Engineering and Implementation of Active Solar Design for Sustainable Energy in Africa:

Mechanisms, Technological Advances, and Climate Impact

Yassin Bassem

Yassin Bassem, Gharbiya STEM School, and [email protected].

Acknowledgements
Thank you for the guidance of Madeline Kollegger mentor from UConn University in the development of this research paper.
Abstract - Over 65% of SSA have no access to stable electricity connections, and over 85% of rural regions of SSA lack any electricity connections. Many researchers believe that off-grid systems using
photovoltaic (PV) panels and concentrated solar power (CSP) plants can be designed to provide reliable electricity to off-grid cities and rural areas in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) by 2050. That’s because
SSA has one of the highest solar irradiations in the world. Annually, SSA receives more than 300 sunny days in most of its parts, placing it among the top five regions in the world in terms of sun exposure.
Furthermore, PV's price dropped significantly from 1.02 $/W to 0.26 $/W, representing a 75% decrease. However, many solar projects get delayed or canceled due to many regulatory challenges, a
shortage of skilled labor, and underdeveloped transmission and distribution networks. This research discusses the advances in active solar design, its implementation, its influence on climate impact, and
its contribution to electrifying SSA by 2030.
Keywords: off-grid – micro-grid – SSA – solar power

I. INTRODUCTION

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) primarily consists of 46 of a total of 54 African countries, adding up to a total of 1.24 billion citizens, 50% of which have no access to electricity (Ukoba et al., 2019). Only 32% to 35% of
SSA's population has access to electricity, with rural electrification accounting for only 14% (Bertheau et al., 2017; United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, n.d.).

Additionally, location plays a crucial role here, since urban areas have far better electrical accessibility compared to rural areas, mostly due to the feasibility of connecting those places with the local grid (Hafner et al.,
2018). However, the vast and diverse geography of SSA, including deserts, forests, and mountains, poses many challenges and obstacles to the expansion of the electrical infrastructure. Those geographical barriers,
along with extreme levels of poverty, climate change, available resources, and inadequate infrastructure, present more challenges in providing the region with electricity (Hafner et al., 2018). In the 21st century, for a
region not to have a reliable electricity connection means the inevitable underdevelopment of this region by decades compared to any other well-electrified region.

To solve those problems, many initiatives were created with one goal in mind: “Generating enough electricity to provide for the residences of all rural and urban areas” (World Bank, 2018). Most famous of all is
Nigeria’s National Integrated Power Project (NIPP), which aimed to construct mainly gas-fired power plants and enhance the distribution infrastructure, but corruption and mismanagement led to delays and poor
quality of infrastructure (Oboh, 2020). Another interesting initiative was Kenya’s Rural Electrification Authority (REA), which focused on generating electricity from solar power using off-grid, mini-grid, and
national grid. Despite some success, REA struggled with inadequate funding, slow implementation, and maintenance challenges, which ended the project without reaching the set expectations (World Bank, 2018).

Furthermore, renewable energy projects also help protect the environment by reducing the use of fossil fuels and cutting down on greenhouse gas emissions. And with many other initiatives that have not met their
expectations (Ministry of Energy, 2010; “Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme,” 2024), governments all over the world have realized that for changes to occur they must alter the
way that new projects are executed.

One of the best ways to bring electricity to SSA is through solar power. This is because, on average, Sub-Saharan Africa receives 6 to 8 hours of sunlight per day, which increases to 10 to 12 hours during specific
periods of the year (Ukoba et al., 2019).

II. SOLAR TECHNOLOGY

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Solar technology has been around for decades as a green alternative to fossil fuels, but due to a lack of technology and funding, it was never feasible or applicable. However, new technologies, like photovoltaic
systems (PV) and concentrated solar power systems (CSP), have been rapidly developed to fix those problems entirely.

When semiconductors like silicon are struck by photons, they absorb energy and enter a highly active state, thereby facilitating conduction that leads to electric current generation. This generated current is then stored
within lithium-ion batteries, which are used for their significant energy density, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness (Babayomi et al., 2023; Vodapally & Ali, 2023). These features make PV panels particularly effective
when mounted on rooftops or integrated into buildings' architectures using micro-grid systems to provide electricity for the entire building (Lazaroiu et al., 2023).

A real-life application of the utilization of PV panels would be the African Leadership Academy (ALA) solar energy project. This project made a significant step towards sustainability and energy independence, where
they have achieved sustainability and energy independence by covering the rooftop of the entire campus with high-tech PV panels. This project highlights a 300kWp grid-tied solar-powered control framework,
complemented by a 1MWh battery capacity. Through this project, ALA aims to reduce its dependence on the power grid and diesel generators, opening the path for a cleaner and more reliable energy source (ALA,
2024).

On the other hand, in concentrating solar power (CSP) power plants, electrical energy is generated by concentrating solar radiation. The CSP control generation systems utilize concentrators to center daylight onto a
collector that carries a working liquid that is warmed up to a high temperature. Then, this heated fluid goes to a conventional steam turbine that is attached to a generator, thus electricity is produced (Islam et al.,
2018). Although the process sounds more complicated than PV, CSP systems are far more efficient and provide much more electricity than PV, making them perfect in off-grid systems to provide electricity for rural
and urban areas that are significantly from centralized grids (Dale, 2013).

A real-life application of CSP would be the Gemasolar plant in Sevilla, Spain. The first commercial solar power plant with molten salt heat storage technology and a central tower receiver. It has 195 hectares of land
and 2,650 heliostats arranged around a 140-meter-tall tower. The plant's novel molten salt mechanism enables it to generate electricity for up to 15 hours in the absence of sunlight. Each year, it produces 80 GWh,
which is sufficient to power 27,500 households (Wikipedia, 2024).

III. SYSTEMS OF TECHNOLOGY

To overcome the issue of a limited electrical grid in SSA, two independent systems were created: off-grid and micro-grid systems.

III.I. Off-grid System

Off-grid systems operate apart from the utility grid, which means that they generate and store electricity locally without any connection to the grid (Magerl, 2023). However, due to the high cost of maintenance and
battery storage systems, they have a high initial investment price, making them less scalable for higher energy demand (Ajibade et al., 2024).

A real-life application of the off-grid system would be the project of Greenlight Planet in Tanzania, which has benefitted over 1.5 million people, mostly in rural areas, by installing solar home kits in over 300,000
households. This was achieved during the company’s nine years of service in this country. Not only do they supply panels, but they also give homes their famous “Sun Kings”. It is a system primarily made up of an
energy-efficient LED bulb, batteries for storing electricity, recharging spaces for cell phones, and a solar panel, all of which are energy efficient (Takouleu, 2020).

III.II. Micro-grid System

On the other hand, micro-grids are localized power grids that can operate independently or in conjunction with the main grid. They can connect and disconnect from the main grid as needed, which makes them perfect
for communities, campuses, and enterprises that need reliable and resilient power (Shahzad et al., 2023).

A real-life application of this system would be Nigeria’s project “Solar Hybrid Micro-Grids,” which targeted 300,000 households and 30,000 micro, small, and medium enterprises with the objective of providing
affordable electricity to rural regions that are currently not connected to the national electricity grid and increasing business productivity by replacing generators, lanterns, and candles with reliable electricity (Rural
Electrification Agency, 2017).

IV. MODELS OF THE SOLAR PROJECT

There are 2 main models used for solar projects: the decentralized model and the grid extension model.

IV.I. Decentralized Model

In a decentralized model, energy generation occurs at smaller, distributed locations rather than relying completely on large central power plants. It often relies on rooftop solar panels or small-scale PV installation.
However, it is very scalable, easy to install, and cost-effective, making it used in small to medium-sized projects like residential rooftop solar panels and community-based solar projects (Kojonsaari & Palm, 2021).

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 IV.II. Grid Extension Model

In the grid extension model, however, existing centralized grid infrastructure is expanded to connect new energy sources. Usually, it’s used in large-sized projects like connecting solar farms or CSP plants to the
central grid (Aoun et al., 2024).

V. IMPLEMENTATION

PV panels set at a specific tilt angle might deliver the highest yield. The best tilt angle is identified by the latitude of the region where the PV panels are mounted, as well as the meteorological conditions. Poor tilt
angle and inter-row spacing for PV panel installation may result in significant financial losses for PV system investors (Shah et al., 2019). In addition, the position of the sun changes in the sky every minute, day,
month, and year, so there is a need for a solar tracking system that can track the movement of the sun and adjust the panel orientation and the tilt angle to extract the maximum power from the solar panels. This can be
solved by a two-axis solar tracking system since it can provide varied tilt angles for different techniques depending on the season and greater total solar radiation; both of these boost the daily output power of a solar
panel (Kacira et al., 2004).

Another angle that is commonly employed during large PV installations is the azimuth angle, which is referred to as the angle of PV modules relative to the direction due south. If the PV installation is in the northern
hemisphere, the panels should face north, and if it is in the southern hemisphere, they should face south (Ebhota, 2022). In their research on a low voltage distribution grid (Dhimish & Silvestre, 2019), the authors
observed that a small deviation of azimuth angle from the south has reduced grid losses but at the cost of a higher reduction in energy output, whereas a change in tilt angle was more effective with lower grid losses.
Furthermore, Azaioud et al. (2020) propose that for large users or PV systems, an east/west-oriented PV installation may provide greater overall advantages.

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 VI. CLIMATE IMPACT

Despite the non-renewability of fossil fuels, they have serious environmental consequences, leading to severe climate change. This means that humanity will eventually become highly reliant on renewable energy
sources. Surprisingly, solar panels can cause regional cooling when compared to the climate without solar panels; this is because they convert solar energy into electricity.

In the ALA solar project, the transition to rely on solar panels is projected to reduce ALA's annual carbon emissions by 600 tons by generating 500 megawatt-hours of clean energy annually. The project will also
reduce ALA’s reliance on the utility grid and diesel generators (ALA, 2024).

Additionally, it is also estimated that a solar farm of 100 square miles would be able to produce around 9.45 trillion kWh per year, which serves the need for more than twice the amount used annually by the United
States, which is approximately 4 trillion kWh/year (Venditti, 2021). Moreover, this project will reduce annual carbon emissions by 12,686 million metric tons, comprising 33% of the total global carbon emissions
(Santos et al., 2023; US EPA, 2016).

VII. FEASIBILITY OF THE PROJECT

The feasibility of the project is supported by the SSA region's abundant solar irradiation, improvements in PV cell efficiency achieved through novel materials like phase change materials (PCMs), and a substantial
reduction in PV panel prices and expenses.

VII.I. Solar Irradiation

The SSA region, which includes large desert areas, has one of the highest solar irradiations in the world; thus, it is an ideal region for solar energy generation. Annually, this region has more than 300 sunny days in
most of its parts, placing it among the first five regions in the world in terms of sun exposure (Saurenergy & Bureau, 2019). This intense and constant sunshine features the area perfectly for energy generation with
solar panels. Across many regions, the solar irradiation levels reaching the ground reach 5-7 kWh/m2/day, which is considered optimal for PV panel efficiency, making the region ideal for large-scale solar energy
projects, as recognized by sources like the Global Solar Atlas (International Diabetes Federation, 2021).

VII.II. Increase in Efficiency

PV cells are at the forefront of sustainable electricity generation technology. However, they display relatively low efficiency. Typically, less than 20% of the solar energy absorbed is turned into electricity, with the
remaining being converted into heat, which increases the PV panel’s operating temperature, significantly decreasing its efficiency and life duration (Sheikh et al., 2024).

However, in a recent study, an innovative approach using multi-layered phase change materials (PCMs) was examined (Sheikh et al., 2024). The method combines organic PCMs (OPCMs) and metallic PCMs
(MPCMs). The study found that a multi-layered PCM arrangement with a thickness ratio of 15:85 between MPCM (CERROLOW-117® alloy) and OPCM (RT44) effectively reduces temperature rise in PV cells,
leading to a temperature drop of 59.6°C. This improvement boosts PV panel performance to an average of 35.8% and peaking at 42% during peak sun hours under hot climate conditions (Sheikh et al., 2024).

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 VII.III. Decrease in Price

FIGURE 1
A LOGARITHMIC LINE CHART ON THE HISTORY PRICE OF PV PANELS (INTERNATIONAL RENEWABLE ENERGY AGENCY (2023); NEMET (2009); FARMER AND LAFOND (2016) – WITH MAJOR PROCESSING BY OUR WORLD IN DATA).

(Figure 1) shows the price history of PV panels in US dollars per Watt from 1975 to 2022. In the last decade alone of the study, the price of PV dropped significantly from 1.02 $/W to 0.26 $/W, which expresses a
75% decrease in price (International Renewable Energy Agency (2023); Nemet (2009); Farmer and Lafond (2016), with major processing by Our World in Data). So, now it is even more convenient to use solar power
than ever before.

Moreover, using PV and CSP systems allows for major future expansion as energy demand grows. As it relies on modular components that can be easily added or upgraded over time (De Castro & Capellán-Pérez,
2018).

VII.IV Current Awareness and Initiatives

The significant price change of PV panels made a major difference in the perceived image of solar electrifying Africa and led to the spreading of awareness on the importance of the matter, in addition to many
initiatives that helped spread awareness on the significance of electrifying SSA with solar power, numerous international organizations and governments are now committed to supporting the idea through grants,
loans, and investments, which led to many projects being created with the same goal of achieving Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7) of “ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy
for all.”.

VI. LIMITATIONS

While there exist several promising potentials, a number of challenges remain: regulatory barriers still dominate, transmission and distribution are underdeveloped, and highly skilled labor is in short supply for the
rapid deployment of solar projects.

VI.I. Regulatory Challenges

Most African countries lack strong institutional frameworks for the development and integration of solar energy projects, and their regulatory and policy frameworks have several lapses, especially on the unclear
purchase obligations for non-dispatchable renewables. Slow-moving regulatory bodies, stretching diligence processes, and challenges in accessing financing mean that project lead times can easily go up to 4-6 years
from conception to commercial operation in SSA (Benjamin, 2018).

Due to numerous administrative processes that have to be taken to install off-grid and mini-grid systems in SSA, the price of the installation is often very expensive and the process becomes more complicated
(Babayomi et al., 2023).

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 VI.II. Underdeveloped Transmission and Distribution Networks

Many regions in SSA suffer from poorly managed transmission and distribution networks that limit the capacity to link new solar projects to the power grid, thereby lowering overall energy accessibility. This
constrains the growth rate base, reduces grid adaptability, and diminishes the reliability of off-taker investments (Benjamin, 2018, p. 10).

VI.III. Shortages of Skilled Labor

While there is a significant shortage of skilled labor and technical expertise necessary for the installation, operation, and maintenance of solar energy systems, local component and module manufacturing, engineering,
procurement, and construction (EPC) work and ongoing operations and maintenance require technical training and a skilled labor force not yet present in many markets, which causes the delay and cancellation of
many projects (Benjamin, 2018, p. 10).

VII. DISUCSSION

According to the United Nations, Africa’s population is set to grow more than anywhere else in the world, from 1.2 billion in 2015 to 2.5 billion by 2050 (Hafner et al., 2018). Accordingly, energy demand is expected
to rise drastically. Ensuring that Africa's future energy mix is sustainable is crucial to avoiding negative impacts on climate change. For this reason, a more efficient contribution to promoting Africa’s sustainable
electrification should also be recognized by European and international governments as a critical part of their overall climate change reduction action. With this regard, the potential for a new global North-South
financial cooperation deserves to be outlined. Spare financial resources from Europe and North America could be invested in solar panels in SSA, which would remove any need to use fossil fuels.

VIII. CONCLUSION

Active solar design integrated with SSA provides a remarkably transformative opportunity for tackling the regional energy deficit while promoting environmental sustainability. New advances in solar technology can
provide scalable PV- and CSP-based solutions for both geographic and climatic conditions common in this region (De Castro & Capellán-Pérez, 2018). Off-grid and micro-grid systems, many of which incorporate
both types of systems, are developed to ensure that improvement in energy access happens in both urban and rural settings. While there exist several promising potentials, a number of challenges remain: regulatory
barriers still dominate, transmission and distribution are underdeveloped, and highly skilled labor is in short supply for the rapid deployment of solar projects. Addressing these issues requires coordinated efforts from
governments, international organizations, and the private sector. Investments in infrastructure, regulatory reform, and capacity building are crucial to overcoming these barriers and ensuring the successful
implementation of solar energy projects in Africa.

Africa's increasing population will proportionately increase energy demand. All these must be covered by sustainable solutions for global warming and economic development mitigation.

In the process, solar energy provides a clean, renewable, and emission-free source of energy, meeting both Goal 7 and Goal 13 of the United Nations (UN) 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 (United
Nations, 2015). By capturing most of its abundant solar energy resources, Africa can spearhead the world into a sustainable energy future and thus set an example for other regions that share similar challenges.

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