Section 1.

Chapter 4
Section Summary
 Mathematical Proofs
 Forms of Theorems
 Direct Proofs
 Indirect Proofs
 Proof of the Contrapositive
 Proof by Contradiction
Proofs of Mathematical Statements
 A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth
of a statement.

Proofs have many practical applications:

 Verification that computer programs are correct.
 Establishing that operating systems are secure.
 Enabling programs to make inferences in artificial
intelligence.
 Showing that system specifications are consistent.
Definitions
 A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true using:
 definitions
 other theorems
 axioms (statements which are given as true)
 rules of inference

 A lemma is a ‘helping theorem’ or a result which is needed to

prove a theorem.

 A corollary is a result which follows directly from a theorem.

 Less important theorems are sometimes called propositions.

 A conjecture is a statement that is being proposed to be true.

Once a proof of a conjecture is found, it becomes a theorem. It
may turn out to be false.
Forms of Theorems
 Many theorems assert that a property holds for all
elements in a domain, such as the integers, the real
numbers, or some of the discrete structures that we will
study in this class.
 Often the universal quantifier (needed for a precise
statement of a theorem) is omitted by standard
mathematical convention.
For example, the statement:
“If x > y, where x and y are positive real numbers, then x2 > y2 ”
really means
“For all positive real numbers x and y, if x > y, then x2 > y2 .”
Proving Theorems
 Many theorems have the form:

 To prove them, we show that where c is an arbitrary

element of the domain,

 By universal generalization the truth of the original

formula follows.
 So, we must prove something of the form:
Proving Conditional Statements: p → q

 Trivial Proof: If we know q is true, then

p → q is true as well.
“If it is raining then 1=1.”

 Vacuous Proof: If we know p is false then

p → q is true as well.
“If I am both rich and poor then 2 + 2 = 5.”
Proving Universal Conditional Statements

1. Assume that P(x) is true.

2. Try to use the assumption, definitions and other
theorems to show that Q(x) is true.

Proving Universal Statements

Even and Odd Integers
Fact:
Natural Numbers are closed under addition and multiplication
ℕ= {0,1,2,3,4,…}

Fact:
Integers are closed under addition, subtraction, multiplication but
not division.
ℤ = {…, -2,-1,0,1,2,…}

Definition: The integer n is even if there exists an integer k such

that n = 2k, and n is odd if there exists an integer k, such that n =
2k + 1.

Note that every integer is either even or odd and no integer is both
even and odd.
Direct Proof

Proving Conditional Statements: p → q

 Direct Proof: Assume that p is true. Use rules of
inference, axioms, and logical equivalences to show that q
must also be true.

Example: Give a direct proof of the theorem “If n is an odd

integer, then n2 is odd.”

Solution: Assume that n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 for an

integer k. Squaring both sides of the equation, we get:
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k +1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1= 2r + 1,
where r = 2k2 + 2k , an integer.
We have proved that if n is an odd integer, then n2 is an
odd integer.

( marks the end of the proof. Sometimes QED is

used instead. )
Direct Proof

Proving Conditional Statements: p → q

Definition: The real number r is rational if there exist
integers p and q where q≠0 such that r = p/q, p and q
have no common factor.

Example: Prove that the sum of two rational numbers is

rational.

Solution: Assume r and s are two rational numbers.

Then there must be integers p, q and also t, u such
that

where v = pu + qt
w = qu ≠ 0
Thus the sum is rational.
Contraposition

Proving Conditional Statements: p → q

 Proof by Contraposition: Assume ¬q and show ¬p is true also.
This is sometimes called an indirect proof method. If we give a direct
proof of ¬q → ¬p then we have a proof of p → q.
Why does this work?

Example: Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd, then n is

odd.

Solution: Assume n is even. So, n = 2k for some integer k. Thus

3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 =6k +2 = 2(3k + 1) = 2j for j = 3k +1

Therefore 3n + 2 is even. Since we have shown ¬q → ¬p ,

Then p → q must hold as well. If n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd (not
even) , then n is odd (not even).
Contraposition

Proving Conditional Statements: p → q

Example: Prove that for an integer n, if n2 is odd, then n
is odd.

Solution: Use proof by contraposition. Assume n is

even (i.e., not odd). Therefore, there exists an integer
k such that n = 2k. Hence,
n2 = 4k2 = 2 (2k2)
and n2 is even(i.e., not odd).
We have shown that if n is an even integer, then n2 is
even. Therefore by contraposition, for an integer n, if
n2 is odd, then n is odd.
Contradiction

Proving Conditional Statements: p → q

 Proof by Contradiction: (AKA reductio ad absurdum).
To prove p, assume ¬p and derive a contradiction such as
p ∧ ¬p. (an indirect form of proof). Since we have shown
that ¬p →F is true , it follows that the contrapositive T→p
also holds.

Example: Prove that if you pick 22 days from the calendar, at

least 4 must fall on the same day of the week.

Solution: Assume that no more than 3 of the 22 days fall on

the same day of the week. Because there are 7 days of the
week, we could only have picked 21 days. This contradicts
the assumption that we have picked 22 days.
Contradiction

Proof by Contradiction
 A preview of Chapter 4.
Example: Use a proof by contradiction to give a proof that
√2 is irrational.
Solution: Suppose √2 is rational. Then there exists
integers a and b with √2 = a/b, where b≠ 0 and a and b
have no common factors (see Chapter 4). Then

Therefore a2 must be even. If a2 is even then a must be

even (an exercise). Since a is even, a = 2c for some integer
c. Thus,

Therefore b2 is even. Again then b must be even as well.

But then 2 must divide both a and b. This contradicts our
assumption that a and b have no common factors. We have
proved by contradiction that our initial assumption must
be false and therefore √2 is irrational .
What is wrong with this?
“Proof” that 1 = 2

Solution: Step 5. a - b = 0 by the premise and division by 0 is undefined.

Biconditional

Theorems that are Biconditional

Statements
 To prove a theorem that is a biconditional statement,
that is, a statement of the form p q, we show that
p → q and q →p are both true.
Example: Prove the theorem: “If n is an integer, then n is
odd if and only if n2 is odd.”
Solution: We have already shown (previous slides) that
both p →q and q →p. Therefore we can conclude p q.

Sometimes iff is used as an abbreviation for “if an only if,” as in

“If n is an integer, then n is odd iif n2 is odd.”
Existence Proofs Srinivasa Ramanujan
(1887-1920)
 Proof of theorems of the form .
 Constructive existence proof:
 Find an explicit value of c, for which P(c) is true.
 Then is true by Existential Generalization (EG).
Example: Show that there is a positive integer that can
be written as the sum of cubes of positive integers in
two different ways:
Proof: 1729 is such a number since
1729 = 103 + 93 = 123 + 13

Godfrey Harold Hardy

(1877-1947)
Nonconstructive Existence Proofs
 In a nonconstructive existence proof, we assume no c
exists which makes P(c) true and derive a
contradiction.

Example: Show that there exist irrational numbers x

and y such that xy is rational.

Proof: We know that √2 is irrational. Consider the

number √2 √2 . If it is rational, we have two irrational
numbers x and y with xy rational, namely x = √2
and y = √2. But if √2 √2 is irrational,
then we can let x = √2 √2 and y = √2 so that
xy = (√2 √2 )√2 = √2 (√2 √2) = √2 2 = 2.
Counterexamples
 Recall .
 To establish that is true (or is false)
find a c such that P(c) is true or P(c) is false.
 In this case c is called a counterexample to the
assertion .
Example: “Every positive integer is the sum of the
squares of 3 integers.”
Solution
The integer 7 is a counterexample. So the claim is false.
Divisibility

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Divisibility
 Definition:
If one integer, n, divides a second integer, m, without
producing a remainder, then we say that “n divides m”.
Denoted n | m , m=n*k

 Definition:
If one integer, n, does not divide evenly into a second
integer, m, i.e., mn produces a remainder, then we say
that “n does not divide m”. Denoted n | m

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Divisors
• Definition: Let a, b and c be integers such that
• a = b·c (b divides a)
= c.b (c divides a)
• Then b and c are said to divide (or are factors) of
a, while a is said to be a multiple of b (as well as of
c). The pipe symbol “|” denotes “divides” so the
situation is summarized by:
• b|a  c|a.

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 Divisors: Examples
Answer:
1. 77 | 7:
false bigger number can’t divide smaller positive number
2. 7 | 77: true because 77 = 7 · 11
3. 24 | 24: true because 24 = 24 · 1
4. 0 | 24: false, only 0 is divisible by 0
5. 24 | 0: true, 0 is divisible by every number (0 = 24 · 0)

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Examples of divisibility
 Which of these holds?
4 | 12 11 | -11
4|4 -22 | 11
4|6 7 | -15
12 | 4 4 | -16
6|0
0|6

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Theorem
 Let a, b, and c be integers, where a ≠ 0. Then
 (i) if a ∣ b and a ∣ c, then a ∣ (b + c);
 (ii) if a ∣ b, then a ∣ bc for all integers c;
 (iii) if a ∣ b and b ∣ c, then a ∣ c;

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Proof: (i)
Suppose a | b and a | c, then it follows that there are
integers s and t with b = as and c = at. Hence,
b + c = as + at = a (s + t).
Hence, a | (b + c)

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Division Theorem
 When an integer is divided by a positive integer, there
is a quotient and a remainder. This is traditionally
called the “Division Algorithm/ theorem”.

Theorem: If a is an integer and d a positive integer,

then there are unique integers q and r, with 0 ≤ r < d,
such that a = dq + r.
 d is called the divisor.
 a is called the dividend. a div d = q
 q is called the quotient.
a mod d = r
 r is called the remainder.

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Examples
What are the quotient and remainder when
101 is divided by 11?
Solution: The quotient when 101 is divided by
11 is 9, and the remainder is 2.

What are the quotient and remainder when

−11 is divided by 3?
Solution: The quotient when −11 is divided
by 3 is −4, and the remainder is 1.

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