UNIT 2

NSDP
POLINOMIALS AND HOMOGRAPHIC FUNCTIONS

A look Back
During the diagnosis period we began our discussion of functions.
We defined domain, range, and independent and dependent variables, found the value
of a function, and graphed functions and we discussed linear functions and quadratic functions, which
belong to the class of polynomial functions.

Preliminaries

Monic Polynomial: Any polynomial whose main coefficient is 1 is called Monic. A polynomial with a
principal coefficient other than 1 can be expressed by means of a monic polynomial by simply taking
its principal coefficient as a common factor.
𝟐 𝟏 𝟕
For example: 5𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 7 = 5. (𝒙𝟑 − 𝟓 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓 𝒙 − 𝟓)

Monic Polynomial

Prime Polynomial: A polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1 is Prime if it cannot be written
as a product of polynomials of degree less than it. Polynomials of degree 1 and those of degree 2
without real roots are prime.

For example:
𝑝(𝑥) = −4𝑥 + 8 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 9 ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 5

Prime Polynomials

Factoring and Zeros or Roots: A polynomial is factored if it is written as the product of its leading
coefficient and prime monic polynomials.

For example:
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝟐𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 28𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 30 = 𝟐. (𝒙 − 𝟓)(𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)

prime monic polynomials

To find the roots we must know the values of x to verify that 𝑝(𝑥) = 0. And that is easy if we have the
polynomial written in its factored form, since we can apply the null product property, which says that
if 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝟎 → 𝒂 = 𝟎 𝐨 𝒃 = 𝟎. So, when applying this property to the polynomial 𝑝, we are left with:

2. (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 + 1) = 0
𝑥−5=0 o 𝑥+3=0 o 𝑥2 + 1 = 0
1
𝑥=5 𝑥 = −3 𝑥 2 = −1 Absurd. This polynomial is prime since it is
of degree 2 and without real roots.
Therefore, it is easy to see that the set of zeros, or roots, of the polynomial is 𝐶0 (𝑝) = {−3; 5}.

Degree and roots of a polynomial. Multiplicity of roots

If in the factorization of a polynomial there is more than one factor with the same root (or zero), it is
considered a multiple root (double, triple, etc.). Otherwise, it is considered a simple root.

For example:

At 𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 5)2 (𝑥 + 6), 𝑥 = 5 is a double root and 𝑥 = −6 is a single root.

4
In 𝑞(𝑥) = 8𝑥. (𝑥 + 7)3 (𝑥 − √5) , 𝑥 = 0 is a single root, 𝑥 = −7 is a triple root and 𝑥 = √5 is a
quadruple root or multiplicity 4.

A polynomial of degree n cannot have more than n real roots.

For example:

𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2 . (𝑥 − 6) it can have, at most, 3 real roots. In effect, it has two real roots, 𝑥 = 0 is
a double root and 𝑥 = 6 is a single root.

THE DEGREE OF THE POLYNOMAL COINCIDES WITH THE SUM OF THE MULTIPLICITIES OF ITS
ROOTS

Polynomic Function

A polynomial function is any function whose expression is a polynomial. The degree of the polynomial
is also the degree of the polynomial function.

The domain of all polynomial functions is the set of real numbers, ℝ, they are continuous functions
and their graph is “smooth”, that is, without peaks or vertices.

If a polynomial function has a zero, or root, of odd multiplicity (single, triple, etc.), its graph will cross
the x-axis at that value; on the other hand, if it has a zero, or root, of even multiplicity (double,
quadruple, etc.), its graph will touch the x axis at that value, but will not cross it, but rather will
“bounce”.

For example:
1
Let 𝑃(𝑥) = . (𝑥 + 3)2 (𝑥 − 4)
36
𝑥 = 4 is a simple root, the graph “crosses” the x axis at that value
𝑥 = −3 is a double root, the graph “bounces” on that value.

2
To have an approximate graph of a polynomial function, the following steps can be followed:
 The polynomial is factored
 The ordinate to the origin is marked
 The zeros, or roots, are marked, taking into account their multiplicity
 Some points are marked, choosing values of x, from both sides of the roots, and finding their
images.

For example:

To make an approximate graph of 𝑃(𝑥) = 0,25𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 , we follow the steps mentioned above.
 We factor the polynomial:
𝑃(𝑥) = 0,25𝑥 2 . (𝑥 2 − 4)
𝑃(𝑥) = 0,25𝑥 2 . (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)

 We calculate the ordinate to the origin

Since the independent term is 0, the ordinate to the origin will be at that value, that is, it will be at the
point (0; 0).

 Zeros or roots with their multiplicity

𝑥 = 0, root of multiplicity 2 (even), the graph will bounce on that value
𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = −2, roots of multiplicity 1, odd, the graph will traverse the x-axis at those values.

 We look for some points close to zeros, for this we will make a table of values.

𝑥 −1,5 −1 1 1,5
𝑦 = 𝑃(𝑥) −0,98 −0,75 −0,75 −0,98

 Draw the graph taking all of the above into account

3
Exercises:
1. Draw the graphs of the functions taking into account the characteristics indicated in each case.
a. 𝑥 = 3 it is a root of multiplicity 1 and the ordinate to the origin is at the point (0; −3).

b. 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −1 are roots of multiplicity 1 and the ordinate to the origin is at the
point (0; −2).

c. 𝐶+ (𝑓) = (−∞; 2) ∪ (2; +∞).

d. 𝐶+ (𝑓) = (−∞; 0) ∪ (3; +∞), 𝑥 = 3 it is a root of multiplicity 3 and 𝑥 = 2 it is a root of

multiplicity 4.

4
2. Look at the following graphs and give a possible formula for the function they represent, then
calculate the ordinate to the origin and verify it with the graph.
a.

b.

3. Express the following functions in factored form.

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 − 2
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6
c. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 1
d. 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6
e. 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥
f. 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 + 3

4. Draw the graph of the following polynomial functions.

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥

b. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9

5
 c. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2

d. 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 7 − 6𝑥 6 + 12𝑥 5 − 8𝑥 4

e. 𝑞(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4

f. 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 1

5. Write the formula for a polynomial function that satisfies the conditions requested in each
case.

a. The function is of degree 3

𝑥1 = −2 is root of multiplicity 1
𝑥2 = −1 is root of multiplicity 2
𝑓(0) = 4

6
 b. The function is of degree 4
𝑥1 = −5 is root of multiplicity 2
𝑥2 = −1 is root of multiplicity 2
𝑓(0) = 3

c. The function is of degree 3

𝑥1 = 3 is root of multiplicity 2
𝑥2 = 2 is root of multiplicity 1
𝑓(−1) = 2

d. The function is of degree 3

𝑥1 = 2 is root
𝑥2 = −1 is root
𝑥3 = 3 is root
𝑓(−3) = 4

6. For each of the following functions you are asked to indicate: zeros (or roots), ordinate to the
origin, set of positivity and set of negativity.

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . (𝑥 + 2)
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 3)2 . (𝑥 + 3)2
c. ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1). (𝑥 + 2). (𝑥 + 3)
d. 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 . (𝑥 − 2)3
e. 𝑞(𝑥) = 2𝑥. (𝑥 − 2)2 . (𝑥 + 3)
f. 𝑘(𝑥) = 3𝑥. (𝑥 + 2). (𝑥 − 1). (𝑥 − 3)

7. Take into account the following data and solve

 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2
 𝑥1 = 5 and 𝑥2 = −3 and they are zeros of the function

a. Find the values of parameters a and b.

b. State all the zeros of the polynomial and give their degree of multiplicity.
c. Write the function in factored form.
d. Draw an approximate graph of it.
e. Indicate: domain, ordinate to the origin, set of positivity and set of negativity.

8. Look at the following graph and highlight the correct options.

7
 a. What kind of degree of multiplicity does the root 𝑥 = −4 have?

pair odd

b. In which intervals is the function positive?

(3; +∞) (−∞; −4) (−4; −1) (2; +∞)

c. In which intervals is the function negative?

(−4; −1) (−∞; −4) (−1; 2) (−3; 0)

d. What is the degree of the function?

2 3 4 5

e. Which point belongs to the order of origin?

(−2; 0) (0; −4) (−4; 0) (0; −2)

9. Draw, in each case, a graph that complies with the indicated characteristics.

a. It has 𝑥 = 2 as a double root and 𝑥 = −1 as a root with multiplicity 1.

b. It has 𝑥 = −3 as root with multiplicity 1 and 𝑥 = −1 as root of order 4 (multiplicity 4).

The ordinate to the origin is at the point (0; −4).

c. It has three roots of order 1: 𝑥 = −2; 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 3 and the set of negativity is
𝐶− (𝑓) = (−∞; −2) ∪ (1; 3).

d. It has two roots, 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 3, and the set of positivity is 𝐶+ (𝑓) = (3; +∞).

10. Write T (true) or F (false), taking into account the following function. Justify each answer.
𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2). (𝑥 + 1)2

a. The graph of the function crosses the x-axis at the point (1; 0)

b. At 𝑥 = 2 there is a zero with multiplicity 1

c. At 𝑥 = 1 there is a zero with multiplicity 2.

d. The function g is of degree 2

e. The ordinate to the origin is at the point (0; 1).

8
 f. 𝐶+ (𝑔) = (−1; 2)

g. 𝐶+ (𝑔) = (−∞; −1) ∪ (2; +∞)

11. Answer:

Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 . (𝑥 − 𝑏), with 𝑎 < 𝑏, and whose negativity set is 𝐶− (𝑓) =
(𝑏; +∞).

a. What is the positivity set?

b. Is the value of the ordinate to the origin positive or negative?
c. Can the two zeros be positive?

12. Factor the following polynomial functions and make an approximate graph of them.

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 16𝑥
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2
c. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥
d. 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2
e. 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 − 6
f. 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 12

9
Homographic Functions
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
A function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = , where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 are real numbers, and 𝑐 ≠ 0, is called a
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
homographic function.

When dividing the first-degree polynomials using the division algorithm, we obtain the canonical form
of the homographic function, which is:

𝑎. 𝑑
𝑏− 𝑐 𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) = +
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 𝑐

𝑎. 𝑑
Here, the expression 𝑏 − is a real number and corresponds to the "remainder" of the division,
𝑎 𝑐
while is the quotient.
𝑐

Example:
2𝑥 + 3
Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
3𝑥 − 6
To find its canonical form, we perform the division between the polynomials:

3𝑥 − 6
_ 2𝑥 + 3
2𝑥 − 4 2
3
7

We rewrite the dividend using the divisor, the quotient, and the remainder:

2
2𝑥 + 3 = (3𝑥 − 6) + 7
3

Substituting this into the original function

2
(3𝑥 − 6) + 7
𝑓(𝑥) = 3
3𝑥 − 6

By distributing the denominator and simplifying, we get

2
(3𝑥 − 6) 7
𝑓(𝑥) = 3 +
3𝑥 − 6 3𝑥 − 6

Thus, the canonical form of is

7 2
𝑓(𝑥) = +
3𝑥 − 6 3

10
 𝑎. 𝑑
Here we can see that the expression 𝑏 − is effectively the remainder of the division, since that
𝑐
𝑏 = 3, 𝑎 = 2, 𝑐 = 3 and 𝑑 = −6, then the rest was:

2. (−6) (−12)
3− = 3− =3+4=7
3 3

Domain of a Homographic Function

As we know, division by zero is undefined. Therefore, all-values that nullify the denominator are
excluded from the domain. For this, the following condition must be satisfied

𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 ≠ 0
𝑑
𝑥≠−
𝑐

Thus, the domain is the set of all real numbers except those excluded values. Analytically, this is
expressed as:

𝑑
Dom(𝑓) = ℝ − {− }
𝑐

Range of a Homographic Function

The range of any homographic function is the set of all real numbers except the independent term of
𝑎
its canonical form, . Hence, the range is:
𝑐
𝑎
Range(𝑓) = ℝ − { }
𝑐
𝑎
Analysis: Why doesn't belong to the range of the function? Suppose belongs to the range, meaning
𝑐 𝑎
there exists an 𝑥 ∈ Dom(𝑓) such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎
=
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 𝑐

Solving this equation:

(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏). 𝑐 = (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑). 𝑎

𝑎𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎𝑐𝑥 + 𝑎𝑑

Expanding and grouping terms:

𝑎𝑐𝑥 − 𝑎𝑐𝑥 = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
0 = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐

𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐
𝑎
This results in a contradiction unless, which is not valid in this context. Hence, cannot belong to the
𝑐
range.
11
Graph of Homographic Functions

The graph of a homographic function is a curve called an "equilateral hyperbola," composed of two
branches located in opposite quadrants.

For example, the graph of the function is:

This hyperbola is asymptotic, meaning it has two types of asymptotes: one vertical and one horizontal.
The equations of these lines coincide with the values excluded from the domain and range of the
function, respectively.

The equations of the asymptotes are:

𝑑
 Vertical Asymptote (VA): 𝑥=−
𝑐
𝑎
 Horizontal Asymptote (HA): 𝑦=
𝑐

For the worked example:

 VA: 𝑥=2
2
 HA: 𝑦 =
3
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
To graphically represent a homographic function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = follow these steps:
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
1. Calculate the domain and range of the function.
2. Write the equations of the asymptotes.
3. Determine the y-intercept.
4. Calculate the root (or zero) of the function.
5. Graph the function.

Example:
3𝑥 − 1
Let the function 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑥+2
1. To determine the domain of the function:

12
 𝑥 + 2 ≠ 0 → 𝑥 ≠ −2

Therefore, dom(𝑔) = ℝ − {−2}

𝑎
We know the range is Range(𝑓) = ℝ − { 𝑐 }, where 𝑎 = 3 and 𝑐 = 1, so we have, Range (𝑔) = ℝ −
{3}

2. Asymptotes

VA: 𝑥 = −2.

HA: 𝑦 = 3

3. Y-Intercept

3.0 − 1 1
𝑔(0) = =−
0+2 2

Y-Intercept: (0; −0,5)

4. Root or Zero

𝑔(𝑥) = 0
3𝑥 − 1
=0
𝑥+2

1
3𝑥 − 1 = 0 → 𝑥 =
3
1
Zeros (𝑔) = { }
3
5. Graph

13
Exercises:

1. Write the following homographic functions in their canonical form and indicate their domain:

1
2𝑥 − 1 𝑥+2
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = c. 𝑘(𝑥) = 3
1 3𝑥 + 4
2𝑥 +3

1
3𝑥 + 2 𝑥+4
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = d. ℎ(𝑥) =
1 1
3𝑥 − 4 𝑥−2

2. Match each function with its corresponding asymptote equations:

𝑥+1 3 3
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = VA: 𝑥 = and HA: 𝑦 = 2
2𝑥 − 3 2

2𝑥 + 3
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = VA: 𝑥 = −2 and HA: 𝑦 = 1
𝑥+2

5 3 3 1
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = + VA: 𝑥 = and HA: 𝑦 =
4𝑥 − 6 2 2 2

−2
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 + 1 VA: 𝑥 = −2 and HA: 𝑦 = 2

3. Mark the range of each function

3𝑥 + 2
a. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥

ℝ ℝ − {3} ℝ − {2}

2𝑥 − 1
b. 𝑓(𝑥) =
4𝑥 + 3

3 1
ℝ − {1} ℝ−{ } ℝ−{ }
4 2

𝑥−3
c. 𝑓(𝑥) =
2𝑥 − 1
1
ℝ − {−3} ℝ − {3} ℝ−{ }
2

14
 −10
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = +2
𝑥+5
ℝ − {3} ℝ − {2}
ℝ

4. Write a homographic function that meets the following conditions and explain your reasoning:

a. VA: 𝑥=2 and HA: 𝑦=1

1 1
b. VA: 𝑥 = − and HA: 𝑦 = 2
4

5. Given the function, write the requested pre-images in each case.

𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐
𝒉(𝒙) =
𝟏
𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐

.
a. ℎ(𝑎) = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 =…….

b. ℎ(𝑏) = −4 ⇒ 𝑏 =…….

c. ℎ(𝑐) = 4 ⇒ 𝑐 =…….

d. ℎ(𝑑) = 1 ⇒ 𝑑 =…….

9
e. ℎ(𝑒) = 2 ⇒ 𝑒 = ……..

1
f. ℎ(𝑓) = 4 ⇒ ……..
𝑓=

6. Write T (true) or F (false), as appropriate. Justify all answers.

𝟑
𝒚=
𝟒

𝟏
𝒙=−
𝟐

15
 1 3
a. 𝑥=− es HA e. Im(𝑓) = ℝ − {− }
2 4

b. 𝑓(0) = −6 f. Zero: (0; −6)

1 1
c. Dom(𝑓) = ℝ − {− } g. C+ (𝑓) = (−∞; − ) ∪ (4; +∞)
2 2

3 1
d. 𝑦= is VA h. C− (𝑓) = (− ; 4)
4 2

7. Write the following functions in canonical form and then graph them. Additionally, indicate
their domain, range, sets of zeros, positivity, negativity, y-intercept, and provide the equations
of the asymptotes.
3𝑥 − 1 2𝑥 + 5
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = d. 𝑘(𝑥) =
2𝑥 − 3 𝑥+2
1
2𝑥 + 3 −2𝑥 + 3
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = e. 𝑞(𝑥) =
2𝑥 − 3 −𝑥 + 1

𝑥−4 −𝑥 + 3
c. ℎ(𝑥) = f. 𝑗(𝑥) =
𝑥−3 2𝑥 − 1

8. Establish the homographic function written in canonical form that corresponds to each graph.
Then, show with a point that the derived formula is correct. Additionally, provide the domain,
range, growth or decay behavior, sets of positivity and negativity, equations of the asymptotes,
and analytically determine the y-intercept and the root.

a.

16
b.

c.

d.

17