HEAT TRANSFER

Heat is transferred in matter through the following methods: conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction
This is the transfer of heat in solids. The rate of conduction depends on
1. Amount of temperature - the higher the temperature the higher the rate of transfer.
2. Cross-sectional area - the larger the cross-sectional area the higher the transfer.
3. Length of material - the shorter the material the higher the rate of transfer.
4. Type of material - different materials transfer heat at different rates. Good and bad conductors
Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. Good conductors of heat are those materials
which are able to transfer heat easily and steadily. Bad conductors are those which do not conduct heat.
Applications of conductors
Good conductors
1. They are used to manufacture cooking utensils
2. They are used as liquids suitable for thermometers i.e. mercury
3. Used as heat dumps (metal clips) when soldering delicate components in a circuit board i.e.
transistors
Poor conductors
1. Used as insulators in handles of cooking utensils
2. Used in making good winter clothes i.e. wool
3. Hot water cylinders are lagged with fibre-glass since glass is a poor conductor of heat.
4. Houses in cold countries have double walls with air trapped in them to keep them warm.

Convection
This is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases). This occurs when part of the fluid is
heated: they become less dense and rise above the cold fluid. As they move they carry heat with them.
In convection we observe streams of moving fluid called convectional
currents.
Radiation
This is simply the flow of heat from one point to another by means of electromagnetic waves.
Radiation from different surfaces
We use the Leslie cube to determine radiation of different surfaces. It is a rectangular metal container
of square base with small opening at the top. One side is coated with polished silver, another dull black
(candle flame soot), the other grey and the fourth white.
Experiment: Radiation from different surfaces
Applications of radiation
1. Electric kettles have a chrome coat to reduce radiation.
2. Electric iron are silver coated to minimize radiation.
3. Green houses use radiation (heat trap) to grow crops.
4. Clouds reflect radiation back to the earth hence cloudy nights are warmer than clear nights.
Vacuum flask
It was developed by Sir James Ivarin 1890. It keeps a liquid hot or cold (depends on what is put in).
The liquid stays at the temperature it is poured in either hot or cold. It has the following principle
features:
(i)The vacuum between the double walls
(ii)The two interior walls coated with silver
(iii)Insulating cork supports (anti-shock pads)
(iv)Insulating cork stopper at the top.
Thermometers
1. Liquid-in-glass thermometer-this applies to the expansion of a liquid in a thin-walled glass-
tube. The liquid moves up the tube when the bulb is heated. The liquid must be a good
conductor, visible and be able to contract and expand quickly and uniformly over a wide range
of temperatures. It should also not stick on the sides of the tube. Liquids commonly used are
mercury and coloured alcohol
2. Clinical thermometer- this is a special type of mercury-in-glass thermometer used to measure
body temperature. Since body temperature is normally 37 oC the scale is only a few degrees
below and above 37oC
3. Six’s maximum and minimum thermometer- it is used to measure temperature of
surroundings of an area or a place. It can record both maximum and minimum temperatures
attained.
4. Bimetallic thermometer- it is made up of a bimetallic strip with one end fixed and the other
connected to a pointer. Metals used are usually brass and invar.
5. Thermocouple thermometer- thermocouple is a junction made of copper and iron
looped at both ends.
QUANTITY OF HEAT
Heat is a form of energy that flows from one body to another due to temperature differences between
them.
Heat capacity
Heat capacity is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a given mass of a
substance by one degree Celsius or one Kelvin. It is denoted by ‘C’.
Heat capacity, C = heat absorbed, Q / temperature change θ.
The units of heat capacity are J / 0C or J / K.
Specific heat capacity.
S.H.C of a substance is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance
by 1 0C or 1 K. It is denoted by ‘c’, hence,
c = Q / m θ where Q – quantity of heat, m – mass and θ – change in temperature.
The units for ‘c’ are J kg-1 K-1. Also Q = m c θ.
Examples
1. A block of metal of mass 1.5 kg which is suitably insulated is heated from 30 0C to 50 0C in 8
minutes and 20 seconds by an electric heater coil rated 54 watts. Find;
a) The quantity of heat supplied by the heater
b) The heat capacity of the block
c) Its specific heat capacity
Solution
a) Quantity of heat = power × time = P t
= 54 × 500 = 27,000 J
b) Heat capacity, C = Q / θ = 27,000 / (50 – 30) = 1,350 J Kg-1 K-1
c) Specific heat capacity, c = C / m = 1,350 / 1.5 = 900 J Kg-1 K-1
2. If 300 g of paraffin is heated with an immersion heater rated 40 W, what is the temperature
after 3 minutes if the initial temperature was 20 0C? (S.H.C for paraffin = 2,200 J Kg-1 K-1).
Solution
Energy = P t = m c θ = Q = quantity of heat.
P t = 40 × 180 = 7,200 J
m = 0.30 kg c = 2,200, θ = ..?
Q = m c θ, θ = Q / m c = 7,200 / (0.3 × 2,200) = 10.9 0C
3. A piece of copper of mass 60 g and specific heat capacity 390 J Kg-1 K-1 cools from 90 0C to 40
0
C. Find the quantity of heat given out.
Solution
Q = m c θ, = 60 × 10-3 × 390 × 50 = 1,170 J.
Determination of specific heat capacity
A calorimeter is used to determine the specific heat capacity of a substance. This uses the principle of
heat gained by a substance is equal to the heat lost by another substance in contact with each other until
equilibrium is achieved. Heat losses in calorimeter are controlled such that no losses occur or they are
very minimal.
Examples
1. A 50 W heating coil is immersed in a liquid contained in an insulated flask of negligible heat
capacity. If the mass of the liquid is 10 g and its temperature increases by 10 0C in 2 minutes,
find the specific heat capacity of the liquid.
Solution
Heat delivered (P t) = 50 × 2 × 60 = 2,400 J
Heat gained = 0.1 × c × 10 J
Therefore ‘c’ = 2,400 / 0.1 × 10 = 2,400 J Kg-1 K-1
 2. A metal cylinder mass 0.5 kg is heated electrically. If the voltmeter reads 15V, the ammeter
0.3A and the temperatures of the block rises from 20 0C to 85 0C in ten minutes. Calculate the
specific heat capacity of the metal cylinder.
Solution
Heat gained = heat lost, V I t = m c θ
15 × 3 × 10 × 60 = 0.5 × c × 65
c = (15 × 3 × 600)/ 0.5 × 65 = 831 J Kg-1 K-1

Fusion and latent heat of fusion

Fusion is the change of state from solid to liquid. Change of state from liquid to solid is called
solidification. Latent heat of fusion is the heat energy absorbed or given out during fusion. Specific
latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of heat energy required to change completely 1 kg of
a substance at its melting point into liquid without change in temperature. It is represented by the
symbol (L), we use the following formula,
Q = m Lf
Different substances have different latent heat of fusion.
Factors affecting the melting point
a) Pressure
b) Dissolved substances
Specific latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat required to change completely 1 kg of a
liquid at its normal boiling point to vapour without changing its temperature. Hence
Q = m Lv
The SI unit for specific latent heat of vaporization is J / Kg.
Example
An immersion heater rated 600 W is placed in water. After the water starts to boil, the heater is left on
for 6 minutes. It is found that the mass of the water had reduced by 0.10 kg in that time. Estimate the
specific heat of vaporization of steam.
Solution
Heat given out by the heater = P t = 600 × 6 × 60
Heat absorbed by steam = 0.10 × L v
Heat gained = heat lost, therefore, 600 × 6 × 60 = 0.10 × L v = 2.16 × 106 J / Kg
Evaporation
Factors affecting the rate of evaporation
a) Temperature
b) Surface area
c) Draught (hot and dry surrounding)
 d) Humidity

Comparison between boiling and evaporation

Evaporation Boiling
1. Takes place at all temperature - takes place at a specific temperature
2. Takes place on the surface (no bubbles formed)- takes place throughout the liquid ( bubbles
formed)
3. Decrease in atmospheric pressure increases the rate –decreases as atmospheric pressure lowers
Applications of cooling by evaporation
a) Sweating
b) Cooling of water in a porous pot
c) The refrigerator
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Newton’s first law (law of inertia)
This law states that “A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless an unbalanced
force acts on it”. The mass of a body is a measure of its inertia. Inertia is the property that keeps an
object in its state of motion and resists any efforts to change it.
Newton’s second law (law of momentum)
Momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity.
Momentum ‘p’=mv. The SI unit for momentum is kgm/s or Ns. The Newton’s second law states that
“The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes place in
the direction in which the force acts”
Change in momentum= mv-mu
Rate of change of momentum= mv-mu/∆t
Generally, the second law gives rise to the equation of force F=ma
Hence F=mv-mu/∆t and F∆t=mv-mu
The quantity F∆t is called impulse and is equal to the change of momentum of the body. The SI unit
for impulse is Ns.
Examples
1. A van of mass 3 metric tons is travelling at a velocity of 72 km/h. Calculate the momentum of
the vehicle.
Solution
Momentum=mv=72km/h=(20m/s) ×3×103 kg
=6.0×104kgm/s
2. A truck weighs 1.0×105 N and is free to move. What force willgiveit an acceleration of 1.5 m/s2?
(take g=10N/kg)
Solution
Mass of the truck = (1.0×105)/10=6.0×104
Using F=ma
=1.5×10×104
=1.5×104 N
3. A car of mass 1,200 kg travelling at 45 m/s is brought to rest in 9 seconds. Calculate the
average retardation of the car and the average force applied by the brakes.
Solution
Since the car comes to rest, v=0, a=(v-u)/t =(0-45)/9=-5m/s (retardation)
F=ma =(1200×-5) N =-6,000 N (braking force)
4. A truck of mass 2,000 kg starts from rest on horizontal rails. Find the speed 3 seconds after
starting if the tractive force by the engine is 1,000 N.
Solution
Impulse = Ft=1,000×3= 3,000 Ns
Let v be the velocity after 3 seconds. Since the truck was initially at rest then u=0.
Change in momentum=mv-mu
= (2,000×v) - (2,000×0)
=2,000 v
But impulse=change in momentum
2,000 v = 3,000
v = 3/2=1.5 m/s.
Weight of a body in a lift or elevator
When a body is in a lift at rest then the weight
W=mg
When the lift moves upwards with acceleration ‘a’ then the weight becomes
W = m (a+g)
If the lift moves downwards with acceleration ‘a’ then the weight becomes
W = m (g-a)
Example
A girl of mass stands inside a lift which is accelerated upwards at a rate of 2 m/s2. Determine the
reaction of the lift at the girls’ feet.(take g=10N/kg, W=500N)
Solution
Let the reaction at the girls’ feet be ‘R’ and the weight ‘W’
The resultant force F= R-W
= (R-500) N
Using F = ma, then R-500= 50×2, R= 100+500 = 600 N.
Newton’s third law (law of interaction)
This law states that “For every action or force there is an equal and opposite force or reaction”
Example
A girl of mass 50 Kg stands on roller skates near a wall. She pushes herself against the wall with a
force of 30N. If the ground is horizontal and the friction on the roller skates is negligible, determine
her acceleration from the wall.
Solution
Action = reaction = 30 N
Force of acceleration from the wall = 30 N
F = ma
a = F/m = 30/50 = 0.6 m/s2

Linear collisions
Linear collision occurs when two bodies collide head-on and move along the same straight line.
There are two types of collisions;
a) Inelastic collision: - this occurs when two bodies collide and stick together i.e. hitting putty on a
wall. Momentum is conserved.
b) Elastic collision: - occurs when bodies collide and bounce off each other after collision. Both
momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
Collisions bring about a law derived from both Newton’s third law and conservation of momentum.
This law is known as the law of conservation of linear momentum which states that “when no
outside forces act on a system of moving objects, the total momentum of the system stays constant”.
Examples
1. A bullet of mass 0.005 kg is fired from a gun of mass 0.5 kg. If the muzzle velocity of the bullet
is 300 m/s, determine the recoil velocity of the gun.
Solution
Initial momentum of the bullet and the gun is zero since they are at rest.
Momentum of the bullet after firing = (0.005×350) = 1.75 kgm/s
But momentum before firing = momentum after firing hence
0 = 1.75 + 0.5 v where ‘v’ = recoil velocity
0.5 v = -1.75
v =-1.75/0.5 = - 3.5 m/s (recoil velocity)
2. A resultant force of 12 N acts on a body of mass 2 kg for 10 seconds. What is the change in
momentum of the body?
Solution
Change in momentum = ∆P = mv – mu= Ft
 = 12×10 = 12 Ns
3. A minibus of mass 1,500 kg travelling at a constant velocity of 72 km/h collides head-on with a
stationary car of mass 900 kg. The impact takes 2 seconds before the two move together at a
constant velocity for 20 seconds. Calculate
a) The common velocity
b) The distance moved after the impact
c) The impulsive force
d) The change in kinetic energy
Solution
a) Let the common velocity be ‘v’
Momentum before collision = momentum after collision
(1500×20) + (900×0) = (1500 +900)v
30,000 = 2,400v
v = 30,000/2,400 = 12.5 m/s (common velocity)
b) After impact, the two bodies move together as one with a velocity of 12.5 m/s
Distance = velocity × time
= 12.5×20
= 250m
c) Impulse = change in momentum
= 1500 (20-12.5) for minibus or
=900 (12.5 – 0) for the car
= 11,250 Ns
Impulse force F = impulse/time = 11,250/2 = 5,625 N
d) K.E before collision = ½ × 1,500 × 202 = 3 × 105 J
K.E after collision = ½ × 2400 × 12.52 = 1.875×105 J
Therefore, change in K.E =(3.00 – 1.875) × 105 = 1.25× 105 J

Some of the applications of the law of conservation of momentum

Rocket and jet propulsion: - rocket propels itself forward by forcing out its exhaust gases. The hot
gases are pushed through exhaust nozzle at high velocity therefore gaining momentum to move
forward.
The garden sprinkler: - as water passes through the nozzle at high pressure it forces the sprinkler to
rotate.
FLUID FLOW
Fluid in physics refers to liquids and gases. To study fluid flow we have to make the following
assumptions:
1. We consider fluids to be incompressible
2. We assume that they have little or no internal friction or viscosity. Streamline and turbulent flow
The path followed by a small element of a moving fluid is called a line of flow. A streamline is a
curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the fluid velocity at that point. A streamline
flow occurs when all elements of a fluid passing a particular point follow the same path or line of
flow as the elements that passed through that point previously. A streamline flow is achieved only
when the speed is low. If the speed increases it is characterized by whirls and eddies then it
becomes a turbulent flow. Turbulent flow generally occurs when the speed is high and where there
are sharp bends along the path of the fluid.
Equation of continuity
Consider a fluid flowing (streamline flow) through a horizontal pipe with different cross -sectional
areas as shown.
Let the cross-sectional area in both sections be A1 and A2 and the corresponding speeds of the fluid
be V1 and V2 respectively. The volume of fluid flowing per second in each section is given by; V =
A L = A v t = A v. Where L, v t and v is the distance moved in one second.
Since the volumes in each section is the same, then
A1 V1 = A2 V2, hence A v = constant.
The above equation is known as the equation of continuity. Since A1 > A2, then V2 > V1. i.e. the
speed increases when a tube narrows.
The quantity (A v) is called volume efflux i.e. volume flowing per second.

Example
A horizontal pipe of cross-sectional area 50 cm2 carries water at the rate of 0.20 litres per second.
Determine the speed;
a) Of the speed of water in the pipe.
b) When the tube narrows to 20 cm2 at another point.
Solution
a) Volume efflux = o.20 l per second = A v
From V (volume) = A v, then v = V / A = 0.20 × 10-3 / 50 × 10-4 = 0.04 m/s
b) Since A1 v1 = A2 v2 then v2 = (0.05 × 0.04) / 0.02 = 0.1 m/s

Bernoulli’s principle
Daniel Bernoulli (1700 - 1782) explained the variation of pressure exerted by a moving fluid when
its speed is changed. The pressure is lower where the speed is higher.
Bernoulli’s principle states that “For a fluid flowing through a tube, the sum of the pressure, the
kinetic energy per unit volume and the potential energy per unit volume of the fluid is a constant”.
Mathematically expressed as:
P + ½ ρ v2 + ρ g h = constant. Where P - pressure, ρ - density, v= velocity, g - acceleration due to
gravity and h - height.
Bernoulli’s effect
When air is blown through the tunnel formed, the area marked ‘T’ collapses inwards showing that
pressure outside is more than the one inside the tunnel. The pressure inside the tunnel decreases as
the air through it increases in speed.
Applications of Bernoulli’s principle
1. Car carburetor - inside the carburetor the air passage is partially constricted at the point where
petrol mixes with air hence air intake increases the speed of air while decreasing the pressure inside
for petrol to vaporize quickly before it gets to the cylinder where combustion occurs.
2. Horizontal pipe - for a streamline flow through a pipe the term ρ g h is eliminated from the
Bernoulli’s equation leaving P + ½ ρ v2 = constant, indicating that pressure in liquid is greatest
when speed is least. When this is combined with the equation of continuity, the pressure is then
greatest when the pipe is widest hence the following observation.
3. Dynamic lift - when air is blown at the top a flat sheet of paper the ends of the paper moves
upward and this because the speed of air on top of the paper is greater than below and according to
Bernoulli’s principle the pressure on top lowers and the pressure below becomes sufficient enough
to produce a force which moves the paper upwards. This is what is referred to as the dynamic lift
since it is caused by motion. The upward force is equal to the product of the pressure difference and
the area of the surface lifted. It is applied in the taking off of airplanes, the trajectory of a spinning
ball, paint sprayer and Bunsen burner among others.
THIN LENSES
A lens is conventionally defined as a piece of glass which is used to focus or change the direction
of a beam of light passing through it. They are mainly made of glass or plastic. Lens are used in
making spectacles, cameras, cinema projectors, microscopes and telescopes.

Types of thin lenses

A lens which is thicker at its centre than at its edges converges light and is called convex or
converging lens. A lens which is thicker at its edges than at its centre diverges light and is known as
concave or diverging lens.

Properties of lenses
1. Optical centre - this is the geometric centre of a lens which is usually shown using a black dot in
ray diagrams. A ray travelling through the optical centre passes through in a straight line.
2. Centre of curvature - this is the geometric centre of the circle of which the lens surface
is part of. Since lenses have two surfaces there are two centres of curvature. C is used to denote one
centre while the other is denoted by C1.
3. Principal axis - this is an imaginary line which passes through the optical centre at
right angle to the lens.
4. Principal focus - this is a point through which all rays travelling parallel to the
principal axis pass after refraction through the lens. A lens has a principal focus on both
its sides. F is used to denote the principal focus
5. Focal length - this is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus. It
is denoted by ‘f’.
Uses of a camera
1. The sine camera is used to make motion pictures
2. High speed cameras are used to record movement of particles
3. Close circuit television cameras (CCTV) are used to protect high security installations like
banks, supermarkets etc.
4. Digital cameras are used to capture data that can be fed to computers.
5. Human eye - It consists of a transparent cornea, aqueous humour and a crystal-like lens
which form a converging lens system. The ciliary muscles contract or relax to change the
curvature of the lens. Though the image formed at the retina is inverted the brain ‘sees’ the
image as upright. For distant objects ciliary muscles relax while near objects it contracts to
control the focal length and this is known as accommodation. When at 25 cm away an object
appears clearest and this is known as least distance of vision or near point.
Common eye defects
1. Short sightedness or hypermetropia- the eyeball is too large for the ‘relaxed focal length’
of the eye. The defect is corrected by placing a concave lens in front of the
eye.
2. Long sightedness or myopia- images are formed beyond the retina. The defect is corrected
by placing a converging lens in front of the eye.
3. Presbyopia - this is the inability of the eye to accommodate and this occurs as the eye ages
due to the weakening of the ciliary muscles. It can be corrected by the use a pair of
spectacles.
4. Astigmatism - this is a defect where the eye has two different focal lengths as a result of
the cornea not being spherical. Corrected by the use of cylindrical lens.
5. Colour blindness- caused by deficiency of colour detecting cells in the retina.
Power of lens
The power of a simple lens is given by the formula: Power = 1 / f. The unit for power of a
lens is diopter (D).
Example
Find the power of a concave lens of a focal length 25 cm.
Solution
Power = 1 / f = 1 / -0.25 = -4 D.
MAGNETISM
Introduction
Magnets are substances that are able to attract and hold items. Lodestone is the only
known natural magnet which was discovered by the Chinese 2,000 years ago. Other magnets
produced artificially by man are called artificial magnets.

Magnets and non-magnetic materials

Magnetic materials are those that are strongly attracted by magnets while non-magnetic
ones are those that are not affected by magnets. Iron, steel, cobalt and nickel are magnetic
substances, while wood, glass and copper are examples of non-magnetic substances.
Substances that are repelled by magnets are said to be diamagnetic whereas those which
are strongly attracted i.e. iron, nickel, cobalt are called ferromagnetic materials. The
materials that are so lightly attracted such that the magnet seems to have no effect on them
are called paramagnetic materials (mostly non-magnetic materials). Ferrites are a mixture of
iron oxide and barium oxide are the most newly developed magnetic materials. Ceramic
magnets or magnadur magnets are made from ferrites and are very strong.

Properties of magnets
1. They are double poled substances with both the North and South poles.
2. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract. Repulsion is a sure method of determining
whether two substances are magnets.
3. The greatest magnetic force is concentrated around the poles of a magnet.

Magnetic field patterns.

Magnetic field is the space around a magnet where magnetic field (force) is observed.
Plotting field patterns
A line of force gives the direction of the magnetic field at each point along it. Their
closeness is a measure of the strength of the magnetic field or of the force that would be
exerted by the bar magnet.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetism is the effect resulting from the interaction between an electric current and a
magnetic field. This effect brings about induced electromagnetic force (e.m.f) and the
resulting current is called induced current.
Factors affecting the magnitude of the induced e.m.f
1. The rate of relative motion between the conductor and the field - if the velocity of the
conductor is increased the deflection in the conductor increases.
2. The strength of the magnetic field - a stronger magnetic field creates a bigger deflection
3. The length of the conductor - if the length is increased in the magnetic field the deflection
increases.

Faraday’s law of magnetic induction

After considering the factors affecting the magnitude of the induced e.m.f, Michael Faraday
came up with a law which states that “The induced e.m.f in a conductor in a magnetic field is
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the conductor”.

Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction

This law is used to determine the direction of the induced current in a conductor. It states that
“An induced current flows in such a direction that its magnetic effect opposes the change
through which the current has been produced”. It is applied similarly when a wire is been
moved in magnetic field.
Fleming’s right hand rule.
The law states that “The first finger, the second finger and the thumb of the right hand when
placed mutually perpendicular to each other, the first finger points in the direction of the field
and the thumb in the direction of motion then second finger points in the direction of the
induced current”. This law is also called the generator rule.

Applications of electromagnetic induction

1. A.c generator/alternator- a generator is a device which produces electricity on the basis of
electromagnetic induction by continuous motion of either a solenoid or a magnet. It consists
of an armature made of several turns of insulated wire wound on soft iron core and revolving
freely on an axis between the poles of a powerful magnet. Two slip rings are connected to the
ends of the armature with two carbon brushes rotating on the slip ring.
In an external circuit the current is at maximum value at 900 and minimum value at2700. This
brings about alternating current and the corresponding voltage (e.m.f) is the alternating
voltage. They are used in car alternators and H.E.P.
2. D.c generator/alternator- in this case the commutators replace the slip rings to enable the
output to move in one direction. After a rotation of 1800, instead of current reversing, the
connections to the external circuit are reversed so that current direction flows in one
direction.