### MCSE-103 Advanced Computer Architecture

#### UNIT 1: Flynn's and Handler's Classification of Parallel Computing Structures, Pipelined, and Vector
Processors

##### Flynn's Classification

**Definition:**

- Flynn's taxonomy classifies computer architectures based on the multiplicity of instruction and data
streams. It was introduced by Michael J. Flynn in 1966.

**Categories:**

1. **SISD (Single Instruction stream, Single Data stream):**

- **Characteristics:**

- A single processor executes a single instruction stream, operating on a single data stream.

- Traditional uniprocessor systems.

- **Diagram:**

- 

2. **SIMD (Single Instruction stream, Multiple Data streams):**

- **Characteristics:**

- Multiple processing elements perform the same operation on multiple data points simultaneously.

- Suitable for vector and array processors.

- **Diagram:**

- 

3. **MISD (Multiple Instruction streams, Single Data stream):**

- **Characteristics:**

- Multiple instructions operate on a single data stream.

- Rarely used in practice; theoretically useful for fault tolerance.

- **Diagram:**
 - 

4. **MIMD (Multiple Instruction streams, Multiple Data streams):**

- **Characteristics:**

- Multiple autonomous processors simultaneously execute different instructions on different data

- Common in parallel computing and multi-core processors.

- **Diagram:**

- 

**Significance:**

- Helps in understanding and designing parallel computing systems by providing a clear categorization of
computational architectures based on their capabilities and operational paradigms.

##### Handler's Classification

**Definition:**

- Handler's classification extends Flynn's taxonomy by considering additional architectural features like
processor control, processor interconnection, and memory organization.

**Categories:**

1. **ARP (Asynchronous Array of Processors):**

- **Characteristics:**

- Processors operate asynchronously with their own control unit.

- Suitable for tasks that can be decomposed into independently executable units.

- **Diagram:**

- 

2. **SARP (Synchronous Array of Processors):**

- **Characteristics:**

- Processors operate synchronously under a single control unit.

- Suitable for SIMD operations where all processors perform the same task simultaneously.
 - **Diagram:**

- 

3. **MSIMD (Multiple SIMDs):**

- **Characteristics:**

- Combines multiple SIMD structures, allowing for different SIMD groups to perform distinct tasks.

- Provides flexibility and increased parallelism.

- **Diagram:**

- 

**Significance:**

- Provides a more granular classification that addresses practical considerations in parallel system design,
such as synchronization and interconnection strategies.

##### Pipelined Processors

**Definition:**

- Pipelining is a technique where multiple instruction phases are overlapped to improve execution
efficiency.

**Phases:**

1. **Instruction Fetch (IF):**

- Retrieve the instruction from memory.

2. **Instruction Decode (ID):**

- Interpret the instruction and prepare necessary resources.

3. **Execute (EX):**

- Perform the operation defined by the instruction.

4. **Memory Access (MEM):**

- Access memory if required by the instruction.

5. **Write Back (WB):**

**Diagram:**

- 

**Significance:**

- Enhances throughput by allowing multiple instructions to be processed simultaneously at different

##### Vector Processors

**Definition:**

- Vector processors are specialized computing units that operate on entire vectors (arrays) of data with a
single instruction.

**Characteristics:**

1. **Vector Registers:**

- Large registers capable of holding entire vectors.

2. **Vector Instructions:**

- Instructions that operate on vectors rather than scalar values.

3. **Vector Pipelines:**

- Pipelines designed to handle vector operations, improving efficiency.

**Diagram:**

- 

**Significance:**

- Ideal for scientific computations and applications requiring high-speed data processing over large
datasets.
---

#### UNIT 2: Data and Control Hazards, SIMD Multiprocessor Structures

##### Data Hazards

**Definition:**

- Occur when instructions that exhibit data dependencies modify data in a way that affects subsequent
instructions.

**Types:**

1. **Read After Write (RAW):**

- A subsequent instruction tries to read a source before a previous instruction writes to it.

2. **Write After Read (WAR):**

- A subsequent instruction tries to write to a destination before a previous instruction reads from it.

3. **Write After Write (WAW):**

- A subsequent instruction tries to write to a destination before a previous instruction writes to it.

**Resolution Techniques:**

1. **Forwarding (Bypassing):**

- Directly passes the result from one pipeline stage to another without writing to register.

2. **Stalling:**

- Delays subsequent instructions until the hazard is resolved.

**Diagram:**

- 

**Significance:**

- Critical for maintaining the correctness of instruction execution in pipelined architectures.

**Definition:**

- Occur when the pipeline makes wrong decisions on branch predictions, causing instruction fetches
from incorrect addresses.

**Resolution Techniques:**

1. **Branch Prediction:**

- Techniques like static and dynamic prediction to guess the outcome of branches.

2. **Delayed Branching:**

- Reordering instructions to minimize the impact of branch penalties.

**Diagram:**

- 

**Significance:**

- Essential for maintaining pipeline efficiency and minimizing performance degradation due to incorrect
branch predictions.

##### SIMD Multiprocessor Structures

**Definition:**

- SIMD multiprocessors consist of multiple processing elements that execute the same instruction on
different data streams simultaneously.

**Characteristics:**

1. **Processing Elements (PEs):**

- Multiple, identical units performing computations in parallel.

2. **Control Unit:**
 - Single control unit synchronizing the operations of all PEs.

3. **Interconnection Network:**

- Network facilitating communication among PEs and between PEs and memory.

**Diagram:**

- 

**Significance:**

- Enhances performance for data-parallel tasks, making it suitable for applications like image processing,
simulations, and scientific computations.

---

#### UNIT 3: Interconnection Networks, Parallel Algorithms for Array Processors, Search Algorithms,
MIMD Multiprocessor Systems

##### Interconnection Networks

**Definition:**

- Networks that connect processors in parallel computing systems, enabling communication and data
exchange.

**Types:**

1. **Static Networks:**

- Fixed connections between processors (e.g., mesh, hypercube).

- **Diagram:**

- 

2. **Dynamic Networks:**

- Reconfigurable connections (e.g., crossbar, multistage interconnection networks).

- **Diagram:**
 - 

**Characteristics:**

- **Bandwidth:**

- Data transfer capacity of the network.

- **Latency:**

- Time taken for data to travel from source to destination.

**Significance:**

- Crucial for the performance of parallel computing systems, impacting data transfer speeds and overall
system efficiency.

##### Parallel Algorithms for Array Processors

**Definition:**

- Algorithms designed to be executed on array processors, leveraging their parallel processing

**Examples:**

1. **Matrix Multiplication:**

- Parallel algorithm for multiplying matrices using array processors.

- **Diagram:**

- 

2. **Sorting Algorithms:**

- Parallel sorting algorithms like bitonic sort and parallel quicksort.

**Significance:**

- Enhances computational efficiency and speed for large-scale data processing tasks.
##### Search Algorithms

**Definition:**

- Algorithms designed for searching data in parallel computing environments.

**Examples:**

1. **Parallel Binary Search:**

- Distributes search operations across multiple processors.

2. **Associative Search:**

- Uses associative memory to perform searches in parallel.

**Significance:**

- Improves search efficiency and reduces time complexity for large datasets.

##### MIMD Multiprocessor Systems

**Definition:**

- Systems where multiple processors operate asynchronously, each executing different instructions on
different data.

**Characteristics:**

1. **Autonomous Processors:**

- Each processor has its own control unit and executes its own program.

2. **Shared Memory:**

- Processors share a common memory space, enabling data exchange and communication.

3. **Interconnection Network:**

- Network facilitating communication among processors.

**Diagram:**
- 

**Significance:**

- Provides high flexibility and performance for complex and heterogeneous computing

tasks.

---

#### UNIT 4: Scheduling and Load Balancing in Multiprocessor Systems, Multiprocessing Control and
Algorithms

##### Scheduling and Load Balancing

**Definition:**

- Techniques for distributing computational tasks across multiple processors to optimize performance
and resource utilization.

**Scheduling Techniques:**

1. **Static Scheduling:**

- Pre-determined task allocation before runtime.

2. **Dynamic Scheduling:**

- Tasks are allocated to processors dynamically during runtime.

**Load Balancing Strategies:**

1. **Centralized Load Balancing:**

- A central scheduler assigns tasks to processors.

2. **Distributed Load Balancing:**

- Processors make independent decisions about task allocation.

- 

**Significance:**

- Ensures efficient utilization of resources, minimizes idle times, and improves overall system
performance.

##### Multiprocessing Control and Algorithms

**Definition:**

- Control mechanisms and algorithms designed to manage and optimize the operation of multiprocessor
systems.

**Control Mechanisms:**

1. **Synchronization:**

- Techniques to coordinate processor operations and access to shared resources.

2. **Communication:**

- Mechanisms for data exchange between processors.

**Algorithms:**

1. **Barrier Synchronization:**

- Ensures all processors reach a certain point before proceeding.

2. **Mutual Exclusion:**

- Ensures that only one processor accesses a critical section at a time.

**Diagram:**

- 

- Critical for maintaining system integrity, preventing race conditions, and ensuring coordinated
operation of multiple processors.

---

The above information is organized based on the units and topics specified for MCSE-103 Advanced
Computer Architecture. Each topic is explained in detailed bullet points with relevant diagrams, using the
reference books mentioned.