Chapter 6

Flow Through
Open Channels
CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞ Flow through open channels ☞ Hydraulic jump

☞ Prismatic channel ☞ Non-uniform flow equation
☞ Types of flow in open channels ☞ Gradually varied flow (GVF)
☞ Geometrical terminologies ☞ Channel bed slopes and flow profiles
☞ Uniform flow—Chezy formula ☞ Classification of surface profiles
☞ Energy depth relationships ☞ Gauging flumes
☞ Hydraulic gradient lines and energy gradient ☞ Non-modular flume or venturi flume
lines ☞ Modular flume or standing wave flume
☞ Specific energy ☞ Flow measurements in channel and pipes
☞ Mathematical expressions

Flow Through Open Channels and parabolic channels are examples of this type of chan-
nel. Trapezoidal and circular channels are non-exponential
Open channel is a passage through which water flows, with
channels.
its surface open to atmosphere. Pressure on the water sur-
face is atmospheric pressure. A channel with covered or
closed top also can be an open channel. In this case the Types of Flow in Open Channels
channel should not be running full and air above water sur- Depending upon the change in depth of the flow with
face should be at atmospheric pressure. respect to space and time, open channel flows can be clas-
In the case of an open channel flow, the flow happens sified as follows.
due to gravity. Bed of the channel is provided with a slope 1. Steady and unsteady flow
in the direction of flow. The longitudinal profile of the water
2. Uniform and non-uniform or varied flow
surface is the hydraulic gradient line for the open channel.
Flow of water in a river or in a man-made channel 3. Laminar flow and turbulent flow
belongs to the class of open channel flow. Flow of water in 4. Subcritical flow, critical flow and super critical flow
a large pipe, when the cross-section of it is not fully filled,
is an open channel flow. Such situations arise in irrigation Steady and Unsteady Flows
conduits, sewage pipes, etc.
When the discharge rate is constant, the flow is a steady
flow. The sectional areas at different sections may be
Prismatic Channel different. So mean velocity of flow at different sections may
A channel with constant bed slope and same cross-section also be different. Mathematically,
along the length is known a prismatic channel. ∂y ∂v ∂Q
If the area of cross-section of the channel is directly = 0, = 0 or =0
∂t ∂t ∂t
proportional to any power of depth of flow, it is called an
exponential prismatic channel. Rectangular, Triangular for a steady flow.

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Uniform and Non-uniform Wetted perimeter (P): It is the perimeter in contact with
(or Varied Flow) water at the section.
Hydraulic radius (Rh): Hydraulic radius (Rh) is defined as
When depth of flow is same at all sections, the flow is a
uniform flow. This means that velocity is same at all Water area ( A)
Rh =
sections. Water surface is parallel to bed in this case. In a non- Wetted perimeter ( P)
uniform flow, depth of section and mean velocity is different
at different sections. Water surface is not parallel to bed in B
non-uniform flows.
Mathematically, h A
∂y ∂V
= 0, = 0 in uniform flows.
∂L ∂L
Uniform flows are possible only in prismatic channels.
Depending upon variation of discharge with respect to time,
Uniform Flow—Chezy Formula
a uniform flow can be steady or unsteady. Unsteady uniform Consider a steady uniform flow of water in a channel whose
flow is rare in practice. bed has a slope, i.
∂y ∂v Let A be the area of flow section, P the wetted perimeter
Mathematically, ≠ 0, ≠ 0 for a non-uniform flow. and v the mean velocity of flow.
∂L ∂L
A non-uniform or varied flow can be: Velocity, v = C mi
1. Rapidly varied flow (RVF) w
Where, C = , a constant depending on the shape
2. Gradually varied flow (GVF) f′
and nature of channel.
A
h = constant m= = hydraulic mean depth
P
V = constant
C is a dimensioned constant having dimension L1/ 2T −1.
Value of C can be found out using following empirical
Uniform flow formulae:
1. Bazin’s formula:
157.6
C=
K
h and V 1.81 +
gradually vary m
Where, K is a constant depending on the nature of
channel surface.
Gradually varied flow
2. Kutter’s formula:
0.00155 1
23 + +
C= i N
 0.00155  N
H and V 1 +  23 + 
Vary rapidly  i  m
Where, N = Kutter’s constant.
3. Manning’s formula:
Gradually varied flow
1 1/ 6
m C=
Geometrical Terminologies N
Where, N = Roughness coefficient
Depth of flow (h): Depth of flow (h) at any section is the
vertical distance of the bed of the channel from the free sur- So, v = C mi
face of water at that section. 1 1/ 6 1/ 2 1/ 2
Top breadth (B): Top breadth (B) is the breadth of channel = m ⋅ m ⋅i
N
section at the free surface of water.
Water area (A): It is the cross-sectional area of flow 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
= m ⋅i .
perpendicular to the direction of flow. N

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 3.700 | Part III ■ Unit 8 ■ Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics

Energy Depth Relationships Hydraulic Gradient Lines

Bernoulli’s equation can be applied to a flow through an and Energy Gradient Lines
open channel. In the case of flow through an open channel,
Hydraulic gradient line is obtained by plotting sum of
the stream lines are straight and parallel or a little curved.
As per Bernoulli’s equation, total energy per unit weight,  p 
potential heads and pressure heads  Z +  as ordinates
 ρg 
p v2 against distance along the flow. Thus hydraulic gradient line
+ + z = Constant along a stream line.
ρ g 2g is the contour of free surface in an open channel. Energy
gradient line is the contour of total mechanical energy per
In the case of an open channel flow height of free surface
unit weight or the total head. So hydraulic gradient line can
represents potential head + pressure head, as shown in the
figure. v2
be plotted by subtracting velocity head from the total
2g
Free surface
head. The concept of hydraulic gradient and energy gradient
p
ρg
lines is not restricted to open channels. It can be used for all
Stream line
kinds of flows through closed or open ducts. Figure shows
the lines in the case of an open channel flow.
Bed of channel
Energy
V12 gradient line
Z
2g
horizontal datum Free
p1
surface or V22
ρg
2g
Hydraulic
So Bernoulli’s equation for an open channel flow is simpli- p2
gradient line
fied as, ρg
v2 Z1 Channel bed
Height of liquid surface above datum + = Constant Z2
2g
(neglecting the frictional losses)
Horizontal datum
If frictional losses are considered, the Bernoulli’s equa-
tion for an open channel can be written as,
Specific Energy
V12 V2
h1 + Z1 + = h2 + Z 2 + 2 + h f Total energy head at a section in an open channel flow is
2g 2g given by:
Where, hf = frictional loss, V1 and V2 are average flow veloc- v2
ities, h1 and h2 are depth of flow and Z1 and Z2 are channel E = z+h+
2g
bed heights at two section 1 and 2 as shown in the figure.
Where, z is the elevation of the bottom of the channel from
an arbitrary datum. If we take the datum as the bottom of the
Liquid surface
channel itself, the equation becomes.
Stream line v2
h1
E = h+
Channel bed 2g
h2
This represents the specific energy of the channel flow.
Thus the specific energy at any section of a channel is the
Z1
sum of the depth of flow and the kinetic head at that section.
Z2
In the case of a steady uniform flow, depth of flow and
Horizontal datum
velocity is same at all sections. Therefore specific energy
To account for non-uniformity of velocity over a cross- head is same at all sections.
section, the equation can be modified as, Considering a non-uniform flow taking place in an open
channel of rectangular cross-section of width b, at a steady
V12 rate Q.
h1 + z1 + α1
2g Discharge per unit width,

V22 Q
= h2 + Z 2 + α 2 + hf . q= = Constant.
2g b

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Velocity at the section, From the above, it follows that specific energy head first
Q becomes lesser and lesser when depth increases and reaches
v= a minimum and then it increases as the depth is increased.
bh
The depth corresponding to minimum specific energy
q is called the critical depth (hc). When the depth of flow is
=
h greater than the critical depth, the flow is called streaming
or q = vh flow or tranquil flow or sub-critical flow.
Thus the product of velocity and depth of flow is constant Critical flow: When the flow is such that specific energy
at all sections. is minimum, the flow is called a critical flow. Therefore at
critical flow, depth of flow is equal to the critical depth (hc).
v2 The velocity of flow at critical depth is called the critical
E = h+
2g velocity.
2
1 q
= h+   Mathematical Expressions
2g  h 
We know that,
q2 1
= h+ × K
2 g h2 E = h+
h2
K
= h+ . q2
h2 Where, K=
2g
q2
Where, K= . E is minimum when,
2g
dE
Thus, for a given value of q specific energy head is a func- =0
dh
tion of depth as follows.
 K
E = E1 + E2 d h + 2 
dE  h 
Here, E1 = h =
dh dh
K  q2  1
and E2 = 2 =   2 2K
h  2g  h 1− 3
h
Where \ E is minimum when,
E1 = Static energy head
E2 = Kinetic energy head 2K
1− =0
If we plot static energy head, kinetic energy head and spe- h3
cific energy head against depth flow, the graph obtained is 2K
or =1
as follows: h3
1/ 3
3  q2 
E2 \     h = 2K =  
 g 
1/ 3
E  q2 
or hc =  
 g 
Depth of flow h →

E1
Q Q q
Velocity = = =
A bh h
q q
hc \ Vc = =
hc  q 2 1/ 3
 
 g 
45° Emin = q1/ 3 g1/ 3
Static energy head E1 → or Vc3 = qg = Vchcg
Kinetic energy head E2 →
Specific energy head E → or Vc = ghc

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Vc Maximum Flow Rate for a Given

or =1
ghc Specific Energy
2
q2 1 Q 1
Vc E = h+ = h+ 
But = Froude number at critical flow 2 g h2  b  2 gh 2
ghc
\ Q2 = (E - h)2gb2h2
\ For critical flow, Froude number is 1.
Specific head is minimum when depth of flow is critical. ⇒ Q = bh 2 g ( E − h ).
2
q The above expression gives flow rate through a uniform rec-
\ Emin = hc +
2 ghc2 tangular channel of width b and depth h. For maximum flow
dQ
rate, =0
1 q2 dh
= hc + ×
2hc2 g
dQ  h 
\ = 2g b  E − h − =0
1  q2  dh  2 E − h 
= hc + 2 × hc3 ∵ = hc3 
2hc  g  h
⇒ (E - h) =
hc 2
= hc + ⇒ 2E - 2h = h
2
3 2
hc ⇒h= E
= 3
2
2
3 or hopt = E.
\ Emin = hc 3
2
The expression is as that of critical depth hc. So critical
2 2
or hc = Emin
3 depth hc = E and Fr = 1 are also conditions for maximum
3
When the depth of flow is less than the critical depth, the flow rate for a given specific energy.
flow is super critical (or shooting or torrential or rapid 2 2
flow). Froude number is greater than 1 in this case. For a From the above, Qmax = bE gE.
3 3
sub-critical flow, Froude number is less than 1.

V
Hydraulic Jump
Depth of Flow Froude Number Fr =
gh In an open channel when rapidly flowing stream suddenly
h = hc Fr = 1
changes to slowly flowing stream a rise or jump in the ele-
vation of liquid surface takes place. This phenomenon is
h > hc Fr < 1
known as hydraulic jump or standing wave. In this process,
h < hc Fr > 1
kinetic energy of the rapidly flowing stream is converted to
potential energy.
qmax Due to this there is a loss of kinetic energy. Hydraulic jump
E = constant
occurs at the toe of spillways or below a sluice gate where
velocity is very high.
Sub critical For a hydraulic jump to occur the depth of flow should be
flow less than the critical depth or the flow should be a shooting flow
(Fr < 1)
or rapid flow.
Depth (h) →

Critical flow (Fr = 1)

Super critical flow

(Fr > 1) h2 Streaming
flow
Rapid flow
v1 h1 v2

Discharge (q)

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−h1 + h1 1 + 8( Fr1 ) 2
\ h2 =
D 2
 2 
I h1  h2  1 + 8( Fr1 ) − 1
1 + 8( Fr1 ) 2 − 1 or
Depth of flow →

= = .
2  h1 2

dc Loss of Specific Energy Due

to Hydraulic Jump
H DEloss = E1 - E2
1 2 2
O = (h1 − h2 ) + ( v − v2 )
2g 1
G

Q 2 ( h2 − h1 )
Specific energy head → 2 2

Referring to the figures above, corresponding to specific = (h1 − h2 ) +

2 gb 2 h12 h22
energy head OG, depth of flow before the jump is d1 = GH
and after the jump is d2 = GI. Q2 h +h
But = 1 2
gb 2 h1h2 2
Depth after Hydraulic Jump
Consider a rectangular channel through which discharge is (h1 + h2 ) 2 (h2 − h1 )
\ ∆Eloss = (h1 − h2 ) +
Q = bh1v1 = bh2v2. 4 h1h2
Applying momentum equation,
 (h + h )2 
rQ(v2 - v1) = p1A1 - p2A2 = (h2 − h1 )  1 2 − 1
 4h1h2 
 h2 h2 
⇒ ρ b ( h2 v22 − h1v12 ) = ρ bg  1 − 2  (h2 − h1 )3
2 2 i.e., ∆Eloss =
4h1h2
[∵ A1 = b1h1 A2 = b2h2
Height of standing wave of hydraulic jump = h2 - h1.
h1 h
p1 = ρ g p = ρg 2 Length of hydraulic jump: Exact points of commence-
2 2 2
ment and end of the jump are not well defined. For purposes
and Q = bh1v1 = bh2 v2 ] of analysis, it may be assumed that length of hydraulic jump
Q2  1 1  g 2 is 5 to 7 times the height of the jump.
 −  = ( h − h2 )
2
⇒
b 2  h2 h1  2 1 Relation between pre-jump and post-jump Froude
numbers: It can be shown that,
Q2 1 g
⇒ = (h1 + h2 ) 3/ 2
b 2 h1h2 2  2 
Fr2 = Fr1   .
2 Q2  1 + 8 Fr12 − 1 
⇒ h2(h1 + h2) =
gh1 b 2
2 Q2 For a hydraulic jump to occur Fr1 should be greater than 1
⇒ h22 + h1h2 − =0 and Fr2 should be less than 1.
gh1 b 2
 8Q 2  1 Non-uniform Flow Equation
⇒ h2 =  −h1 + h12 + ×
 gh1b 2  2
Total energy line
iδ I
−h1 h 2 2q 2 Q
= + 1 + where q = .
2 4 gh1 b

Depth as a Function of Froude Number

(1) (2)
Q2 h 2V 2 h
v
2
= 1 1 h + δh
gh1b gh1
iδ I v + δv
= ( Fr1 ) 2 h12 i

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Consider a steady uniform flow through a channel, dh

i = Bed slope. is also called slope of the free water surface.
dl
j = Slope of total energy line. dh
At sections (1) and (2), a distance dl apart h and (h + dh) When = 0, h is constant; so free water surface is
dl
are depths v and (v + dv) are velocities at the sections. parallel to the channel bed.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation,
dh
2 When > 0, depth of water increases in the direc-
= ( h + δ h ) + ( v + δ v ) + jδ l
v2 dl
(idl + h) +
2g 2g tion of flow and the profile of water is called backwater
Ignoring quantities of second order, it can be shown that, curve.
dh
δh i− j When, < 0, depth of water decreases in the direction
= dl
δl v2 of flow and the profile is called drop down curve.
1−
gh
i− j
= 2
1 − ( Fr )
Where, Fr = Froude number
Since j is the rate of fall of energy head, Back water curve Drop down curve

v = C mj
v2 Channel Bed Slopes
or j=
mc 2 and Flow Profiles
v2 Let h0 = normal depth of flow, h = actual depth of flow and
i−
δh mc 2 hc = critical depth of flow.
So, =
δl v2
1− Zone1
gd
Normal depth line
This is called non-uniform flow equation.
Zone2
Q h0
By substituting v = , the equation becomes Critical depth line
A
Zone3 hc
v2
i− 2 Channel bed
δh mc
=
δl bQ 2
1− 3 The space above the channel bed is divided into three zones.
gA
Zone 1 is the space above the critical and normal depth
The above equation holds good for channels of all sections line.
approximately. Zone 2 is the space between normal depth line and criti-
cal depth line.
Gradually Varied Flow (GVF) Zone 3 is the space below normal depth line and critical
When the depth changes gradually over a long distance. The depth line.
flow is called a gradually varied flow. Based on the relative values of hc and h0 channel bed
A gradually varied flow can occur due to the following slopes are classified as follows.
reasons: h0 > hc: Mild slope or M-slope.
h0 = hc: Critical slope or C-slope.
1. Change in shape and size of the channel cross- h0 < hc: Steep slope or S-slope.
section Bed slope = 0, then
2. Change in slope of the channel h0 = ∞, horizontal slope or H-slope.
3. Presence of obstruction Bed slope negative, then
4. Change in frictional forces at the boundaries. h0 = ∞, adverse slope or A-slope
Gradually varied flow is a case of non-uniform flow. So
same equation can be applied.
Classification of Surface
Profiles
i.e.,    dh = i − j We have seen that the rate of change of depth along a
dl 1 − ( Fr ) 2
channel is,

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 i Mild Slope Profiles

i 1 − 
δh i− j i M1 profiles:
= =  → ( A)
(1) h > h0 > hc
δl v2  v2 
1− 1−
gd  gd  δ h +ve
= = + ve
Where δ L +ve
h0 = Normal depth of flow Back water curve, sub-critical.
h = Actual depth of flow M2 profile:
Discharge per unit width, h0 > h > hc
h ×1 δ h −ve
q = 0 m02 / 3i1/ 2 = = −ve
N δ L +ve
h ×1 2 / 3 1/ 2 Draw down curve, sub-critical.
= m j
N M3 profile:
When a channel is very wide, h0 > hc > h
m0 = h0 and m = h
δ h −ve
So the above relation can be written as = = +ve
δ L −ve
h05 / 3i1/ 2 = h5 / 3 j1/ 2 Back water curve, sub-critical
10 / 3
j  h0  Critical Slope Profiles
or = 
i  h h0 = hc
10 / 3  C1 profile:
 j  h 
\ i 1 −  = i 1 −  0   h > hc
 i    h   δ h +ve
= = +ve
v2 q2 δ L +ve
1− = 1− 3
g gh Back water curve, sub-critical.
3
 q2 C2 profile:
 hc  3
= 1 −   ∵ = hc  There is no C2 profile.
 h  g 
C3 profile:
Therefore Eq. (1) becomes, h < hc
  h0 10 / 3  δ h −ve
1 −    = = +ve
δh h δ L −ve
=i   3 
δl  h  Backwater curve, sub-critical.
 1 −  c  
  h   Steep Slope Profiles
If Chezy’s formula is adopted, the expression becomes, S1 profile:
h > hc > h0
  h0 3 
1 −    δ h +ve
dh h = = + ve
= i   3  δ L +ve
dl  h 
1 −  c   Back water curve, sub-critical.
  h   S2 profile:
hc > h > h0
From the above, it follows that change of depth along the
channel depends upon: δ h +ve
= = −ve
δ L −ve
1. Slope of the channel bed Draw down curve, super critical.
2. Ratio of normal depth h0 to actual depth h. S3 profile:
3. Ratio of critical depth hc to actual depth h. hc > h0 > h
Depending upon the relative magnitudes of the actual depth δ h −ve
= = +ve
of flow (h), normal depth of flow (h0) and critical depth of δ L −ve
flow (hc) the slope profiles can be classified as follows. Backwater curve, super critical.

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Horizontal Slope Profile v = C mi

h0 does not exist.
1
i = 0 (for analysis it is assumed that i is very small) = 60 1.2 ×
There is no H1 profile. 5000
H2 profile: = 0.9295 m/s
h0 > h > hc Discharge, Q = Av
= bhv
∂q = 6 × 2 × 0.9295
=0
∂x = 11.154 m3/s.
Draw down curve, sub-critical.
H3 profile: Example 2
h0 >hc > h A channel of trapezoidal cross-section discharges 50 m3/s
δ h −ve of water at a velocity of 2 m/s. Side slopes of the channel are
= = +ve
δ L −ve 1 vertical to 1 horizontal and bed width is 10 times the depth
of water. Determine the value of bed slope.
Back water curve, super critical.
(Take Mannings constant, N = 0.018)
Adverse Slope Profile
Solution
h0 does not exist.
Q = 50 m3/s
There is no A1 profile.
v = 2 m/s
A2 profile:
b = 10 hours
h0 > h > hc 1
δ h −ve Side slope, n = =1
= = −ve 1
δ L +ve N = 0.018
Draw down curve, subcritical Area of flow section,
A3 profile: Q 50
A= = = 25 m2
h0 > hc > h v 2
δ h −ve A = (b + nh)h
= = +ve \ 25 = (10 h + 1 h)h = 11 h2
δ L −ve
⇒ h = 1.5076 m
Back water curve, super critical. \ b = 1.5076 × 10 = 15.076 m
Wetted perimeter,
SOLVED EXAMPLES
P = b + 2h n 2 + 1
Example 1 = 15.076 + 2 × 1.5076 12 + 1
A rectangular channel of 6 m width and 2 m depth is laid = 19.34 m
at a slope of 1 in 5000. If Chezy’s constant is 60 m1/2/s, dis- Hydraulic mean depth,
charge through the channel is ______. A 25
M= = = 1.293 m
P 19.34
Solution
b=6m 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V= m i
h=2m N
1
i= 1
5000 \ 2= × 1.2932 / 3 i1/ 2
0.018
C = 60
⇒ i = 6.66 × 10-3 = 0.00666.
Hydraulic mean depth,
A bh Example 3
m= =
P b + 2h Water flows through a rectangular channel of 10 m width
6× 2 at a velocity of 1.8 m/s. If discharge is 18 m3/s, determine
= (i) specific energy head.
6 + 2× 2
(ii) critical depth.
= 1.2 m (iii) critical velocity.
Velocity of flow, (iv) minimum value of specific energy head.

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Solution Hydraulic mean depth,

Q = 18 m3/s A 13.2
b = 10 m m= =
P 10.4
v = 1.8 m/s = 1.2692 m
Q 18 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
Area of flow, A= = = 10 m 2 v1 = m i
v 1.8 N
Depth of flow, 1
= × 1.26922 / 3 × 0.0011/ 2
A 10 0.018
h= = =1 m
b 10 = 2.0594 m/s
(i) Specific energy head, V12
Specific energy, E1 = h1 +
v2 2g
E = h+
2g
(2.0594) 2
1.82 = 2.2 +
= 1+ 2 × 9.8
2 × 9.81 = 2.416 m
= 1.165 m Since, bed level is not changed,
Q 18 E2 = E1 = 2.416 m
(ii) q = =
b 10 Since, at the reduced section critical flow is formed.
= 1.8 m3/s per m width
E2 = Ec = 2.416 m.
Critical depth,
2
 q2 
1/ 3 h2 = hc = Ec
hc =   3
 g  2
1/ 3
= × 2.416 = 1.61 m
 1.82  3
=   θ
 9.81  v2 = vc =
tan × (0.065)5 / 2
= 0.691 m. 2
(iii) Critical velocity, = 9.81× 1.61
= 3.975 m/s
vc = ghc Q Av
= = 11
= 9.81× 0.691 A2 B2 h2
= 2.604 m/s. 13.2 × 2.0594
(iv) Minimum specific energy, 3.975 =
B2 × 1.61
3
Emin = hc ⇒ B2 = 4.2477 m.
2
3
= × 0.691 Example 5
2
= 1.0365 m. Water flows through a rectangular channel of uniform cross-
section. At inlet the velocity is 6.5 m/s and depth is 65 cm.
Example 4 Determine
A 6 m wide rectangular channel with bed slope 0.001 con-
(i) whether the flow is subcritical or super critical.
veys water at a depth of 2.2 m. Determine the width to be
(ii) specific head at critical condition.
provided in the transition to obtain critical depth.
(Take mannings coefficient N = 0.018)
Solution
Solution (i) v1 = 6.5 m/s
B1 = 6 m h1 = 65 cm = 0.65 m
h1 = 2.2 m Froude number,
N = 0.018
v1 6.5
i = 0.001 Fr1 = =
A1 = B1h1 = 6 × 2.2 gh1 9.81× 0.65
= 13.2 m2 = 2.574
P = 6 + 2 × 2.2 = 10.4 m Since, Fr1 > 1 the flow is super critical.

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(ii) Since the channel is of uniform cross-section. Solution

v1h1 = vchc Width of channel b = 4 m
= 6.5 × 0.65 Specific energy E = 3.5 Nm/N
= 4.225 Discharge will be maximum when the depth of flow is
At critical condition, critical,
Vc 2
Frc = 1 = hc = E
ghc 3
2
⇒ Vc = ghc 2 7
= × 3.5 = m
3 3
⇒ Vc3 = ghc vc
= 9.81 × 4.225 vc = ghc
= 41.44725 7
⇒ Vc = 3.46 m/s = 9.81×
3
4.225
hc = = 4.784 m/s
Vc Qmax = Vc × A
4.225 7
= = 4.784 × 4 ×
3.96 3
= 1.221 m = 44.65 m3/s.
Specific energy,
3 Example 8
Ec = hc Depth and velocity of a stream of water are 90 cm and 6
2
3 m/s respectively. Is hydraulic jump possible in this case? If
= × 1.221 so determine values of depth, velocity and loss of specific
2
= 1.8316 m. energy after the jump.
Solution
Example 6
Froude number,
A trapezoidal channel has bottom width = 6 m and side
slope = 2, horrizontal to 1 vertical. When depth of water is v1
Fr1 =
1 m, the flow rate is 10.4 m3/s. Specific energy of the flow gh1
is ______. 6
=
Solution 9.81× 0.9
= 2.0193
Cross-sectional area of flow,
Since Fr1 > 1 , hydraulic jump is possible.
1 
A = 6 × 1 + 2 ×  × 2 × 1 h1
2  h2 = ( 1 + 8 Fr12 − 1)
2
= 6 + 2 = 8 m2
0.9 
Q 10.4 = 1 + 8 × (2.0193) 2 − 1
v= = = 1.3 m/s 2  
A 8 = 0.45 [5.798 - 1]
Specific energy, = 2.1592 m
v2h2 = v1h1
v2
E = h+ v2 × 2.1592 = 6 × 0.9
2g ⇒ v2 = 2.5009 m/s
(1.3) 2 v2
= 1+ E1 = h1 + 1
2 × 9.81 2g
= 1.086 m. 62
= 0.9 +
Example 7 2 × 9.81
= 2.735 m
Specific energy of a flow in a 4 m wide rectangular chan-
nel is 3.5 Nm/N. Value of maximum possible discharge (in v22
E2 = h2 +
m3/s) is ______. 2g

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 Chapter 6 ■ Flow Through Open Channels | 3.709

(2.5009) 2 0.374 
= 2.1592 + = 1 + 8(2.193) 2 − 1
2 × 9.81 2  
= 2.478 m = 0.9879 m
Loss of specific energy, Height of jump = h2 – h1
E1 - E2 = 2.735 - 2.478 = 0.9879 - 0.374
= 0.257 m of water. = 0.6139 m
Head loss in the jump,
Example 9
A rectangular channel 6 m wide conveys water at 12 m3/s at (h2 − h1 )
hj =
a depth of 30 cm. If a hydraulic jump occurs, determine the 4h1h2
depth of flow after the jump.
(0.6139)3
=
Solution 4 × 0.374 × 0.9879
Q = 12 m3/s = 0.15655 m
b=6m Rate of dissipation of energy in the jump
h1 = 30 cm = 0.3 m = rgQhj
 8Q 2  1 = 9810 × 5.5 × 0.15655 W
h2 =  −h1 + h12 + × = 8446.6 W
 gh1b 2  2 = 8.45 kW.
 −0.3 8 × (12) 2  1 Example 11
=  + (0.3) 2 + ×
 2 9.81× 0.3 × 62  2 In a rectangular channel of 12 m width and 3.7 m depth,
water is flowing with a velocity of 1.2 m/s. The channel has
1 a bed slope of 1 in 4000. If the flow of water through the
= [−0.15 + 3.311] ×
2 channel is regulated in such a way that slope of the energy
= 1.58 m. line is 0.00004, rate of change of depth of water in the chan-
nel is ______.
Example 10
A sluice spans the entry of a 3.5 m wide rectangular channel Solution
and admits 5.5 m3/s of water with a uniform velocity of 4.2 Width of channel,
m/s. Assuming that conditions for a hydraulic jump exist, b = 12 m
determine the depth of flow, height of jump after the jump Depth of channel,
and rate of dissipation of energy in the jump. h = 3.7 m
Velocity of flow,
Solution V = 1.2 m/s
Q = V1 × bh1 1
Q Bed slope, i=
or h1 = 4000
V1 b = 0.00025
5.5 Slope of energy line j = 0.00004
= Rate of change of depth of water,
4.2 × 3.5
= 0.374 m dh i− j i− j
= =
Froude number, dl 1 − ( Fr ) 2  V 2 
1 − 
V  gh 
Fr1 =
gh1 0.00025 − 0.00004 0.00021
= =
4.2 1.22 0.9603
= 1−
9.81× 0.374 9.81× 3.7
= 0.0002187.
= 2.193
For hydraulic jump to occur, depth of flow after jump,
Gauging Flumes
h
h2 = 1  1 + 8( Fr1 ) 2 − 1 Gauging flume is used for measuring discharge in a channel.
2  A zone with restricted width is provided in a gauging flume

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for this purpose. There are two types of gauging flumes. wave is formed in the flume. Depth of flow at the throat
These are: region will become less than the critical depth. Hence, at
some section in the throat the depth flow will be equal to
1. Non-modular flume or venturi flume
critical depth.
2. Modular flume or standing wave flume. Considering upstream section and a throat section.

Non-modular Flume H+
V2
= h+
v2
= H1
2g 2g
or Venturi Flume
V2 v2 \ v=
Total energy line
2 g ( H1 − h)
2g 2g

Discharge, Q = av = bhv = bh 2 g ( H1 − h) → (1)

(1)
H
h From the above, maximum discharge occur when,
2
Elevation h = H1.
3
For this condition velocity, v = gh
B b From the above, maximum discharge occur when depth
of flow at throat is equal to the critical depth.
Plan 2
Substituting h = H1 in Eq. (1), we get
3
B, H and V are normal breadth, depth of flow and velocity at
entrance to the flume. 3/ 2
2  V2 
b, h and v are breadth, depth of flow and velocity at the Q= 2 gb H13/ 2 = 1.705b  H +  .
throat. 3 3  2g 
Applying continuity equation, To ensure occurrence of maximum discharge at the throat,
AV = av throat section is considerably reduced. Generally a hump
Where, A = BH and a = bh also is provided at the throat to further reduce the flow
a section.
\ V = v Figure shows modular flume provided with a hump.
A
Applying Bernoulli’s equation,
V2 v2 V H
H+ = h+ hc
2g 2g
v2 − V 2
or = H −h Elevation
2g
 a2 
or v 2 1 − 2  = 2 g ( H − h)
 A 
A Plan
\ v = 2 g ( H − h)
A2 − a 2
Discharge in this case also is given by,
Aa
Discharge, Q = av = 2 g ( H − h) 3/ 2
A2 − a 2  V2 
Q = 1.705b  H + 
 2g 
Aa
Actual discharge = Cd 2 g ( H − h)
− a2 A2 But H is measured from the top of hump.
Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge.
Example 12
Modular Flume or Standing A rectangular channel of width 4 m have a discharge of 12
m3/s through it. Depth of flow is 2 m. If the width of channel
Wave Flume is reduced 2 m and bed level is lowered by 0.8 m, difference
Modular flume or standing wave flume is similar to non- of water level between upstream and downstream sections
modular flume. But in this case hydraulic jump or standing is _______ (loss of energy may be ignored).

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 Chapter 6 ■ Flow Through Open Channels | 3.711

Solution Aa
4 m width Discharge = × 2g ( H − h)
A − a2
2
2 m width
V H1 = 2 m 2 × 0.9
H2 = × 2 × 9.81(1 − 0.9)
V2 1.786
= 1.4117 m3/s.
0.8 m Elevation
(ii) The flume is a standing wave flume.
Velocity at upstream section Discharge, Q = 1.4117 m3/s
Velocity at upstream section, Discharge/unit width at throat
1.4117
Q qc = = 1.4117 m3 /s per m
V1 = 7
B1 H1
Depth of flow at throat,
12
= = 1.5 m/s
4× 2 qc2
Velocity at downstream section, hc = 3
g
Q
V2 = 1.4117 2
B2 H 2 = 3

12 6 9.81
= = = 0.58786 m
2 × H2 H2
3
Applying Bernoulli’s equation, H1 = × hc
2
V12 V2
0.8 + 2 + = H2 + 2 3
2g 2g = × 0.58786
2
(1.5) 2 = 0.8818 m
⇒ 2.8 +
2 × 9.81 V2
2
H+
\ = 0.8818
 6  1 2g
= H2 +   ×
 H 2  2 × 9.81 V2
Ignoring ,
1.83486 2g
⇒ H2 + = 2.9147
H 22 H = 0.8818 m
⇒ H2 = 2.654 m
\ Water level difference
H
= 0.8 + 2 - 2.654
hc
= 0.146 m.
0.3
Example 13
A rectangular channel with 2 m width is narrowed to 1 m
width to form a throat region. The depths of flow at the
Q
upstream and throat section are 1 m and 0.9 m respectively. V=
The channel bed is horizontal. B( H + 0.3)
(i) Neglecting losses determine discharge through the
channel 1.4117
=
(ii) If a hump of 0.3 m height is provided at the throat, so 2(1 + 0.3)
that a standing wave is produced, determine the depth = 0.5430 m/s
of flow at the upstream side for the same discharge.
V2 0.5432
Solution =
2g 2 × 9.51
(i) A = BH = 2 × 1 = 2 m2
= 0.015 m
a = bh = 1 × 0.9 = 0.9 m2
\ More correct value of
A2 − a 2 = 22 − 0.92 H = 0.8818 - 0.015
= 1.786 m2 = 0.8668

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1.4117 3. According to width of crest:

V=
2(0.8668 + 0.3) (a) Narrow crested weir.
= 0.6049 m/s (b) Broad crested weir.
V2 4. According to nature of crest:
= 0.01865 m
2g (a) Sharp crested weir
Still more correct value of (b) Ogee weir.
H = 0.8818 - 0.01865
Rectangular Notch
= 0.86315 m
\ Depth of flow at upstream
= 0.86315 + 0.3
= 1.16315 m. h
H
Flow Measurements in Channel dh
and Pipes L
Notches and weirs are used for flow measurements in
Velocity of water flowing through the elemental strip at a
channels. orificemeters, venturimeters, etc., are used for
flow measurement in pipes. depth h from the water surface = 2gh.
Discharge through the elemental strip dQ = Ldh 2gh.
Notches and Weirs Total discharge (theoretical)
A notch is an opening provided on the side wall of a tank H
or vessel such that liquid surface is below the top edge of = ∫L 2 gh dh ⋅

the opening. (In the case of an orifice, the water surface is 0

above the upper edge). It is used to measure the rate of flow 2
(or discharge) from a tank or through a small channel. It is = L 2 g H 3/ 2 .
3
generally made of metallic plate.
Actual discharge,
A weir is a regular obstruction in an open stream over
which the flow takes place. A weir is a notch constructed in 2
L 2 g H 3/ 2 .
Q = Cd
large scale. It is made of masonry or concrete. Conditions of 3
flow are generally same as in the case of a notch. Therefore Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge.
notch is sometimes called as a weir and vice versa.
Triangular Notch or V-notch
Weirs are used to measure flow in large channels, rivers
or streams. In a dam the surplus quantity of water is dis-
charged through a weir.
h
The sheet of water discharged through a notch or weir is
called nappe or vein. The upper surface of the notch or weir dh
H
over which water flows is called crest or sill.
θ
Classification
Depending upon the shape, important types of notches are: Width of notch at any depth h from water surface,
1. Rectangular notch θ
= 2(H - h) tan
2. Triangular notch or V-notch 2
3. Trapezoidal notch Where, q = Angle of the notch.
4. Stepped notch Theoretical discharge through the elemental strip at a
θ
Main types of weirs are: depth h = 2(H - h) tan dh 2 gh .
2
1. According to shape: Actual total discharge,
(a) Rectangular weir H
θ
(b) Cippoletti weir Q = Cd 2( H − h) tan
2
2g ∫ h dh
0
2. According to nature of discharge:
(a) Ordinary weir 8 θ
= Cd 2 g tan H 5 / 2 .
(b) Submerged or drowned weir. 15 2

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 Chapter 6 ■ Flow Through Open Channels | 3.713

When q = 90°, Discharge over a weir is increased due to velocity of

8 approach.
Q = Cd 2 g H 5/ 2 Let Va be the velocity of approach. The head correspond-
15
Taking Cd = 0.6, ing to this,
Va2
Q = 1.417 H5/2, where g = 9.81. ha =
2g
Trapezoidal Notch When there is a velocity of approach, discharge is given by
2 3/ 2
Q= Cd L 2 g ( H + ha ) − ha3/ 2 
3  
θ H θ (H + ha) is called still water head.

Discharge through a trapezoidal notch can be considered as

Empirical Formulae
the sum of a rectangular notch of length L and a triangular Francis formula, Bazin’s formula and Rehbock formula are
notch with angle of notch = 2q. 3 important formulae used in measurement of discharge
over weirs.
2 8
\ Q= Cd L 2 g H 3/ 2 + Cd 2 g tan θ ⋅ H 5 / 2 When the length of the weir is less than the length of the
3 15 stream, effective length of weir is less than the actual length.
2 8  This is due to the effect of end contraction.
= Cd 2 g H 3/ 2  L + tan θ H  .
3 15  When crest length is equal to width of the channel, the weir
is called a suppressed weir.
Stepped Notch

Francis Formula
(1) H1
H2
H3 (2)

(3)
L3

L2

L1 0.1 H L − 0.2 H 0.1 H

A stepped notch can be considered as a combination of two L

or more rectangular notches. For the notch with 3 steps as
shown in the figure, Francis on the basis of his experiments found that the crest
Discharge Q = Discharge Q1 through the top rectangular length is to be reduced by 0.1 H for an end contraction, to
portion + Discharge Q2 through the middle rectangular portion get the effective head.
+ Discharge Q3 through the bottom rectangular portion. For a rectangular weir, with two end contractions the
That is, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 effective length of the weir
2 = L - 2 × 0.1 H = L - 0.2 H
Where, Q1 = Cd L1 2 g H13/ 2
3 2
\ Q= Cd ( L − 0.2 H ) 2 g H 3/ 2
2 3
Q2 = Cd L2 2 g  H13/ 2 − H13/ 2 
3 If there are obstacles in the stream path, there can be more
2 than 2 end contractions.
Q3 = Cd L3 2 g  H 33/ 2 − H 23/ 2 
3 2
\ Q= Cd ( L − n × 0.1 H ) 2 g H 3/ 2
3
Velocity of Approach
When, Cd = 0.623, g = 9.81 m/s2 and end contractions are
The initial velocity of a stream approaching a weir is called
two, then
velocity of approach. A weir provided across a river is hav-
ing a velocity of approach. Q. = 1.84 (L - 0.2 H) H3/2

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When end contractions are suppressed, then So avoiding end contraction,

Q = 1.84 L H3/2 2
Q= Cd L 2 g H 3 / 2 .
When velocity of approach is considered, 3

Q = 1.84(L - n × 0.1 (H + ha)) Submerged Weir

In the case of a submerged weir, water level on the down-
× [( H + ha )3/ 2 − ha3/ 2 ].
stream side also is above the crest of the weir.
Q1
Bazin’s Formula
According to Bazin, discharge over a rectangular weir is H1
Q2 H2
given by:
Q = mL 2 g H 3/ 2
2 0.003
Where, m = Cd = 0.405 +
3 H
When velocity of approach is considered, the formula Let H1 and H2 be the heights of water level above crest
becomes, level at upstream and downstream respectively. The
 0.003  3/ 2 total discharge consists of two parts Q1 and Q2 where Q1
Q =  0.405 +  L 2 g H1
 H 1  2
= Discharge due to a weir action = Cd L 2 g ( H1 − H 2 )3/ 2
Where 3 1
V2 And Q2 = discharge through a drowned orifice of area
H1 = H + α a
2g (L × H2) and head (H1 - H2) = Cd 2 LH 2 2 g ( H1 − H 2 ).
Va = Mean velocity of approach
a = Coefficient equal to 1.6 Broad Crested Weir
Rehbock Formula When the crest of the weir is very broad, the flow can be
compared to a flow in a channel
As per Rehbock formula, discharge without velocity of
approach.
 H 
Q = 1.782 + 0.24 e  LH e3/ 2 H
 z  h v
Where
He = H + 0.0011 m B
z = Height of the crest above the bed of the stream.

Cippoletti Weir
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem,
v2
H = h+
2g
θ θ
\ v= 2g ( H − h)
Theoretical discharge = Area × Velocity
1
Cippoletti weir is a trapezoidal weir where tan q = or q
4 = Lh 2 g ( H − h)
= 14 ° 2′.
It can be seen that due to two end contractions, the dis- Actual discharge
2 Q = Cd Lh 2 g ( H − h)
charge over a rectangular weir is reduced by Cd 2 g H 5 / 2
15
when Francis formula is applied. This loss is compensated by = Cd L 2 g Hh 2 − h3
providing slopes of 14°2′ in Cippoletti weir or discharge
through the side portions of the Cippoletti weir Discharge is maximum when (Hh2 – h3) is maximum.
2 d ( Hh 2 − h3 )
= Cd 2 g H 5 / 2 or =0
15 dh

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 Chapter 6 ■ Flow Through Open Channels | 3.715

That is, 2Hh - 3h2 = 0 900 mm

2
or h= H
3
500 mm
2  2  α 350 mm α
or Qmax = Cd L H 2 g  H − H 
3  3 
2 H 400 mm
= Cd L H 2 g
3 3 If head of water over the horizontal crest is 350 mm; dis-
2 charge over the weir is ______. (Assume Cd = 0.6)
= 2 gCd LH 3/ 2
3 3
Solution
= 1.705 Cd LH 3/ 2 .
(900 − 400)
Narrow Crested Weir tan a = = 0.5
2(500)
In the case of narrow crested weir 2B < H and discharge is
q = 2a
given by rectangular notch formula,
L = 400 mm = 0.4 m
2 H = 350 mm = 0.35 m
Q= Cd L 2 g H 3 / 2 .
3 Cd = 0.6
In the case of a sharp crested weir, the nappe rises slightly at
the lower surface as it leaves the crest. Discharge,
A maximum rise of 0.115 H is reached, where H is the
head over the crest. 2 8 θ
Q= Cd L 2 g H 3/ 2 ++ Cd 2 g tan H 5 / 2
3 15 2
H 2 8 
0.115H = Cd 2 g  LH 3/ 2 + tan α H 5 / 2 
3 15 
Sharp 2 8 
Crested = 0.6 × 4.429  × 0.4 × 0.353/ 2 + × (0.5) × 0.355 / 2 
weir 3 15 
= 2.6574[0.0552 + 0.0193]
= 0.198 m3/s.

Ventilation holes
Example 15
The nappe should be clear and springing up for the derived Discharge over a rectangular notch is 0.15 m3/s when the
equations to be valid. In the case of a suppressed nappe there water level is 260 mm above the sill. If coefficient of dis-
is tendency of vacuum generation under the nappe and the charge is 0.62, length of the notch (in m) is ______.
nappe become depressed or clinging to the wall of the weir.
To avoid this ventilation or aeration holes are provided. Solution
2
Q= Cd L 2 g H 3 / 2
Ogee Weir 3
If the space under the free springing up nappe of a sharp
2
crested weir is filled with masonry or concrete, it becomes 0.15 = × 0.62 × L × 4.429 × 0.261.5
an ogee weir. Thus the surface of an ogee weir has the pro- 3
file of the bottom of a free nappe. The discharge is same as ⇒ L = 0.618 m.
in the case of a sharp crested weir.
2
That is, Q= Cd L 2 g H 3 / 2 . Example 16
3
Water flows in a rectangular channel at a depth of 0.3 m.
Example 14 Velocity of flow is 0.85 m/s. A sharp crested weir is to be
A sharp edged weir has the shape of a symmetrical installed in the channel so that the upstream depth is raised
trapezium with base width = 400 mm, top width = 900 mm to 1.2 m. Neglecting velocity of approach and assuming Cd
and height 500 mm as shown in the figure. = 0.6, height required for the weir (in m) is _______.

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Solution Let w be the width of water surface at head H2,

Length of the weir, w
L = Width of channel. θ
tan = 2
2 2 H2
Q = Cd L 2 g H 3 / 2
3 w
= L × Original depth × Original velocity ⇒ 2.62 =
2 × 0.4484
2
⇒ × 0.6 × 2 × 9.81 × H 3/ 2 ⇒ w = 2.3496
3 = 2.35 m.
= 0.3 × 0.85
⇒ H 3/ 2 = 0.14394 Example 18
⇒ H = (0.14394) 2 / 3
Water level
= 0.27466 m = 0.275 m
Height of the weir = 1.2 - 0.275
= 0.925 m. 2 cm

Example 17 45° 45° 2.5 cm

Discharge measured using a triangular weir at a head of 65
mm is 0.004 m3/s. When it is discharging 0.5m3/s, the width
of water surface (in metre) is ______. (Assume Cd = 0.6) Assuming coefficient of discharge Cd = 0.62, determine the
discharge over the notch shown in the figure.
Solution
Discharge, Solution
8 θ
Q= Cd 2 g tan H 5 / 2
15 2 F
A B
G
2
8 θ
0.004 = × 0.6 × 4.429 × tan × (0.065)5 / 2 C D
15 2
θ 2.5
45° 45°
⇒ tan = 2.62.
2
E
For the notch,
Q ∝ H5/2
Discharge = Discharge through FGE - 2 × Discharge through
5/ 2
Q2  H 2 
\ =  8 θ
Q1  H1  BGD = Cd × 2 g tan  H15 / 2 − 2 × H 25 / 2 
15 2
When discharge, Q2 = 0.5 m3/s
8
5/ 2
= × 0.62 × 4.429 × tan 45[4.52.5 − 2 × 22.5 ]
0.5  H2  15
= 
0.004  0.065  = 46.34 m3/s.
H2
⇒ = 1250.4 Example 19
0.065
⇒ H2 = 0.4484 m. For the stepped notch as shown in the figure, determine dis-
charge in m3/s. (Assume Cd = 0.62)
w
Water surface

90 cm 20 cm
H2 70 cm
θ 15 cm
2
50 cm 10 cm

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Solution Solution
Discharge, Being originally suppressed, n = 3 × 2 - 2 = 4
Q = Discharge through top portion of dimension 90 cm L = 9.5 - 2 × 0.25 = 9 m
× 20 cm + Middle portion of dimension 70 cm × 15 cm
H = 0.4 m.
+ Bottom portion of dimension 50 cm × 10 cm
Q = 1.84 ( L − 0.1 nH ) H 3/ 2
2
= Cd 2 g  L1 × H13/ 2 + L2 × = 1.84 (9 − 0.1× 4 × 0.4) × 0.41.5
3
= 4.115 m3 /s.
( H 23/ 2 − H13/ 2 ) + L3 × ( H 33/ 2 − H 23/ 2 ) 

2 Example 22
= × 0.62 × 4.429 0.9 × 0.21.5 Maximum discharge of a stream is 1800 m3/s which has to
3
pass over a weir. A bridge provided over the weir divides the
+0.7 × (0.351.5 − 0.21.5 ) weir into a number of openings of span 6 m each. If head
over the crest of the weir is not to exceed 3.5 m and if there
+ 0.5 × (0.451.5 − 0.351.5 )  is a velocity of approach 3 m/s, the number of openings
= 1.831[0.0805 + 0.08233 + 0.0474] needed is ______.
= 0.3849 m3/s. Solution
Alternative solution: Considering one opening,
2 L=6m
Cd 2 g 0.5 × 0.451.5 + (0.7 - 0.5) × 0.351.5
Q= H = 3.5 m
3
Va = 3 m/s
+ (0.9 - 0.7) × 0.21.5]
=1.831[0.1509 + 0.0414 + 0.0179] V2 32
ha = a =
= 0.3849 m3/s. 2 g 2 × 9.81
= 0.4587 m
Example 20 Discharge through one opening,
A 2 m long rectangular weir is used to measure discharge of q = 1.84(L - 0.2H1) ( H13/ 2 − ha3/ 2 )
water from a tank.
If head over the weir is 0.7 m, determine the discharge in Where, H1 = H + ha
m3/s using Francis formula = 3.5 + 0.4587
  (i) when the weir is a suppressed weir. = 3.9587 m.
(ii) when the weir is with 2 end contractions. H13/ 2 = (3.9587)1.5 = 7.8764

Solution ha3/ 2 = (0.4587)1.5 = 0.311

(i) Suppressed weir, \ q = 1.84(6 - 0.2 × 3.9587) × (7.8764 - 0.311)
Q = 1.84 LH 3/ 2 = 1.84 × 5.2083 × 7.5654
= 1.84 × 2 × 0.73/ 2 = 72.5 m3/s.
= 2.155 m3/s. Maximum total discharge
(ii) Contracted weir, Q = 1800 m3/s
Q
Q = 1.84 [ L − 0.2 H ] H 3/ 2 \ Number of openings required =
q
= 1.84 × [2 − 0.2 × 0.7]0.73/ 2
1800
= 2.0044 m3/s. = = 23.84 = 24.
72.5

Example 21 Example 23
A suppressed rectangular weir of length is divided into 3 Crest length of a Cippoletti weir is 500 mm. Head of water
bays, using two vertical posts of width 250 mm each. If over the crest is 200 mm. The channel approach is 650 mm
head of water over the weir is 0.4 metre, determine the dis- wide and 500 mm deep. Assuming coefficient of discharge
charge using Francis formula. Cd = 0.62 discharge over the weir is ______.

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Solution Solution
Discharge, Maximum discharge,
2 Qmax = 1.705 Cd × L × H 3/2
Q= Cd L 2 g ( H + ha )3/ 2 − ha3/ 2 
3 = 1.705 × 0.62 × 50 × 0.61.5
Where = 24.565 m3/s.
L = Crest length
ha = Head corresponding velocity of approach Example 25
Ignoring the velocity of approach,
In a submerged weir heights of water above crest level is
2 0.2 m at the upstream side and 0.1 m at the downstream side
Q = × 0.62 × 0.5 × 2 × 9.81 × 0.21.5
3 respectively.
Discharge coefficients for free and drowned portion are
= 0.0819 m3/s
Velocity of approach, 0.62 and 0.8 respectively. If length of the weir is 3 m, dis-
charge over the weir is ______.
Q
Va = where A = Area of approach
A Solution
0.0819 L=3m
= = 0.252 m/s
0.65 × 0.5 H = 0.2 m
Va2 (0.252) 2 h = 0.1 m
ha =
= Cd1 = 0.62
2g 2 × 9.81
= 3.237 × 10-3 m Cd 2 = 0.8
= 0.00324 m
More accurate value of discharge, Discharge = Discharge over free portion + Discharge over
drowned portion.
2
Q= × 0.62 × 0.5 × 2 × 9.81 2
3 = Cd × L × 2 g ( H − h ) 3 / 2 + Cd 2 × ( L × h ) 2 g ( H − h )
3 1
[(0.2 + 0.00324)3/ 2 − (0.00324)3/ 2 ]
2
= 0.9153 × 0.09144 = 0.0837 m3/s. = × 0.62 × 3 × 4.429(0.2 − 0.1)1.5
3
Example 24 +0.8 × 3 × 0.1× 4.429 × 0.2 − 0.1
A 50 m long broad crested weir has 0.6 m of water above
= 1.7367 + 0.336
the crest. If Cd = 0.62, maximum discharge over the weir is
______. (Velocity of approach may be neglected) = 2.0727 m3/s.

Exercises

1. For a given discharge, the critical depth in an open 3. Identify the false statement from the following. The
channel depends on specific speed of a pump increases with
(A) channel geometry only. (A) increase in shaft speed.
(B) channel geometry and bed slope. (B) increase in discharge.
(C) channel geometry, bed slope and roughness. (C) decrease in gravitational acceleration.
(D) channel geometry, bed slope, roughness and Reyn- (D) increase in head.
olds number.
4. An air craft is flying in level flight at a speed of 200
2. The flow in a rectangular channel is sub critical. If the km/h through air (density r = 1.2 kg/m3 and viscosity m
width of the channel is reduced at a certain section, the = 1.6 × 10–5 Ns/m2). The lift coefficient at this speed is
water surface under no choke condition will 0.4 and drag coefficient is 0.0065. Mass of the air craft
(A) drop at a down stream section. is 800 kg. The effective lift area of the air craft is
(B) rise at a down stream section. (A) 21.2 m2 (B) 10.6 m2
(C) rise at an upstream section. (C) 2.2 m2 (C) 1.1 m2
(D) not undergo any change.

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5. A laboratory model of a river is built to a geometric (A) 4 (B) 5

scale of 1 : 100. The fluid used in the model is oil of den- (C) 16 (D) 20
sity 900 kg/m3. The highest flood in the river is 10000 12. A spillway discharges flood flow at a rate of 9 m3/s
m3/s. The corresponding discharge in the model shall be per metre width. If the depth of flow on the horizontal
(A) 0.095 m3/s (B) 0.100 m3/s apron at the toe of the spillway is 46 cm, the tail water
(C) 0.105 m /s 3 (D) 10.5 m3/s depth needed to form a hydraulic jump is approxi-
6. A circular pipe has a diameter of 1 m, bed slope of 1 mately given by which of the following option?
in 1000, and Manning’s roughness coefficient equal to (A) 2.54 m (B) 4.9 m
0.01. It may be treated as an open channel flow, when (C) 5.77 m (D) 6.23 m
it is flowing just full, i.e., the water level just touches 13. For a rectangular channel section, match List I
the crest. The discharge in this condition is denoted by (Geometrical element) with List II (Proportion for
Qfull. Similarly, the discharge when the pipe is flowing hydraulically efficient section) and select the correct
half, i.e., with a flow depth of 0.5 m is denoted by Qhalf. answer using the codes given:
The ratio Qfull/Qhalf is
(A) 1 (B) 2 List I List II
(C) 2 (D) 4 ye
a. Top width 1.
7. The dimension for kinematic viscosity is 2
L L b. Perimeter 2. ye
(A) (B) 2
MT T c. Hydraulic radius 3. 2ye
L2 ML d. Hydraulic depth 4. 4ye
(C) (D)
T T
8. For sub-critical flow in an open channel, the control ye is the flow depth corresponding to hydraulically effi-
section for gradually varied flow profile is cient section.
(A) at the down stream end. Codes:
(B) at the upstream end. a b c d a b c d
(C) at both ends. (A) 2 4 1 3 (B) 3 1 4 2
(D) at any intermediate section. (C) 3 4 1 2 (D) 3 4 2 1
9. List I contains dimensionless parameter and List II 14. The Froude number of a flow in a rectangular channel
contains ratio. Match List I with List II and select the is 0.8. If the depth of flow is 1.5 m, the critical depth is
correct answer from given codes: 15 cm, the critical depth is
List I List II (A) 1.80 m (B) 1.56 m
P. Mach number 1. Ratio of inertial force and
(C) 1.36 m (D) 1.29 m
gravity force 15. The relationship between length scale ratio (Lr) and the
Q. Reynolds number 2. Ratio of fluid velocity and velocity scale ratio (Vr) in hydraulic models, in which
velocity of sound Froude dynamic similarity is maintained, is
R. Weber number 3. Ratio of inertia force and
viscous force (A) Vr = Lr (B) Lr = Vr
S. Froude number (C) Vr = Lr1.5 (D) Vr = Lr
Codes: 16. There is a free over fall at the end of a free open ­channel.
P Q R S P Q R S For a given flow rate, the critical depth is less than the
(A) 3 2 4 1 (B) 3 4 2 1 normal depth. What gradually varied flow profile will
(C) 2 3 4 1 (D) 1 3 2 4 occur in the channel for this flow rate?
(A) M1 (B) M2
10. A trapezoidal channel is 10.0 m wide at the base and
(C) M3 (D) S1
has a side slope of 4 horizontal to 3 vertical. The bed
slope is 0.002. The channel is lined with smooth con- 17. A channel with a mild slope is followed by a horizontal
crete (Manning’s N = 0.012). The hydraulic radius (in channel and then by a steep channel. What varied flow
m) for a depth of flow of 3 m is ______. profiles will occur?
(A) 20.0 (B) 3.5 (A) M1, H1, S1 (B) M2, H2, S2
(C) 3 (D) 2.1 (C) M1, H2, S3 (D) M1, H2, S2
11. A rectangular open channel of width 5.0 m is carrying 18. A horizontal bed channel is followed by a steep bed
a discharge of 100 m3/s. Froude number of the flow is channel as shown in the figure. The gradually varied
0.8. Depth of flow (in metre) of the channel is flow profiles over the horizontal and steep beds are

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24. For the data given in Question 23, if a hump is to be

provided on the channel bed, maximum height of the
hump without affecting the upstream flow condition is
(A) 0.50 m (B) 0.40 m
(C) 0.30 m (D) 0.20 m
25. For the data given in Question 23, if the channel width
Horizontal bed
is to be contracted, the minimum width to which
Steep bed the channel can be contracted without affecting the
upstream flow condition is
(A) H2 and S2 respectively. (A) 3.0 m (B) 3.8 m
(B) H2 and S1 respectively. (C) 4.1 m (D) 4.5 m
(C) H3 and S2 respectively.
26. An automobile with projected area 2.6 m2 is running on
(D) H3 and S1 respectively.
a road with a speed of 120 km/h. The mass density and
19. The flow profile under the gate as shown in the figure is kinematic viscosity of air are 1.2 kg/m3 and 1.5 × 10-5
classified as m2/s respectively. The drag coefficient is 0.3. The drag
force on the automobile is
(A) 620 N (B) 600 N
(C) 580 N (D) 520 N
27. For the data given in Question 26, metric horse power
required over come the drag force is
(A) 33.23 (B) 31.55
(C) 23.55 (D) 20.23
Horizontal 28. A horizontal water jet with a velocity of 10 m/s and a
cross-sectional area of 10 mm2 strikes a flat plate held
(A) M2 (B) H1
normal to the flow direction. Density of water is 1000
(C) H2 (D) H3
kg/m3. Total force on the plate due to the jet is
20. If Fr is the Froude number for a flow in a triangular (A) 100 N (B) 10 N
channel, then Froude number for the same velocity and (C) 1 N (D) 0.1 N
same depth of flow in rectangular channel will be
29. A 1 : 50 scale model of a spillway is to be tested in the
Fr laboratory. The discharge in the prototype is 1000 m3/s.
(A) Fr (B)
2 The discharge to be maintained in the model test is
Fr (A) 0.057 m3/s (B) 0.08 m3/s
(C) 2Fr (D) (C) 0.57 m3/s (D) 5.7 m3/s
3
21. A rectangular open channel of width 4.5 m is carrying 30. The flow rate in a wide rectangular open channel is 2.0
a discharge of 100 m3/s. Critical depth of the channel is m3/s per metre width. The channel slope is 0.002. The
(A) 7.09 m (B) 3.69 m Manning’s roughness coefficient is 0.012. The slope of
(C) 2.16 m (D) 1.31 m the channel is classified as
(A) critical (B) horizontal
22. A river reach of 2.0 km along with maximum flood dis- (C) mild (D) steep
charge of 10,000 m3/s is to be physically modelled in
the laboratory where maximum available discharge is 31. Flow of glycerine (kinematic viscosity, n­g = 5 × 10-4
0.20 m3/s. For a geometrically similar model based on m2/s) in an open channel is to be modeled in laboratory
equality of Froude number, the length of river reach (in flume using water (nw = 10-6 m2/s) as the flowing fluid.
m) in the model is If both gravity and viscosity are important, what should
(A) 26.4 (B) 25.0 be the length scale (i.e., ratio of prototype to model
(C) 20.5 (D) 18.0 dimensions) for maintaining dynamic similarity?
(A) 1 (B) 22
23. A rectangular channel 6.0 m wide carries a discharge (C) 63 (D) 500
of 16.0 m3/s under uniform flow condition with nor-
mal depth of 1.6 m. Manning’s coefficient N = 0.015. 32. Critical depth at a section of a rectangular channel is
Longitudinal slope of the channel is 1.5 m. Specific energy at that section is
(A) 0.00059 (A) 0.75 m (B) 1.0 m
(B) 0.00048 (C) 1.5 m (D) 2.25 m
(C) 0.00038 33. A partially open sluice gate discharges water into a rec-
(D) 0.00028 tangular channel. The tail water depth in the channel is

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1 38. A horizontal jet strikes a frictionless vertical plate (the

3 m and Froude number is . If a free hydraulic
2 2 plan view is shown in the figure). It is then divided into
jump is to be formed at downstream of the sluice gate two parts, as shown in the figure. If the impact loss is
after vena contracta of the jet coming out from the sluice neglected, what is the value of q?
gate, the sluice gate opening should be (Coefficient of Q0
contraction Cc = 0.9)
(A) 0.3 m (B) 0.4 m
(C) 0.69 m (D) 0.9 m
34. A steep wise rectangular channel takes off from a res- θ
ervoir having an elevation of 101.2 m. At the entrance,
Q1 = 0.25 θ 0
the bottom elevation of the channel is 100 m. If the
slope of the channel is increased by 4%, the discharge Q2
per unit length in the channel will be
(A) 2.24 m2/s. (A) 15° (B) 30°
(B) higher than 2.24 m2/s by 4%. (C) 45° (D) 60°
(C) higher than 2.24 m2/s by 2%. 39. A very wide rectangular channel carries a discharge of
(D) choked. 8 m3/s per metre width. The channel has a bed slope
35. The height of hydraulic jump in the stilling pool of 1: 0.004 and Manning’s roughness coefficient N = 0.015.
25 scale model was observed to be 10 cm. The corre- At a certain section of the channel, the flow depth is
sponding prototype height of the jump is 1 m. What gradually varied flow (GVF) profile exists
(A) Cannot be determined at this section?
(B) 2.5 m (A) M2 (B) M3
(C) 0.5 m (C) S2 (D) S3
(D) 0.1 m 40. The prejump Froude Number for a particular flow
36. A thin flat plate 0.5 m × 0.7 m in size settles in a large in a horizontal rectangular channel is 10. The ratio
tank of water with a terminal velocity of 0.12 m/s. The of sequent depths (i.e., post jump depth to pre-jump
1.328 depth) is ______.
coefficient of drag CD = for a laminar boundary
RL 41. A 3 m wide rectangular channel carries a flow of 6
0.072 m3/s. The depth of flow at a section P is 0.5 m. A flat
layer and CD = for a turbulent boundary layer, topped hump is to be placed at the down stream of sec-
( RL )1/ 5 tion P. Assume negligible energy loss between section
where RL is the plate Reynolds number. Assume m P and hump and consider g as 9.81 m/s2. The maxi-
= 10-3 Ns/m2 and r = 1000 kg/m3. The submerged mum height of the hump (expressed in m) which will
weight of the plate is not change the depth of flow at section P is ______.
42. A penstock of 1 m diameter and 5 km length is used
to supply water from a reservoir to an impulse turbine.
V = 0.12 m/s 0.7 m A nozzle of 15 cm diameter is fixed at the end of the
penstock. The elevation difference between the turbine
and water level in the reservoir is 500 m. Consider head
loss due to friction as 5% of the velocity head available
0.5 m at the jet. Assume unit weight of water = 10 kN/m3 and
acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10 m/s2. If the overall
(A) 0.0115 N (B) 0.0118 N
efficiency is 80%, power generated (expressed in kW
(C) 0.0231 N (D) 0.0376 N
and rounded to the nearest integer) is ______.
37. The net positive suction head (NPSH) required for
a pump provided by the manufacturer for a flow of 43. Dimensions of kinematic viscosity are
0.05 m3/s is 3.3 m. The temperature of water is 30°C (A) M L-1T -2 (B) M L-1T -1
2
(C) L T -1 (D) L T -2
(Vapour pressure head absolute = 0.44 m). Atmospheric
pressure is 100 kPa absolute and the head loss from the 44. A ship with hull length of 100 m is to run with a speed
reservoir to pump is 0.3 Nm/N. The maximum height of 10 m/s. For dynamic similarity, the velocity for a 1 :
of the pump above the suction reservoir is 25 model of the ship in a towing tank should be
(A) 10.19 m (B) 6.89 m (A) 2 m/s (B) 10 m/s
(C) 6.15 m (D) 2.86 m (C) 20 m/s (D) 25 m/s

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45. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer 50. An error of 0.5% in the measurement of head in a
using the codes given below: V-notch causes an error of
List I List II (A) 0.5% in the discharge.
(Flow Regimes for (Flow Regimes for (B) 1.0% in the discharge.
Gradually Varied Flow) Gradually Varied Flow) (C) 1.25% in the discharge.
P. yc > y0 > y 1. C1 (D) 1.5% in the discharge.
Q. yc < y0 < y 2. M1 51. At a hydraulic jump, the depths at two sides are 0.4 m
R. y0 > y > yc 3. S3 and 1.4 m. The head loss in the jump is nearly
S. y > yc > y0 4. M2 (A) 1.0 m (B) 0.9 m
5. S1 (C) 0.7 m (D) 0.45 m
(y0 = normal depth, yc = critical depth, y = depth of 52. A channel of bed slope 0.0009 carries a discharge of
gradually varied flow) 30 m3/s when the depth of flow is 1 m. What is the
Codes: discharge carried by an exactly similar channel at the
P Q R S P Q R S same depth of flow if the slope is decreased to 0.0001?
(A) 1 2 3 4 (B) 3 4 5 2 (A) 10 m3/s (B) 15 m3/s
3
(C) 60 m /s (D) 90 m3/s
(C) 3 2 4 5 (D) 5 4 3 1
46. A model reservoir is emptied in 10 minutes. If the 53. The conjugate depths at a location in a horizontal rec-
model scale is 1 : 25, then the time taken by the proto- tangular channel, 4 m wide, are 0.2 m and 1.0 m. The
type to empty itself, would be discharge in the channel is ______ m3/s.
(A) 250 minutes (B) 50 minutes 54. The discharge from a spillway on a horizontal floor is
(C) 6250 minutes (D) 2 minutes 8 cumecs per metre width. If the depth before the jump
47. When no external energy is imposed; which of the fol- of 50 cm, the depth after the jump in metres will be
lowing statements would be true?
55. A discharge of 1 cumec is flowing in a rectangular
I. Energy line always falls in the direction of flow.
channel one metre wide at a depth of 20 cm. The bed
II. Hydraulic gradient line never rises in the direction
slope of the channel is
of flow.
(A) mild (B) critical
III. Specific energy may increase or decrease in the
(C) steep (D) adverse
­direction of flow.
IV. Energy line and hydraulic gradient line can cross 56. Water flows in a rectangular channel at a depth of 1.20
each other. m and a velocity of 2.4 m/s. A local rise in the bed of
Select correct answer using the codes given below 0.60 m will cause
(A) I and II (B) II and III (A) the surface to rise.
(C) III and IV (D) I and III (B) the surface to fall.
dy dE (C) a stationary jump to form.
48. In a gradually varied flow, if is positive, then (D) a surge to travel upstream.
will be dx dx
57. The hydraulic jump always occurs from
(A) always zero. (B) positive if y > yc.
(A) a M2 curve to a M1 curve.
(C) negative if y > yc. (D) always negative.
(B) a H3 curve to a H1 curve.
49. Match List I and List II and select the correct answer (C) below normal depth to above normal depth.
using the codes given: (D) below critical depth to above critical depth.
List I 58. A steady discharge of 1 cumec flows uniformly in a
(Non-dimensional rectangular channel 1 m wide at a depth of 250 mm.
Numbers) List II (Application) The slope of the channel bed is
P. Mach number 1. Waves in ocean (A) adverse (B) steep
Q. Thoma number 2. Launching of rockets (C) critical (D) mild
R. Reynold’s number 3. Cavitation phenomenon 59. In deriving the equation for the hydraulic jump in the
S. Weber number 4. Capillary flow in soil rectangular channel in terms of the conjugate depths
5. Motion of submarine
and the initial Froude number,
(A) continuity equation and energy equation.
Codes: (B) continuity equation and momentum equation used.
P Q R S P Q R S (C) equations of continuity, momentum and energy
(A) 1 3 5 2 (B) 2 3 5 4 are used.
(C) 3 2 4 1 (D) 2 1 3 4 (D) gradually varied flow equation is used.

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60. A section in open channel at which a fixed relationship 68. A circular sewer 2 m diameter has to carry a discharge
exists between the discharge and the depth of flow is of 2 m3/s when flowing nearly full. What is the mini-
called as a ______ section mum required slope to initiate the flow? Assume man-
61. Flow at critical depth takes place in an open channel ning’s N = 0.015.
when (A) 0.00023 (B) 0.000036
(A) for a given specific energy, discharge is maximum. (C) 0.000091 (D) 0.000014
(B) for a given discharge, specific energy is minimum. 69. A trapezoidal channel with bottom width of 3 m and
(C) discharge is minimum for a given specific force. side slope of 1V : 1.5H carries a discharge of 8.0 m3/s
(D) discharge is maximum for a given specific force. with the flow depth of 1.5 m. The Froude number of the
62. The water surface profile resulting from flow under- flow is
neath the gate in the given figure is (A) 0.066 (B) 0.132
(C) 0.265 (D) 0.528
70. In a lined rectangular canal, the Froude number of
incoming flow is 3.0. A hydraulic jump forms when
it meets the pool of water. The depth of flow after the
jump formation is 1.51 m. Froude number of flow after
the hydraulic jump is
(A) 0.30 (B) 0.71
(C) 0.41 (D) None of these
Horizontal
Direction for questions 71 and 72:
(A) H3 (B) H1 A very wide rectangular channel carries a discharge of
(C) H2 (D) S2 8 m3/s per metre width. The channel has a bed slope of
63. For a ‘best’ symmetrical trapezoidal section of an open 0.004 and Manning’s roughness coefficient, N = 0.015. At a
channel with a given area of section and side slopes, certain section of the channel, the flow depth is 1 m.
one of the following statements holds true: 71. What gradually varied flow profile exists at this section?
(A) Half the top width is equal to one of the side slope. (A) M2 (B) M3
(B) Half the top width plus the bottom width is equal (C) S2 (D) S3
to both the side slopes put together.
72. At what distance from this section the flow depth will
(C) Water depths is equal to half bottom width .
be 0.9 m? (Use the direct step method employing a sin-
(D) Hydraulic mean depth is equal to half the top width.
gle step.)
64. The downstream end of long prismatic channel of mild (A) 65 m downstream (B) 50 m downstream
slope ends in a pool created by a dam. The resulting (C) 50 m upstream (D) 65 m upstream
nonuniform water surface profile can be described as
73. A hydraulic jump takes place in a triangular channel of
one of the following
vertex angle 90o, as shown in figure. The discharge is 1
(A) M3 profile ending in a hydraulic jump.
m3/s and the pre-jump depth is 0.5 m. What will be the
(B) M1 profile that lies above normal depth line.
post-jump depth? (Take g = 9.81 m/s2)
(C)  M2 profile that lies between critical and normal
depth lines.
(D)  M3 profile that lies between critical and normal
depth lines.
65. The sequent depth ratio of a hydraulic jump in a rectan-
gular horizontal channel is 10.30. The Froude number 90°
at the beginning of the jump is
(A) 5.64 (B) 7.63
(C) 8.05 (D) 13.61 (A) 0.57 m (B) 0.91 m
66. Water flows at a depth of 0.1 m with a velocity of 6 m/s (C) 1.02 m (D) 1.57 m
in a rectangular channel. The alternate depth is 74. For a pipe of radius r, flowing half-full under the action
(A) 0.30 m (B) 0.40 m of gravity, the hydraulic depth is
(C) 0.86 m (D) 0.81 m
3 πr
67. Water flows at a rate of 10 m /s in a rectangular channel (A) r (B) ⋅

3 m wide. The critical depth of flow is 4

(A) 1.13 m (B) 2 m (C) r (D) 0.379r
(C) 1.45 m (D) 1.04 m 2

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75. A wide channel is 1 m deep and has a velocity of flow, 81. A hydraulic jump occurs in a rectangular, horizon-
V, as 2.13 m/s. If a disturbance is caused, an elementary tal, frictionless channel. What would be the pre-jump
wave can travel upstream with a velocity of depth if the discharge per unit width is 2 m3/s/m and the
(A) 1.00 m/s energy loss
(B) 2.13 m/s (A) 0.2 m
(C) 3.13 m/s (B) 0.3 m
(D) 5.26 m/s (C) 0.8 m
76. A steady flow occurs in an open channel with lateral (D) 0.9 m
inflow of q m3/s per unit width as shown in the figure. 82. A very wide rectangular channel is designed to carry
The mass conservation equation is a discharge of 5 m3/s per metre width. The design is
q m3/s/m based on the Manning’s equation with the roughness
coefficient obtained from the grain size using Strickler’s
equation and results in a normal depth of 1.0 m. By
mistake, however, the engineer used the grain diameter
Q m3/s + x in mm in the Strickler’s equation instead of in metre.
What should be the correct normal depth?
(A) 0.32 m
∂q
(A) =0 (B) 0.50 m
∂x (C) 2.00 m
∂Q (D) 3.20 m
(B) =0
∂x 83. A rigid boundary rectangular channel having a bed
∂Q 1
(C) -q=0 slope of has its width and depth of flow equal to
∂x 800
∂Q 2 m and 1 m respectively. if the flow is uniform and the
(D) +q=0 value is chezy’s constant is 60, the discharge through
∂x
the channel is
77. Critical depth at a section of a rectangular channel is (A) 1.0 m3/s
1.5 m. The specific energy at that section is (B) 1.5 m3/s
(A) 0.75 m (B) 1.0 m (C) 2.0 m3/s
(C) 1.5 m (D) 2.25 m (D) 3.0 m3/s
78. A partially open sluice gate discharges water into rec-
tangular channel. The tall water depth in the channel 84. Consider the following statements:
1 I. In an open channel flow, energy grade lines obtained
is 3 m and Froude number is . If a free hydraulic by adding datum head. Pressure head and velocity
2 2
jump is to be formed at downstream of the sluice gate head.
after the vena contracta of the jet coming out from the II. In an open channel, hydraulic grade line is the free
sluice gate, the sluice gate opening should be (coeffi- surface itself.
cient of contraction Cc = 0.9) III. For a pipe and an open channel of source dimen-
(A) 0.3 m (B) 0.4 m sion, the hydraulic gradient line is located at the
(C) 0.69 m (D) 0.9 m same height above datum.
IV. Energy gradient line of an open channel is always
79. A triangular irrigation lined canal carries a discharge
horizontal.
1
of 25 m3/s at bed slope = . If the side slope of the Which of these statements are correct?
6000
(A) I, II, and III
canal are 1 : 1 and Manning’s coefficient is 0.018, the
(B) I and IV
central depth of flow is equal to
(C) I, III, and IV
(A) 2.98 m (B) 3.62 m
(D) II, III, and IV
(C) 4.91 m (D) 5.61 m
80. A channel with a mild slope is followed by a horizontal 85. The height of hydraulic jump in a stilling pool was
channel and then by a steep channel. What gradually found to be 10 cm in a model with Lp/Lm = 36. The
varied flow profiles will occur? prototype jump height would be
(A) M1, H1, S1 (A) 0.6 m
(B) M2, H2, S2 (B) 3.6 m
(C) M1, H2, S3 (C) 21.6 m
(D) M1, H2, S2 (D) Cannot be determined

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Previous Years’ Questions

1. There is a free overfall at the end of a long open 8. A hump is to be provided on the channel bed. The
­channel. For a given flow rate, the critical depth is less maximum height of the hump without affecting the
than the normal depth. What gradually varied flow upstream flow condition is
profile will occur in the channel for this flow rate? (A) 0.50 m
 [GATE, 2007] (B) 0.40 m
(A) M1 (B) M2 (C) 0.30 m
(C) M3 (D) S1 (D) 0.20 m
2. A triangular open channel has a vertex angle of 90o 9. The channel width is to be contracted. The minimum
and carries flow at a critical depth of 0.30 m. The dis- width to which the channel can be contracted without
charge in the channel is  [GATE, 2007] affecting the upstream flow condition is
(A) 0.08 m3/s (B) 0.11 m3/s  [GATE, 2008]
(C) 0.15 m3/s (D) 0.2 m3/s (A) 3.0 m (B) 3.8 m
3. The flow rate in a wide rectangular open channel is 2.0 (C) 4.1 m (D) 4.5 m
m3/s per metre width. The channel bed slope is 0.002. 10. Direct step method of computation for gradually var-
The Manning’s roughness coefficient is 0.012. The ied flow is [GATE, 2009]
slope of the channel is classified as [GATE, 2007] (A) applicable to non-prismatic channels.
(A) critical (B) horizontal (B) applicable to prismatic channels.
(C) mild (D) steep (C)  applicable to both prismatic and non-prismatic
channels.
Direction for questions 4 and 5: (D)  not applicable to both prismatic and non-­
A rectangular open channel needs to be designed to prismatic channels.
carry a flow of 2.0 m3/s under uniform flow conditions. 11. A rectangular open channel of width 4.5 m is carry-
The Manning’s roughness coefficient is 0.018. The chan- ing a discharge of 100 m3/s. The critical depth of the
nel should be such that the flow depth is equal to half the channel is [GATE, 2009]
width, and the Froude number is equal to 0.5. (A) 7.09 m (B) 3.69 m
4. The bed slope of the channel to be provided is (C) 2.16 m (D) 1.31 m
 [GATE, 2007] 12. A mild-sloped channel is followed by a steep-sloped
(A) 0.0012 (B) 0.0021 channel. The profiles of gradually varied flow in the
(C) 0.0025 (D) 0.0052 channel are [GATE, 2010]
5. Keeping the width, flow depth and roughness the (A) M3, S2 (B) M3, S3
same, if the bed slope of the above channel is doubled, (C) M2, S1 (D) M2, S2
the average boundary shear stress under uniform flow 13. The flow in a rectangular channel is sub-critical. If
conditions is [GATE, 2007] width of the channel is reduced at a certain section,
(A) 5.6 N/m2 (B) 10.8 N/m2 the water surface under no-choke condition will
(C) 12.3 N/m2 (D) 17.2 N/m2  [GATE, 2010]
6. A person standing on the bank of a canal drops a stone (A) drop at a downstream section.
on the water surface. He notices that the disturbance (B) rise at a downstream section.
on the water surface is not travelling upstream. This is (C) rise at an upstream section.
because the flow in the canal is  [GATE, 2008] (D) not undergo any change.
(A) sub-critical (B) super-critical 14. For a rectangular channel section, Match List I
(C) steady (D) uniform (Geometrical elements) with List II (Proportions for
hydraulically efficient section) and select the correct
Direction for questions 7 to 8: answer using the codes given:
A rectangular channel 6.0 m wide carries a discharge of List I List II
16.0 m3/s under uniform flow condition with normal depth a. Top width 1. ye/2
of 1.60 m. Manning’s ‘N’ is 0.015. [GATE, 2008]
b. Perimeter 2. ye
7. The longitudinal slope of the channel is c. Hydraulic radius 3. 2 ye
(A) 0.000585
d. Hydraulic depth 4. 4ye
(B) 0.000485
(C) 0.000385 ye is the flow depth corresponding to hydraulically
(D) 0.000285 efficient section. [GATE, 2010]

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Codes: (A) at the downstream end.

a b c d (B) at the upstream end.
(A) 2 4 1 3 (C) at both ends.
(B) 3 1 4 2 (D) at any intermediate section.
(C) 3 4 1 2 22. The normal depth in a wide rectangular channel
(D) 3 4 2 1 is increased by 10%. The percentage increase in
15. The Froude number of flow in a rectangular channel discharge in the channel is [GATE, 2013]
is 0.8. If the depth of flow is 1.5 m, the critical depth (A) 20.1
is  [GATE, 2010] (B) 15.4
(A) 1.80 m (B) 1.56 m (C) 10.5
(C) 1.36 m (D) 1.29 m (D) 17.2
16. From a given discharge, the critical flow depth in an 23. A rectangular channel having a bed slope of 0.0001,
open channel depends on [GATE, 2011] width 3.0 m and Manning’s coefficient ‘N’ 0.015, car-
(A) channel geometry only. ries a discharge of 1.0 m3/s. Given that the normal
(B) channel geometry and bed slopes. depth of flow ranges between 0.76 m and 0.8 m. The
(C) channel geometry, bed slope and roughness. minimum width of a throat (in m) that is possible at a
(D) channel geometry, bed slope, roughness and given section, while ensuring that the prevailing nor-
Reynolds number. mal depth is not exceeded along the reach upstream
17. A spillway discharges flood flow at a rate of 9 m3/s of the contraction, is approximately equal to (assume
per metre width. If the depth of flow on the horizontal negligible losses) [GATE, 2014]
apron at the toe of the spillway is 46 cm, the tail water (A) 0.64 (B) 0.84
depth needed to form a hydraulic jump is approxi- (C) 1.04 (D) 1.24
mately given by which of the following options? 24. A rectangular channel of 2.5 m width is carrying a
 [GATE, 2011] discharge of 4 m3/s. Considering that acceleration due
(A) 2.54 m (B) 4.90 m to gravity as 9.81 m/s2, the velocity of flow (in m/s)
(C) 5.77 m (D) 6.23 m corresponding to the critical depth (at which the spe-
18. The flow in a horizontal, frictionless rectangular open cific energy is minimum) is ______. [GATE, 2014]
channel is super-critical. A smooth hump is built on
the channel floor. As the height of hump is increased, 25. A hydraulic jump is formed in a 2 m wide rectangu-
choked condition is attained. With further increase lar channel which is horizontal and frictionless. The
in the height of the hump, the water surface will post-jump depth and velocity are 0.8 m and 1 m/s,
 [GATE, 2011] respectively. The pre-jump velocity is ______ m/s.
(A) rise at a section upstream of the hump. (use g = 10 m/s2). [GATE, 2015]
(B) drop at a section upstream of the hump.
26. A short reach of a 2 m wide rectangular open chan-
(C) drop at the hump.
nel has its bed level rising in the direction of flow at
(D) rise at the hump.
a slope of 1 in 10000. It carries a discharge of 4 m3/s
19. A trapezoidal channel is 10.0 m wide at the base and and its Manning’s roughness coefficient is 0.01. The
has a side slope of 4 horizontal to 3 vertical. The bed flow in this reach is gradually varying. At a certain sec-
slope is 0.002. The channel is lined with smooth con- tion in this reach, the depth of flow was measured as
crete (Manning’s = 0.12). The hydraulic radius (in m) 0.5 m. The rate of change of the water depth with dis-
for a depth of flow of 3.0 m is [GATE, 2012] dy
(A) 20.0 (B) 3.5 tance , at this section is ______ (use g = 10 m/s2).
 dx [GATE, 2015]
(C) 3.0 (D) 2.1
20. A rectangular open channel of width 5.0 m is carrying 27. A hydraulic jump takes place in a frictionless rectan-
a discharge of 100 m3/s. The Froude number of the gular channel. The pre-jump depth is yp. The alternate
flow is 0.8. The depth of flow (in m) in the channel is and sequent depths corresponding to yp are ya and ys
 [GATE, 2012] respectively. The correct relationship among yp, ya
(A) 4 (B) 5 and ys is  [GATE, 2015]
(C) 16 (D) 20 (A) ya < ys < yp
21. For sub-critical flow in an open channel, the control (B) yp < ys < ys
section for gradually varied flow profile is  (C) yp < ys = ya
 [GATE, 2013] (D) ya = ys = yp

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28. The pre-jump Froude Number for a particular flow 30. A 3 m wide rectangular channel carries a flow of 6
in a horizontal rectangular channel is 10. The ratio m3/s. The depth of flow at a section P is 0.5 m. A
of sequent depths (i.e., post-jump depth to pre-jump flat-topped hump is to be placed at the downstream of
depth) is ________. [GATE, 2016] the section P. Assume negligible energy loss between
29. A 4 m wide rectangular channel, having bed slope section P and hump, and consider g as 9.81 m/s2.
of 0.001 carries a discharge of 16 m3/s. Considering The maximum height of the hump (expressed in m)
Manning’s roughness coefficient = 0.012 and g = 10 which will not change the depth of flow at section P is
m/s2, the category of the channel slope is ______. _________. [GATE, 2016]
 [GATE, 2016]
(A) horizontal (B) mild
(C) critical (D) steep

Answer Keys

Exercises
1. A 2. C 3. D 4. B 5. B 6. C 7. C 8. A 9. C 10. D
11. A 12. C 13. C 14. D 15. D 16. B 17. D 18. A 19. D 20. B
21. B 22. A 23. A 24. B 25. C 26. D 27. C 28. C 29. A 30. D
31. C 32. D 33. C 34. C 35. B 36. C 37. C 38. B 39. D
40. 13.651 41. 0.203 42. 6714.6 43. C 44. A 45. C 46. B 47. D 48. C 49. B
50. C 51. D 52. A 53. 4.32 to 4.34 54. 4.85 to 4.87 55. C 56. D 57. D
58. B 59. B 60. Control section 61. B 62. A 63. A 64. C 65. B 66. D
67. D 68. A 69. - 70. C 71. D 72. C 73. C 74. B 75. A 76. C
77. C 78. C 79. C 80. D 81. B 82. B 83. B 84. A 85. B

Previous Years’ Questions

1. B 2. B 3. D 4. B 5. D 6. B 7. A 8. B 9. C 10. B
11. B 12. D 13. A 14. C 15. D 16. A 17. C 18. B 19. D 20. A
21. A 22. D 23. B 24. 2.504 25. 4.83 26. 0.0032 27. C 28. 13.65 29. B 30. 0.2

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