MODULE 4: INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

I. DISCUSSION
A. Introduction
Agriculture uses six sources of power: human labor, domestic animals,
wind, flowing water, electricity, and heat engines. Of these, internal
combustion engines and electric motors provide the majority of the power, but
this is changing. Environmental concerns, government policies, and declining Figure 1. Intake Stroke
resources are pushing agriculture to adopt alternative sources of energy.
Someday fuel cells, solar energy, biomass, and other forms of alternative
energy may supply the power for agriculture. For the immediate future, the
primary sources of power for agriculture will continue to be internal combustion
heat engines and electric motors. Knowledge of how and why internal
combustion engines work is essential to a successful agricultural manager.
A.1 Theory of Operation
All internal combustion engines convert the energy of fuel
(chemical energy) to power (mechanical energy). They are called internal
combustion because burning a fuel in a closed chamber causes an increase
in temperature, which causes an increase in pressure. The pressure Figure 2. Compression Stroke
produces a force on the head of the piston forcing it away from the cylinder
head. The linear movement of the piston is converted to rotary motion by the connecting
rod and crankshaft.
All internal combustion engines have eight requirements for operation:
1. Air (oxygen) is drawn into the engine cylinder.
2. A quantity of fuel is introduced into the engine.
3. The air and the fuel are mixed.
4. The fuel–air mixture is compressed.
5. The fuel–air mixture is ignited by the spark plug in gasoline engines or by the
heat of compression in diesel engines.
6. The burning of the fuel–air mixture causes a rapid rise in temperature which
causes a rapid rise in pressure, which acts against the piston, producing a force on the
piston.
7. The use of a connecting rod and a crankshaft converts the linear movement of
the piston to rotary motion. The force on the piston is converted to torque on the
crankshaft.
8. The products of combustion are expelled from the engine.

A.2 Types of Engine according to Stroke

• Four-Stroke Cycle
o The four-stroke cycle engine, commonly called four-cycle engine, is one of the two
common types of engine cycles used for both spark– and compression–ignition
engines. In four-cycle engines, the eight requirements occur during four strokes of
the piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft. The four strokes are called:
• Intake (downward). It is to get the air-fuel mixture into the cylinder.
During the intake stroke, the piston travels from the top of the cylinder
(TDC) to the bottom of the cylinder (BDC). At the beginning of the cycle, the
intake valve opens. As the piston moves downward, the volume in the
cylinder between the piston and the cylinder head, or combustion chamber
volume, increases. As the piston reaches the BDC on the intake stroke, the
intake valve closes, trapping the fuel–air mixture inside the cylinder.

• Compression (upward). The piston compresses the air-fuel mixture into a

smaller volume.
The compression stroke follows the intake stroke. During the
compression stroke, both valves are closed and the piston moves from BDC
 to TDC. This movement of the piston reduces the volume of the combustion
chamber from the maximum to the minimum. Reducing the volume through
compression increases the pressure and the temperature. As the piston nears
the top of the compression stroke, ignition occurs.

• Power (downward). The fuel is ignited by the spark produced by the spark
plug and burns. In diesel engine, fuel is injected into a highly compressed air,
causing self ignition.
After compression stroke, power stroke will follow. During the power
stroke, the chemical energy of the fuel is converted to power. In the power
stroke, both valves are closed and the piston moves from TDC to BDC.
Pressure is the key for converting the energy of the fuel to power. During the
power stroke, the rise in temperature causes a rise in pressure. Increased
pressure results in increased force on the piston.

• Exhaust (upward). The crankshaft forces the piston back up the cylinder,
pushing leftover gases out past an exhaust valve.
The exhaust stroke follows the power stroke. At the beginning of the
stroke, the exhaust valve is open and the intake valve is closed. The piston
moves from BDC to TDC. As the piston approaches the
bottom of the stroke, the exhaust valves open, which starts the
process of removing the exhaust gases from the engine. As the
piston reaches TDC on the exhaust stroke, the intake valves
open and the cycle repeats. Four strokes of the piston and two
revolutions of the crankshaft have been completed.

• Two-Stroke Cycle
o In a two-stroke cycle engine, commonly called the two-cycle
engine, the eight events occur during two strokes of the piston, one
revolution of the crankshaft.
o In two-cycle engines, the carburetor is attached to the crankcase,
and the engine does not have intake or exhaust valves. Ports are Figure 3. Power Stroke
used instead of valves to provide a means to get gases into and out
of the combustion chamber. Ports are holes in the cylinder wall that
are exposed and covered by the movement of the piston.

Figure 4. Exhaust Stroke

Figure 5. Two Stroke Engine Cycle

▪ Intake – Exhaust Stroke

In a two-cycle engine, intake and exhaust occur on the same stroke.
At the start of the intake–exhaust stroke, the piston is at TDC, and the reed
valve is closed. With the reed valve closed, the movement of the piston also
starts compressing the air–fuel–oil mixture in the crankcase. After the piston
moves away from the cylinder head at a short distance, it exposes the exhaust
port. When the exhaust port is exposed, the gases in the combustion chamber
start to flow out the exhaust port. As the piston continues to travel toward
BDC, it continues to compress the air–fuel–oil mixture in the crankcase and
exposes the intake port. When the intake port is exposed, the pressurized air–
 fuel–oil mixture in the crankcase flows into the cylinder. This flow delivers
the next air–fuel–oil charge for combustion and helps expel the exhaust gases.
▪ Compression
During the compression stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC.
As the piston moves toward TDC, it closes the intake port first, and then it
closes the exhaust port. As soon as the intake port is covered, the continuing
movement of the piston toward TDC lowers the pressure in the crankcase.
The reed valve opens, and the air–fuel–oil mixture flows through the
carburetor, through the reed valve and into the crankcase. As soon as the
exhaust port is closed, the movement of the piston toward TDC compresses
the air–fuel–oil mixture.
▪ Ignite and Power
As the piston approaches TDC, the spark plug fires, combustion
occurs, and pressure builds rapidly in the cylinder. This is called the ignition
and power event. As soon as the piston moves away from the head far enough
to expose the exhaust port, the cycle begins again. The eight events occur in
two strokes of the piston, one revolution of the crankshaft.

A.2.1 Comparison between Two Stroke and Four Stroke

Four Stroke Engine Two Stroke Engine
The cycle is completed in four stroke of the The cycle is completed in two stroke of the
piston piston
It has one power stroke in two revolutions It has one power stroke in one revolution
of crankshaft of crankshaft
Quieter Louder
Lesser requirement of cooling and Greater cooling and lubrication are
lubrication required
It contains valves and valve mechanisms so It contains parts, so cheaper in cost
higher in cost
More volumetric and thermal efficiency Less volumetric and thermal efficiency
Used in high efficiency motor cycles, cars, Used in lawn mower, scooters,
buses, trucks, aeroplanes, power generation motorcycles

Figure 6. Gasoline Engine

A.3 Two Major Categories of Internal Combustion Engines

• Spark Ignition (Otto Cycle/Gasoline Engine)
o Fuel is metered and introduced into the engine by either a carburetor or an injection
system. When a carburetor is used, the fuel is metered by jets and orifices in the
carburetor and added to the air as it flows through the venturi of the carburetor. The
fuel is atomized and vaporized as it moves through the intake system and into the
cylinder. A spark plug ignites the fuel–air mixture at the proper time.
• Compression Ignition (Diesel Cycle)
o Fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber. The injection is timed to
occur just before TDC on the compression stroke. Combustion occurs almost
instantaneously because compression causes the air temperature within the
combustion chamber to rise to 1000 ºF and above. Thus, there is no need for a spark
 plug to ignite the fuel. The injector pump controls the amount of fuel delivered to
each cylinder.

A.3.1 Comparison between Spark Ignition Engine and Compression Ignition Engine

Compression Ignition
Parameters Spark Ignition Engine
Engine
Works on the basis of Otto Works on the basis of
cycle or fuel combustion Diesel cycle or fuel
Operational Cycle
occurs at a constant combustion occurs at a
volume constant pressure
Carried out with the help Self-ignition occurs due to
of spark plug which high temperature of highly
Ignition Process ignites a mixture of air and compressed air. Hence,
fuel that is compressed in spark plugs are not
the combustion chamber required.
Uses a highly volatile fuel
Uses a non-volatile fuel
and a high self-ignition
Type of Fuel with low self-ignition
temperature (Petrol,
temperature
Gasoline)
Mixture of air and fuel is Fuel is injected directly
introduced in the suction into the combustion
Method of Fuel Injection stroke, thus, it consist of a chamber at high pressure.
carburettor for mixing the Thus, it consists of a fuel
air and fuel pump and a fuel injector.
Compression Ratio Varies from 6 to 10 Varies from 16 to 20
Fuel is homogeneously Fuel is burned
Speed burned, hence achieving heterogeneously, hence
very high speeds producing lower speeds
Due to lower compression Due to higher compression
ratio, maximum value of ratio engine have the
Thermal Efficiency
thermal efficiency is potential to achieve higher
lower thermal efficiency.
Lighter in weight due to Heavier in weight due to
Weight
their lower peak pressure higher peak pressure

A.4 Types of Engine according to Method of Cooling

1. Air-Cooled Engine. Air-cooled engines have fins cast into their cylinders and cylinder
heads that give the engine greater surface area through which cool air can pass. As air
passes over and through the fins, the engine's heat dissipates into the air.

Figure 7. Air-Cooled Engine

2. Water-Cooled Engine. When an internal combustion engine is cooled by either liquid or

water, it is known as liquid or water cooled engine.
 Figure 8. Liquid Cooled Engine

B. Related Terms

1. Stroke. It is the movement of the piston from top dead center (TDC) to bottom dead center
(BDC) or the other way around. (see Figure 9)
2. Bore. It is the width of the engine’s cylinder (inside which sits the piston). (see Figure 9)
3. Top Dead Center (TDC). The farthest position of piston from the crankshaft or the highest
position of the piston. (see Figure 9)
4. Bottom Dead Center (BDC). The closest position of the piston from the crankshaft or the
lowest position of the piston. (see Figure 9)

Figure 9. Cylinder Cross Sectional Area

5. Displacement
• It is the cylindrical volume that a piston displaces as it moves through one stroke (see
Figure 10).
• It is equal to the area of the piston multiplied by the length of stroke.
• It is one of the factors that determine the horsepower produced by an engine.
• The greater the displacement, the greater the volume of air and fuel that is burned
during combustion, which means more power.
• Larger engines are constructed with more than one cylinder. Engine displacement is
used. Engine displacement is the product of the cylinder displacement times the number
of cylinders.
6. Compression Ratio
• It is the ratio of the total volume in a cylinder to the clearance volume.
• It is an engine characteristics related to engine efficiency, that is, the ability of the
engine to convert energy in the fuel to useful mechanical energy.
• Increasing the compression ratio increases the efficiency of the engine but changes the
fuel requirements. The greater the compression ratio, the greater the potential efficiency
of the engine.
• A compression ratio of 7 to 8:1 is common for gasoline engines, and a ratio of 15 to
22:1 is common for diesel engines.
 Figure 10. Displacement Volume and Clearance Volume

7. Clearance Volume. It is the volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is at top
dead center (TDC) (see Figure 10).
8. Total Volume. It is the clearance volume plus the displacement.
9. Theoretical Power (Indicated Engine Horsepower). It is defined as the calculated
horsepower based on the bore, cylinder pressure, and engine speed. It is the power
produced in the engine by combustion of the fuel. It does not account for the power lost to
friction and other losses.
10. Volumetric Efficiency. It is the comparison of how much air flows into the cylinder
compared to the amount of air the cylinder can hold when it is totally full at atmospheric
pressure. Reducing volumetric efficiency reduces the power produced.