying in the problem are set out
and the actions to be taken, as a result of any combination of the conditions arising are shown.
They are prepared in conjunction with or in place of flowcharts. Decision tables are a simple yet
powerful and unambiguous way of showing the actions to be taken when a given set of conditions
occur. Moreover, they can be used to verify that all conditions have been properly catered for. In
this way they can reduce the possibility that rare or unforeseen combinations of conditions will
result in confusion about the actions to be taken.
Decision tables have standardised formats and comprise of four sections.
(a) Conditions Stub: This section contains a list of all possible conditions which could
apply in a particular problem.
(b) Conditions Entry: This section contains the different combination of the conditions; each
combination being given a number termed a ‘Rule’.
(c) Action Stub: This section contains a list of the possible actions which could apply for any
given combinations of conditions.
(d) Action Entry: This section shows the actions to be taken for each combination of
conditions. Writing the instructions in a programming language (program coding)
The instructions contained in the algorithm must be communicated to the computer in a language
it will understand before it can execute them. The first step is writing these instructions in a
programming language (program coding). Program coding is the process of translating the
planned solution to the problems, depicted in a flowchart, pseudocode or decision table, into

75
statements of the program. The program flowchart, pseudocode decision table as the case may be,
is as a guide by the programmer as he describes the logic in the medium of a programming
language. The coding is usually done on coding sheets or coding forms.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Flowcharts, decision tables, pseudocodes and algorithms are essential ingredients to the writing of
good programs. If they are done properly, they lead to a reduction in errors in programs. They
help minimise the time spent in debugging. In addition, they make logic errors easier to trace and
discover.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit teaches that:
a. A flowchart is a graphical representation of the major steps of work in process. It displays
in separate boxes the essential steps of the program and shows by means of arrows the
directions of information flow.
b. Decision tables are used to analyse a problem. The conditions applying in the problem are
set out and the actions to be taken, as a result of any combination of the conditions arising,
are shown.
c. A pseudocode is a program design aid that serves the function of a flowchart in expressing
the detailed logic of a program.
d. An algorithm is a set of rules for carrying out calculation either by hand or a machine.

MODULE 6: AREAS OF APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS

Unit 1 Application of Computers in Education

Unit 2 Computer Applications in
Business and Industry
Unit 3 Computer Applications in
Government, Science, Engineering, Transport,
Communications, Recreation and the Military

76
 UNIT 1 APPLICATION OF
COMPUTERS IN
EDUCATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Application of Computers in Education
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The computer has become a universal tool for modern men and women. Literacy today is not
defined only in terms of the ability to read and/or write but in addition, it includes the ability to
use and communicate with the aid of the computer. In the education sector, computers are being
used to promote teaching and learning.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• identify some areas of application of computers in the in the field of education.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Application of Computers in Education
The field of education provides the most fascinating application of the computing system. This
has consequently attracted considerable attention from educationists and policy makers since the
late 1960s, when computers were introduced into the classroom. The entry of the computer into
the classroom has now offered opportunities and possibilities for students to develop their
potential with computer-aided instruction packages. A considerable number of fascinating and
entertaining educational computer software packages are now available in almost every subject.
These self-tutor instruction packages are well designed to enable the user to learn at their own
time, speed and convenience. The role of the teacher here is that of a guide so that the student can
think more logically and can gain meaningful experience in such structured situations, role
playing and other well programmed exercises so that the student can have a better understanding
of the interrelationships of variables to real life situations.
Apart from the use of the computer as an instructional aid, it is also used in the execution of
routine and administrative tasks such as the keeping of academic and administrative records on
admissions, examinations, staffing and other routine functions.
The computer has also revolutionised the services rendered by libraries to readers. A computer
based on-line public access catalogue system manages a search for materials using indices such as
author’s name, book title, subject and class mark. Readers using public terminals can go through a

77
menu-driven programme to find specific books or periodicals, recall books on loans and also
make requisitions for short loan items.
Furthermore, optical character reading devices are used to scan the bar codes on readers’ library
cards to offer a computer-based issuing of books to readers. A computer-based security system is
used to maintain security services in libraries as well. In educational institutions such as nursery
schools, primary schools, secondary schools, polytechnics, colleges of education and universities,
the computer can be used for the following:
• Computer aided self-tutored application packages.
• Computer instructional aids e.g. digital projectors.
• Microsoft PowerPoint application software for preparing slide shows, speeches, seminars,
workshops, lectures etc.
• Computer simulated graded exercises and group work.
• Computer-aided laboratory experiments and investigations.
• Computer-aided software packages for special students e.g. the mentally/physically
disabled (the blind, deaf etc), adults, KGs, teenagers etc.
• Distant learning programmes e.g. sandwich programmes, through the virtual library
technology.
• Teleconferencing technology.

• Placing and sourcing of educational materials/resources e.g. papers, journals, newsletters,

magazines, textbooks, and films, on the Internet.
• Computerisation of library services to make cataloguing indexing, retrieval, borrowing,
return a nd other library services easier and faster.
• Keeping the records of students, teachers and teaching facilities.
• Estimating the teacher-student ratio with a view to assessing the adequacy of teaching and
learning.
• Estimating the ratio of students to teachers and teachers to teaching facilities with a view
to assessing the adequacy of teaching and learning.
• Timely generation of students’ examination results.
• Automatic generation of lecture and examination time tables.
• Aiding students to learn basic theoretical concepts. There are currently, some computer
aided learning software packages and hardware devices that are readily available in the
market.
4.0 CONCLUSION

78
Computers have been applied in virtually all fields of human endeavour. This unit presents an
overview of some of the key areas of its application. The application of computers in education
has been discussed in detail.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit gives detailed information on how the computer can be used to advantage in the field of
education.

79
 UNIT 2 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
IN
BUSINESS AND
INDUSTRY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Business and Industry
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the early days of computing, computers were originally meant to assist in scientific and
engineering applications. Today, computers are widely used to perform wide ranging tasks from
routine accounting operations to management decision making. Corporate operations are
becoming more complex and competitive, thus increasing the need to produce and process more
accurate and timely data both in quantity and quality. More accurate, reliable and timely data are
needed for corporate planning, policy formulation and decision making.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
At the of this unit, you should be able to
• highlight the areas of application of computer in business and industry.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Business and Industry
The following areas of application of computer technology in business will be discussed in detail:
• Payroll
• Inventory Control
• Auditing Operations
• Personnel Record Keeping
• Preparation of Customer Utility Bills and Payment Orders
• Management Information System
• High Quality Production Controls
• Point of Sale Service
• Financial Market Transactions

80
• The Publishing Industry.
(i) Payroll
Payroll preparation is essentially a repetitive and routine task which has to be done periodically
for every single employee in an organisation at particular points in time, whether weekly,
fortnightly or monthly. Payroll preparation is a work schedule which demands speed, accuracy,
carefulness and honesty. It involves making references to a number of source documents which,
by their nature, also require constant and periodic updating.
These attributes obviously lend themselves to the use of computers which have the capabilities to
meet the challenging demands in payroll preparation. These include the capability of the computer
to:
• Handle the enormous amounts of information required in payroll preparation.
• Store information and make the information available as and when it is needed.
• Handle repetitive recurring tasks and check on its own work as a way of controlling
human errors.
• Provide a much better and reliable procedure for necessary security checks to monitor and
detect fraud and other malpractices.
Computer application in payroll preparation involves a number of procedures which include the
following:
• Updating the personal records of employees whenever new appointments, resignations,
terminations, dismissals and other changes are made within a period of time.
• Computing wages and salaries for each individual worker based on regular and overtime
hours worked.
• Making deductions for income tax and for other payments such as union dues and
repayment of loans.
• Preparation of pay advice slips and cheques to employees and banks.
• Updating the master payroll file based on the records received from the personnel
department.
• Preparation of summary report and analysis for management.
In addition to payroll preparation, the computer is also used for other routine and repetitive book
keeping and accounting operations involving recording, classifying and summarising accounting
data. This may involve preparing and updating ledger and journal accounts, invoicing, accounts
receivable and payable. Other operations may also include updating and preparing accounts on
sales, purchases and inventory. The computer is also used for the preparation and evaluation of the
balance sheet and statements of accounts and, preparation of dividends and summary accounts for
shareholders and management.
(ii) Inventory Control

81
An equally important business application of the computer is seen in the execution of the
important business function involved in maintaining a desirable level of inventory in a business
organisation. This is to ensure that working capital is not unduly tied in stocks while at the same
time available stocks can meet the demands of continued production processes. In this direction,
the computer is used as a tool in updating records of inventory and also in the preparation of
forecasts and demand predictions based on economic order quantity analysis and other forecasting
techniques.
(iii) Auditing Operations
The computer is used as a tool by auditors to report accurately on the transaction register which
constitutes the most crucial aspect in the audit trail. With the aid of the computer, it is easier for
auditors, in their examination of the accounting records of a business, to trace routine business
operations so that variances can be detected and verified accurately using various computer audit
packages.
(iv) Management Information System
An equally challenging and revolutionary application of the computer in business is the important
role the computer-based Management Information System (MIS) is playing in management
decision making. The computer is used as a tool for the online storage, retrieval, processing and
maintenance of corporate data meant to be shared by all the users’ departments.
A Management Information System involves a computerised system of data processing
procedures which are integrated in an organisation to provide accurate, complete, concise, timely
and effective data which management can use at various levels of decision making for planning,
organising, directing, controlling and monitoring procedures. Included in Management
Information System to be used for the various decision-making procedures are a number of
systems comprising:
• Controlling and operational planning support systems to deal with day-to-day decisions
involving routine processing and transaction procedures.
• Tactical support systems to deal with short-run and middle level management decisions.
• Strategic support systems to deal with corporate strategic and top-level management
decisions.
With the aid of these support systems, data can be retrieved and analysed on a continuous and
timely basis to aid management decision making and other management functions about sales,
finances, purchases, acquisition of plant and equipment, research, market analysis and so on.
(v) Personnel Record Keeping
One of the important functions of the personnel department is to maintain and continually update
a master file and other records in the personnel department in an organisation. The computer
facilitates the effective keeping of a comprehensive and up-to-date record of each employee by
providing a comprehensive database involving names, addresses, ages, qualifications, marital
status, salaries, dates of promotion and so on.
By keeping such an up-to-date record, a steady flow of various reports can be prepared at the
appropriate time to provide the necessary data to aid management decision making in areas such

82
as appointments, promotions, awards of incremental credits, leave periods, staff training, staff
development and so on. Furthermore, management can provide the necessary accurate and up-to-
date reports on a timely and continual basis to facilitate payroll preparation and also to satisfy
other mandatory data requirements from data users such as governments, trade unions, banks,
credit unions and tax collectors.

(vi) Preparation of Customers’ Utility Bills

The routine and periodic preparation of customers utility bills, particularly those based on meter
readings for such utility services as water, electricity, telephone and gas, demands accuracy and
speed in which the computer has proved very effective and efficient. With the aid of the computer,
accurate and up-to-date customer’s bills can be sent to them periodically and in good time to
enable settlement to be made. Computers can be used to generate notices of defaulters. Equally
important is the use of the computer to calculate dividend, pension and other periodic payments as
and when they become due.
(vii) High Quality Production Controls
Another important application of the computer which has proved very beneficial in the world of
business is the monitoring of production processes so that high quality products and services are
provided to customers. Computer Aided Design (CAD) devices are used in the design of products
while computer monitored quality control procedures are used in the production process to detect
items that fail to meet the approved quality standards and specifications. Such automated devices
are used in car assembly plants, oil refineries, manufacturing of drugs and so on. Computer aided
quality control devices are also used to monitor weight, size, quantity, contents and other standard
specifications in the course of a manufacturing process.
(viii) Point of Sale Services
Check-out points in supermarkets and departmental stores are now highly computerised to detect
the prices of items. Magnetic Character Readers are used to scan Universal Product Codes on
items to provide fast, efficient and satisfactory services to customers in commercial transactions
in retail outlets, departmental stores, libraries and other point of sale services.
(ix) Financial Market Transactions
Computer application in the financial market is manifested in its use to monitor financial market
operations and to disseminate timely and up- to-date information which are announced daily on
the radio, television or consumers’ magazines. Stock exchange centres are highly computerised to
provide accurate and up-to-date prices of stocks and shares, and also to execute the buying and
selling transactions that take place in the markets. The computer has long been used to assess,
evaluate and monitor stock market prices. With the aid of the computer, market trends are
predicted with accuracy and investors are provided with appropriate and up-to-date data to enable
them to make intelligent decisions, and also to guide them to manage their portfolios effectively.
Furthermore, the computer is used to calculate the foreign exchange rates of major currencies as
well as the prices of major commodities such as gold, crude oil, cocoa, coffee, and other
commodities that enter into international trade. The computer is also used to provide accurate and
up-to-date information on interest rates, gilts and bonds to reflect market trends. Computer

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application in business is further seen in its use in discounting bills and bonds and other financial
market instruments to their present values. Closely related to this is the use of the computer to
carefully monitor the movement of a basket of goods and services which measures the rate of
inflation in an economy, and which further provides a barometer of the standard of living in a
country.
Most banking operations are now highly computerised as a move to provide fast, effective and
efficient services to customers. These include the use of Magnetic Ink Character Readers to
process cheques and the provision of Magnetic Credit Cards to customers to have access to funds
twenty-four hours a day at unattended automatic teller machines. Customers also use their credit
cards to open doors to some banking houses to transact business. There are also Electronic Funds
Transfer terminals to perform automatic financial transactions at checkout counters in hotels,
stores, airlines, railways and other terminals.
In the banking industry, the computer can also be used to:
• Keep the records of customers or clients’ accounts.
• Monitor, control and evaluate the transactions of the customers and clients on their
accounts.
• Reconcile accounts and assist in producing cashbook balances.
• Monitor, control and evaluate the bank or insurance company’s
revenue and expenditure.
• Automate the production of statements of account and assist in generating correct
addresses to which the statements of account should be sent.
x) The Publishing industry
In the publishing industry, the computer is used in the following ways:
• Creative writing.
• Typesetting manuscripts.
• Drawing illustrations.
• Generating the table of contents and the index of a book automatically.
• Generating the page size of a book and cut and paste illustrations automatically.
• Processing images such as the scanning of pictures, and recording them automatically in
the computer store for future retrieval or printing.
• Verification and validation of spellings.
• Assisting the writer of an article to identify words that have similar meaning.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Computer technology has changed the face of business and industry through its various
applications. Information and knowledge have replaced capital and energy as the primary wealth-
creating assets. Information technology has transformed the way that business is conducted, and

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the way the commodities of trade are transformed. Discussions presented in this unit have brought
to the fore some of the areas of the application of computer in business and industry.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, the following areas of application of computer technology in business were discussed
in detail:
• Payroll.
• Inventory Control.
• Auditing Operations.
• Personnel Record Keeping.
• Preparation of Customer Utility Bills and Payment Orders.
• Management Information System.
• High Quality Production Controls.
• Point of Sale Service.
• Financial Market Transactions.
• The Publishing Industry.

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 UNIT 3 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN
GOVERNMENT, SCIENCE,
ENGINEERING, TRANSPORT,
COMMUNICATIONS,
RECREATION AND THE
MILITARY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Science and Engineering
3.2 Marketing Departments
3.3 Agriculture
3.4 Law and Justice
3.5 Health Care
3.6 Transport and Communication
3.7 Government
3.8 The Military
3.9 Recreation, Amusement and Gaming
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit discusses in detail the application of computers in the following fields: science and
engineering, health care, transport and communication, recreation, government and the military.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
At the end of this unit, you should be to:
• mention and explain the application of computers in more areas of life than we have
discussed before now.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Science and Engineering
Computers are commonly used to find accurate solutions to both scientific and engineering
problems. Weather forecasting has now become a daily activity to which the computer has proved
very useful in providing information on the kind of weather we are likely to expect over a period
of time. Such accurate predictions help the farmers, airline operators, navigators and other
activities which depend on the weather for their operations. Computer aided critical path study is

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used to monitor the optimum and efficient use of time, money, material and human resources in
the execution and implementation of projects. Such critical path study is used successfully in
various projects, for example, the construction of roads, bridges, buildings, manufacturing, the
conduct of elections and sales campaigns.
Another scientific application of in computer is the monitoring and simulation modelling
techniques, to provide indicators as to how systems such as the human body, economy, weather,
demographic variables and so on react to changes in situations. The application of simulation
techniques helps in taking decisions and precautions in advance, in case there are repercussions
help when the desired changes are introduced in practical situations. Computers also help to
design buildings, roads, bridges, vehicles, aeroplanes, ships and complex architectural, works
computer. Prototyping is increasingly being used in the construction of systems to minimise the
financial losses in real life situations.
The computer is also used to find solutions to very complex mathematical and statistical
computations at incredible speeds and accuracy. Furthermore, various software packages are now
increasingly being developed to analyse surveyed data, construct live tables, perform mortality
demographic and other multivariate data analysis designed to revolutionise scientific research and
to find practical solutions to complex, challenging and everyday life situations. We now outline
the use of the computer in the following specific areas, among others.
(i) Research Institutions
a) Evaluating, monitoring and controlling laboratory experiments.
b) Storing the readings obtained in laboratory experiments.
c) Standardising the readings obtained in laboratory experiments.
d) Tabulating or plotting the graph of the results obtained from laboratory experiments.
e) Interpreting the results obtained from laboratory experiments.
f) Modelling and simulating systems.
g) Developing the prototypes of systems.
(ii) Engineering and Architecture
a) Designing and drawing with very high precision, accuracy and at minimum cost.
b) Modelling and simulating the behaviour of engineering or architectural systems.
c) Developing the prototype of, say, an aircraft, a motor car, assembly plant and so on. It is
possible to test and monitor the performance of these systems without serious financial
commitments.
d) Fabricating, constructing and assembling the component parts of machines such as motor
cars, aircraft and engineering plants without any hazards. 3.2.1 Marketing Departments
(a) Comparative analysis of products of two or more companies with a view to predicting
some areas of improvement.

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(b) Market survey, statistical analysis of proportional market gains and prediction of new
market areas.
(c) Creation of consumer awareness and appreciation of products.
3.3 Agriculture
(a) Keeping records of soil, rainfall, weather conditions, land size, crops, and chemicals and
ultimately processing the records to estimate soil fertility and yield per hectare over a
number of years.
(b) Keeping records, of poultry and animal husbandry farm with a view to estimating the feed
mix and environmental conditions desirable for optimal yield.
(c) Assessing the behaviour patterns of farmers in a cooperative venture, and assisting in
matching the farmers that have identical behaviour with a view to optimizing their
productivity.
3.4 Law and Justice
(a) Modelling and simulating legislative procedures.
(b) Indexing, storage and retrieval of law reports.
(c) Indexing, storage and retrieval of court proceedings.
(d) Assisting the human experts in crime investigation.
(e) Statistical analysis of criminal and civil cases in the law court and estimating the rate of
growth.
(f) Assisting the court registrar in the allocation of cases to courts.
(g) Monitoring and evaluating congestion in police custody and prisons.
(h) Identifying the causes of crime and assisting with the provision of preventive and curative
measures.
3.5 Health Care
The delivery of health care facilities has been one of the notable areas in which computer
applications have proved most beneficial to mankind. The computer is used to conduct fast and
accurate laboratory tests for blood, urine, stool and so on. The computer is used in the diagnosis
and physiological monitoring of patients’ life during surgical operation and intensive care
programmes. There is also a wide range of application packages for the scientific preparation and
administration of drugs, x-ray techniques, blood bank management and so on. An equally
important application of the computer is the computer simulation provided in the training of
medical and paramedical staff and students.
Computers are being used to perform routine clerical functions in hospitals such as keeping
records of hospital admission and discharges, administration of drugs and prescriptions and other
hospital administrative functions. Furthermore, the computer is used to provide a data bank of
medical history to meet the data needs of health insurance schemes and vital health care statistical
reports.

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The summary that can be drawn about the use of computers in hospitals is as follows:
(a) Keeping and reviewing in a timely, effective and efficient manner the records of patients,
staff, drugs and equipment.
(b) Monitoring the temperature, blood pressure, heartbeat and a host of other parameters of
patients, and raising the alarm when an abnormal situation is about to occur.
(c) Assisting medical practitioners in the diagnosis of patients’ diseases.
(d) Assisting medical practitioners in the prescription of drugs to patients, and ultimately the
treatment of patients.
(e) Assisting medical practioners in the monitoring, controlling and reviewing of basic health
services, birth rate, death rate, and outbreak of disease and a host of others.

3.6 Transport and Communication

The most dramatic computer application is witnessed in the transport and communications
sectors, with increased sophistication geared towards making life easier and safer for mankind.
Today, mankind world-wide is linked by computer controlled orbiting communications satellites.
Telecommunications and computing are today electronically linked together. As a result,
information can now be transmitted around the globe on the radio, television, telex, facsimile and
so on through microwave communication satellites.
Man’s advancement in information technology has led to the development of the popular
computer controlled electronic mail service which provides a more effective and efficient method
of disseminating information to users in a computer network environment. The electronic mail
service now provides faster, more convenient and cheaper electronic flow of information than
telephone, fax and telex transmission.
Computer application in communications has led to the use of computer terminals at home. This
development enables viewers to read electronic newspapers on television while the teletext
provides computerised information to viewers on events around the globe in the field of politics,
business, transport, sports, airlines, hotel reservations and many others. The Cable News Network
(CNN) is a practical example.
Computer application is now felt in traffic control and vehicle maintenance. Traffic congestion in
cities is monitored by computer-controlled traffic switching system which controls traffic flows.
Computer aided input devices in the form of railcards or tickets are used to operate automatic
gates in underground railway lines. When a ticket coated with magnetic stripes is slotted
downwards into a device, the gate automatically opens for you to enter while you take your ticket.
The device will return your ticket if it is valid for another journey; if not, it will keep the ticket
and allow you to go. A passenger with an invalid ticket is given a red message and there is no way
he or she can enter through the gate.
In the delivery of postal services, the computer is used to sort letters according to post codes. In
the field of aeronautics, computer simulations are used to train pilots while air traffic movements
are monitored by computer-controlled radars. The scheduling of trains, subways, in real-time is
also aided by sophisticated computer systems. Another important computer application is the

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introduction of computer devices to improve personal safety on aircraft and motor vehicles, and
also to detect engine faults and help in the maintenance of aircraft and motor vehicles.
3.7 Government
The business of governance is serious business. In a multi-cultural, multilingual, multi-ethnic,
setting such as Nigeria, a lot of complex and often conflicting variables interplay or are taken into
consideration before a broad-based decision can be taken. Computers can assist government
business in the following ways:

(a) Planning
(b) Decision marking
(c) Policy formulation
(d) Monitoring and control of operations
The availability of data, timely access to the data and timely reporting on the data are very crucial
to the above listed business of government. Computers can be used to:
(a) Keep accurate records of government assets and periodically estimate the market value
and insurance value.
(b) Keep accurate records of the population, behaviour patterns, and consumption patterns of
utilities, and estimate the distribution of basic needs such as electricity, water, telephone
and postal services.
(c) Keep records of government revenue and expenditure and assist government in
monitoring, controlling and evaluating the revenue and expenditure.
(d) Keep records of government employees with a view to:

(i) Preventing ghost workers

(ii) Estimating the strength of the human resources of government
(iii) Producing statistical data on employees
(e) Issue identity cards to the citizens.
(f) Compile a broad-based and accurate voter’s register. This will check the incidence of
ghost voting, multiple voting and other electoral malpractices, which have bedevilled the
electoral processes and stable polity in third world countries.
(g) Keep track of crime in society, thereby helping government security agencies to check
crime.
(h) Maintain the database of the mineral resources and other resources of the nation.
3.8 The Military

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One of the areas in which the computer has been applied intensively and extensively is the
military. The first generation of the modern computers were designed and used during the First
and Second World Wars. The use of computers for processing data became more popular during
these periods due to the need to procure, store and process large volumes of data. Over the years,
the use of computers has transcended the traditional role of “crunching numbers” to sophisticated
applications. Specifically, computers are being used in the following ways, in military operations:
• Training the personnel through the use of simulated war situations.
• Reconnaissance surveys.
• Automatic detection of mines.
• Monitoring and tracking of planes with a view to bringing down any unauthorised plane
flying in the nation’s airspace.
• Monitoring operations in the military base.
• Launching of missiles from distant military bases to the enemy territory. Such missiles are
programmed to ensure that only the desired targets are hit.
• Manufacture of state-of-the-art military hardware and consumables.
• Communication and transmission of highly coded classified military information.
• Military games, adventures and expeditions.
• Keeping records of military personnel and logistics.
• Keeping records of military assets – hardware
• Management of military stock with a view to maintaining war- ready stock of materials,
ammunition and assets at any point in time.
• Monitoring the environmental and storage conditions of lethal weapons in order to prevent
accidents, like sudden explosions caused by improper storage.
• Generation and maintenance of necessary data that would enhance planning, policy
formulation, decision making and forecast.
3.9 Recreation, Amusement and Gaming
One of the major areas in which the computer has affected society positively is in the area of
recreation, amusement and gaming. “All work and no play make Jack a dull boy”. With increasing
civilisation and urbanisation, there is the need for people to relax and keep their mind off the
tension that is associated with daily activities.
Computer games help you to learn in private (even in the comfort of your own room or office),
keep you off the streets and arcades, reduce tension and boredom, engage your mind with
constructive things, and teach you new skills.
There are different kinds of games examples of which are adventure games, business games, war
games, traditional games, and simulation games.

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4.0 CONCLUSION
The computer, as a universal machine, is being applied to almost every area of human activity.
The discussions in this unit here, hopefully, clearly demonstrate this assertion.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed in detail the application of computers in the following fields:
(a) Science and Engineering
(b) Health Care
(c) Business and Industry
(d) Transport and Communications
(e) Recreation
(f) Government
(g) The Military

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 MODULE 7 THREATS TO THE COMPUTER

Unit 1 Computer Virus

UNIT 1 COMPUTER VIRUS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Computer Virus
3.2 Mode of Transmission of Computer Virus
3.3 Virus Properties
3.4 How Viruses May Infect Files
3.5 What Viruses May Do
3.6 Detecting Viruses
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the biggest fears of having computers is viruses. Viruses are malicious programs designed
entirely for destruction and havoc. Viruses are created by people who either know a lot about
programming or know a lot about computers.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• explain the concept of computer virus
• explain the ways in which computer viruses are transmitted
• detect viruses in computers
• explain how computer viruses can be prevented
• clean viruses from a computer installation

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Computer Virus
Computer virus is one of the greatest threats to computers and computer applications.

Once the virus is made, it is generally distributed through shareware, pirated software, e-mail or
other various ways of transporting data. Once the virus infects someone's computer it will either
start infecting other data, destroying data, overwriting data, or corrupting software. The reason
these programs are called viruses is that they spread like human viruses. Once your PC has
become infected, either by downloading something from the Internet or sharing software, any
disks or writeable media that you place into the computer will then be infected. When that disk is
put into another computer, the computer is also infected. And if the user puts files on the Internet,
and hundreds of people download those files, they will all be infected, and the process will
continue infecting thousands if not millions of computers.
3.2 Mode of Transmission of Computer Virus
The majority of viruses are contracted through floppy disk information being brought from one
source and then put into your computer. Viruses can infect disks, and when such disks are put into
your computer, your computer will become infected with the viruses. A recent survey done in
1997 by NCSA given to PC users showed that 80% of PCs contracted viruses by floppy diskettes.
The same survey showed that the other 20% of PCs contracted viruses by e-mail attachments and
over the Internet. This means that the users received e-mails with attached files and opened the
files, or downloaded files over the Internet.
3.3 Virus Properties
Your computer can be infected even if files are just copied: Because some viruses are memory
resident, as soon as a diskette or program is loaded into memory, the virus attaches itself into
memory. Viruses can be polymorphic: Some viruses have the capability of modifying their code,
which means one virus could have various amounts of similar variants.
Viruses can be memory/Non memory resident: Depending on the type, a virus can be a memory
resident virus type, which first attaches itself into memory and then infects the computer. The
virus can also be non-memory resident, which means a program must be run in order to infect the
computer.
A virus can be a stealth virus: Stealth viruses first attach themselves to files on the computer, and
then attack the computer. This causes the virus to spread more rapidly.
Viruses can carry other viruses and infect a system, and infect with the other viruses as well:
Because viruses are generally written by different individuals and do not infect the same locations
of memory and or files, this could mean that multiple viruses can be stored in one file, diskette or
computer.
Viruses can make the system never show outward signs: Some viruses will hide changes made,
such as when infecting a file, the file will stay the same size.

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Viruses can stay on the computer even if the computer is formatted: Viruses have the capability of
infecting different portions of the computer such as the CMOS battery or master.
3.4 How Viruses May Infect Files
Viruses can infect any file, however they usually attack .com, .exe, .sys, .bin, .pif or any data files.
Viruses have the capability of infecting any file. However, they will generally infect executable
files or data files such as Word or Excel documents which are opened frequently.
Viruses can increase the file’s size; however, this can be hidden: When infecting files, viruses will
generally increase the size of the file. However, with more sophisticated viruses, these changes
can be hidden. Viruses can delete files as the files are run: Because most files are loaded into
memory and then run once the program is in memory, the virus can delete the file.
Viruses can corrupt files randomly: Some destructive viruses are not designed to destroy random
data but instead randomly delete or corrupt files.
Viruses can cause write protect errors when executing .exe files from a write protected disk:
Viruses may need to write themselves to files which are executed. Because of this, if a diskette is
write protected, you may receive a write protection error.
Viruses can convert .exe files to .com files: Viruses may use a separate file to run the program and
rename the original file to another extension, so the .exe is run before the .com.
Viruses can reboot the computer when a file is run: Various computers may be designed to reboot
the computer when run.
3.5 What Viruses May Do
The following are possibilities you may experience when you are infected with a virus.
Remember that you also may be experiencing any of the following problems and not have a virus.
Once the hard drive is infected, any disk that is non-write protected that is accessed can be
infected.
A virus may:
• Deleted files.
• Insert various messages in files or on programs
• Changes volume label
• Mark clusters as bad in the FAT.
• Randomly overwrite sectors on the hard disk
• Replace the MBR with own code
• Create more than one partition
• Attempt to access the hard disk drive which can result in error messages such as invalid
drive specification.
• Cause cross linked files

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• Cause a “sector not found” error
• Cause the system to run slowly
• Create logical partitions created. Partitions decrease in size
• Display directory as garbage
• Modify order, so files such as Com will start at the beginning of the directory
• Cause hardware problems such as keyboard keys not working, printer problems and
modem problems
• Disable ports such as LPT or COM ports
• Cause keyboard to be remapped
• Alter the system time/date
• Cause the system to hang or freeze randomly
• Cause activity on HDD or FDD randomly
• Increase file size
• Increase or decrease memory size
• Randomly change file or memory size
• Extend boot times
• Increase disk access times
• Cause the computer to make strange noises, make music, clicking noises or beeps
• Display pictures
• Cause different types of error messages

3.6 Detecting Viruses

The most commonly used method of protecting against and detecting viruses is to purchase a
third-party application designed to scan for all types of viruses. Alternatively, a user can look at
various aspects of the computer and detect possible signs indicating a virus is on the computer.
While this method can be used to determine some viruses, it cannot clean or determine the exact
virus you may or may not have.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Computer viruses are perhaps the greatest threats to the computer. If not detected and promptly
cured, a computer virus attack could lead to the total breakdown of the computer. With the aid of
our discussion in this unit, you should be able to prevent, detect and clean viruses in a computer
installation.
5.0 SUMMARY

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This unit has taught the following:
(a) Computer viruses are programs written by programmers with the aim of causing havoc to
the computer.
(b) Computer viruses could lead to malfunctioning and total breakdown of the computer.
(c) Computer viruses are transferred from one computer to another through the use of infected
storage media such as diskette, flash drive, CDROM, or across a computer network.
(d) There are antivirus packages specially written to prevent, detect and clean viruses.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is a computer virus?
2. What are the differences and similarities between biological viruses and computer viruses?
3. How would you prevent virus attack in the student’s computer
laboratory.

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