MODULE 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Unit I -Basic of Operating System and Its Structures

Introduction to Operating System

Computer System Organization
Architecture- Structure-Operations.
Management:Process-Memory-Storage.
Structures:Services-System Interface
System Calls
System Program
Design-structure

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Chapter 1: Introduction
What Operating Systems Do
Computer-System Organization
Computer-System Architecture
Operating-System Structure
Operating-System Operations
Process Management
Memory Management
Storage Management
Protection and Security

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 Objectives
To provide a grand tour of the major operating systems components

To provide coverage of basic computer system organization

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 What is an Operating System?

A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer

and the computer hardware

Operating system goals:

Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
Make the computer system convenient to use
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

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 Computer System Structure

Computer system can be divided into four components:

Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
Users
 People, machines, other computers

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 Four Components of a Computer System

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 What Operating Systems Do
Depends on the point of view
Users want convenience, ease of use
Don’t care about resource utilization
But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep all
users happy
Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated resources
but frequently use shared resources from servers
Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and battery
life
Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles

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 Operating System Definition

OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource
use

OS is a control program
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use
of the computer

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 Operating System Definition (Cont.)

No universally accepted definition

“Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is

good approximation
But varies wildly

“The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel.
Everything else is either a system program (ships with the operating
system) or an application program.

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 Kernel in Operating System

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 Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
* EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable ROM, it is non-volatile
memory chip that can hold the data even if the power supply is stopped.
This can be read and written optically. EPROM may be re-programmed
whereas PROM cannot.

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 Computer System Organisation
Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles

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 Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type

Each device controller has a local buffer

CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers

I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller

Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by

causing an interrupt

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 Common Functions of Interrupts
Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,
through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the
service routines

Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted

instruction

Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being

processed to prevent a lost interrupt

A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a

user request

An operating system is interrupt driven

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 Interrupt Handling
The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing
registers and the program counter

Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:

Polling- multiple interrupt sources share the same interrupt vector
address
vectored interrupt system- each interrupt vector source has a
unique interrupt vector address

Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for

each type of interrupt

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 I/O Structure
After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O completion
Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
Wait loop (contention for memory access)
At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/
O processing

After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for I/O
completion
System call – request to the operating system to allow user to wait
for I/O completion
Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its
type, address, and state
Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine device
status and to modify table entry to include interrupt

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 Direct Memory Access Structure
Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to
memory speeds

Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to

main memory without CPU intervention

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 Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
Random access
Typically volatile (memory that keep the information only the time it
is powered up)
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided
into sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the
device and the computer

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 Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
Speed
Cost
Volatility

Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main

memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage

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 Storage-Device Hierarchy

Used for operating systems, application

Secondary programs and data storage

storage

Used for archiving and media distribution

Used for electronic data storage

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 Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in
hardware, operating system, software)

Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily

Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is

there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there

Cache smaller than storage being cached

Cache management important design problem
Cache size and replacement policy

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 Computer-System Architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through
mainframes)
Most systems have special-purpose processors as well

Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance

Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing

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 How a Modern Computer Works

A von Neumann architecture

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 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

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 A Dual-Core Design

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 Clustered Systems
Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together
Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
 Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
 Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
 Applications must be written to use parallelization

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 Clustered Systems

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 Operating System Structure

Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs

so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

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 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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 Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware
Software error or request creates exception or trap
Division by zero, request for operating system service
Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each
other or the operating system
Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
User mode and kernel mode
Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code
or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to
user

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 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
Set interrupt after specific period
Operating system decrements counter
When counter zero generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time

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 Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task
CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads

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 Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:

Creating and deleting both user and system processes

Suspending and resuming processes
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
Providing mechanisms for process communication
Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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 Memory Management
All data in memory before and after processing

All instructions in memory in order to execute

Memory management determines what is in memory when

Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users

Memory management activities

Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom
Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into
and out of memory
Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

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 Storage Management

OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage

Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)

File-System management
Files usually organized into directories
Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

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 Mass-Storage Management
Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or
data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
Proper management is of central importance
Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its
algorithms
OS activities
Free-space management
Storage allocation
Disk scheduling
Some storage need not be fast
Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
Still must be managed – by OS or applications
Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW
(read-write)

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 Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or

implicit

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 Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register

Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no

matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware

such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache

Distributed environment situation even more complex

Several copies of a datum can exist
Various solutions covered in Chapter 17

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 I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the
user

I/O subsystem responsible for

Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of
data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of
output of one job with input of other jobs)
General device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices

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 Protection and Security
Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or
users to resources defined by the OS

Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks

Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
theft, theft of service

Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can

do what
User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights

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 End of Chapter 1

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009