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HISTORY AND
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Definition

• Science is a broad and multifaceted field, and as such, it can be defined in various ways,
depending on the context in which it is being discussed.
• In general term, Science is the systematic enterprise that builds and organises knowledge in the
form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. It involves observation,
experimentation, and the formulation of laws and theories.
• Example: "Science is a method of gaining knowledge about the natural world through
observation, experimentation, and reasoning" (Kuhn, 1962).
• The word science originates from the Latin term scientia, which means
"knowledge." It can be described as a structured effort to uncover specific facts
about the world through observation and reasoning, and to establish laws that
link these facts together.
• In some cases, it also aims to predict future events. While there are various
definitions of science, they all emphasize the pursuit of discovering particular
facts and identifying the patterns in which these facts are related.
 Other Definitions

• Karl Popper defines science as a process of falsification, where

hypotheses are tested rigorously and discarded if proven wrong,
which emphasizes the importance of refutability in scientific
theories (Popper, 1959)
• Stephen Hawking in his work “A Brief History of Time” defines
science as the search for a comprehensive theory that explains the
laws of the universe (Hawking, 1988).
• Herbert Simon, in his work on Bounded Rationality, described
science as not only the discovery of natural laws but also the
application of scientific methods to solve practical, real-world
problems (Simon, 1982).
 Other Definitions cont..
• Hans Reichenbach defines science as a collection of facts that
have been proven through systematic observation and
experimentation, with an emphasis on scientific rigor and
empirical validation (Reichenbach, 1951).
• Science can be defined as a process or method of inquiry that
seeks to explain the world through systematic observation,
experimentation, and analysis. This method involves forming
hypotheses, conducting controlled experiments, and revising
ideas based on empirical data.
• o Example: "Science is a systematic way of exploring
phenomena in the world through observation, experimentation,
and logical reasoning" (McLeish, 2014).
 What is the Philosophy of Science?

• The philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy that

investigates the foundations, methods, and implications of
science.
• It explores questions about how scientific knowledge is created,
what constitutes scientific reasoning, the nature of scientific
theories, and the relationship between science and society.
• Unlike the natural sciences, which focus on understanding the
natural world, the philosophy of science scrutinizes the
assumptions and methods underlying scientific practices.
 What is Scientific Knowledge?
❑ One of the core questions in the philosophy of science is what
constitutes scientific knowledge? Philosophers analyze the nature of
scientific theories, laws of nature, and scientific facts. This includes
exploring whether scientific knowledge is objective and reliable, and how
it differs from other forms of knowledge.
• Realism vs. Anti-Realism: Realists argue that science describes the
world as it really is, and scientific theories aim to provide true accounts of
reality (e.g., the theory of evolution or quantum mechanics). Anti-realists,
on the other hand, suggest that scientific theories do not need to
represent truth but are simply useful tools for predicting and explaining
phenomena.
• Empiricism: Philosophers like David Hume and John Locke argue that
all knowledge must be grounded in sensory experience. Empirical
evidence—observations and experiments—forms the foundation of
scientific knowledge.
 What is Scientific Knowledge cont..

• Rationalism: In contrast, rationalists like René Descartes believe

that some knowledge is gained through reason alone, independent
of sensory experience.
❑The Scientific Method and Its Justification: The scientific method
is the systematic process used by scientists to investigate the world.
✓ It typically involves hypothesis formation, experimentation, data
collection, and theory development.
✓ The philosophy of science interrogates whether this method is sufficient
for gaining reliable knowledge and whether there are alternative
methods of scientific inquiry.
 Science in the Ancient World

• Throughout history, science and society have progressed

together. From 2000 B.C. to 699 A.D., as societies focused on
stabilizing agriculture and trade, scientific developments led to
practical technological advancements and the first rational
explanations of the universe's complexity.
• Although early nomadic civilizations were not as scientifically
or mathematically advanced as today, their efforts laid the
foundation for the science and philosophy developed in
ancient Babylon, Egypt, China, and India.
 Historical evolution of science
1. Ancient Science (Pre-Scientific Era): Early
human civilizations, including the Mesopotamians,
Egyptians, and Greeks, pioneered the study of the
natural environment.
• Their methodologies, however, were predominantly logical,
heavily influenced by mythological and religious
interpretations.
• The early expressions of science were inseparably linked
to astrology, astronomy, and the practice of medicine.
 Historical evolution of science cont…

a. Mesopotamians and Egyptians (3000 BCE – 500 BCE): The earliest known
scientific endeavours come from these civilizations, where practical knowledge such as
astronomy for agriculture and engineering for building was developed.
➢ The Mesopotamians were the ancient people who lived between the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers (modern-day Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Kuwait). Often called the
"cradle of civilization,"
➢ Thus Mesopotamia was one of the earliest regions to develop complex
societies, writing systems, and advanced technologies. This civilization began
around 3500 BCE and lasted until its conquest by the Persians in the 6th
century BCE.
➢ The Egyptians excelled in geometry to construct the pyramids, while the
Babylonians made early advances in astronomy.
Historical evolution of science cont…

a. Ancient Greeks (500 BCE – 500 CE): The Greeks are often
credited with the first major shift toward rational explanations of
the natural world, relying on observation and logic.
❖Philosophers like Pythagoras (mathematics), Aristotle (biology,
physics, and ethics), and Euclid (geometry) laid the
foundations for systematic study.
❖Archimedes contributed to mechanics and calculus-like
thinking, while Hippocrates established the basis of medicine,
emphasizing natural causes over divine intervention.
 Historical evolution of science cont…
2. The Medieval Period (500 CE – 1500 CE): This period refers to the era in history known
as the Middle Ages, which lasted roughly from the 5th century to the late 15th century.
▪ This era falls between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the
Renaissance and the Age of Exploration.
▪ Scientific progress in Europe slowed during the Middle Ages, owing in part to the dominance
of religious dogma. However, science thrived in other regions of the world, particularly in
Islam.
o Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th century): During the Islamic Golden Age, scholars
such as Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) advanced optics and Avicenna (Ibn Sina) produced
the “Canon of Medicine”, which became a medical reference in Europe for centuries. The
Arabs retained and expanded on Greek and Roman knowledge, particularly in
astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.
o Medieval Europe: The Catholic Church played a dominant role, influencing the
direction of intellectual thought. Nevertheless, scholars like Roger Bacon (13th century)
championed empirical methods, anticipating the later rise of experimental science .
 Historical evolution of science cont…
3. The Scientific Revolution (1500 CE – 1700 CE)
• The Scientific Revolution marks a pivotal period in history when science transitioned from
medieval scholasticism (a system of knowledge based on religious and classical texts) to a
modern, empirical, and experimental discipline.
• This era, roughly spanning the 16th and 17th centuries, saw groundbreaking advancements in
fields like physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry, which fundamentally altered our
understanding of the natural world.
i. Nicolaus Copernicus (1543) and the Heliocentric Model
▪ One of the most revolutionary ideas of this period came from Nicolaus Copernicus,
who proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system.
▪ In contrast to the long-held geocentric model (which placed Earth at the center of the
universe), Copernicus argued that the Sun, not Earth, was at the center.
▪ This radical shift in cosmology challenged centuries of accepted beliefs, particularly those
grounded in ancient Greek philosophy and the Church’s teachings.
The Scientific Revolution (1500 CE – 1700 CE) cont…

ii. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) and the Telescope

• Galileo Galilei expanded on Copernicus's ideas and
made key contributions to modern science. By improving
the telescope and using it for astronomical observations,
he was able to gather crucial evidence supporting the
heliocentric model.
• One of his most significant discoveries was the
observation of Jupiter’s moons, which showed that not
everything in the heavens orbited Earth. This directly
challenged the geocentric view and lent strong support to
Copernicus's theory.
The Scientific Revolution (1500 CE – 1700 CE) cont…
iii. Johannes Kepler and Planetary Motion
• Johannes Kepler further advanced our understanding of the cosmos by formulating
the laws of planetary motion, which mathematically described the orbits of planets
around the Sun.
• His work, based on the detailed observations of Tycho Brahe (1546–1601),
provided irrefutable evidence for the heliocentric model and showed that planets
move in elliptical, not circular, orbits. Kepler’s laws helped confirm the validity of the
Copernican model and were crucial for the later work of Isaac Newton.
iv. Isaac Newton (1687) and Classical Mechanics
✓ The crowning achievement of the Scientific Revolution came with Isaac
Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687). In this work, Newton not only
synthesized the ideas of his predecessors (Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler) but also
introduced his famous laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation.
✓ Newton's insights provided a comprehensive framework for understanding how
objects move both on Earth and in space, laying the foundation for classical
mechanics and revolutionizing our understanding of the physical world.
 The Scientific Revolution (1500 CE – 1700 CE) cont…

4. The Enlightenment (1700 CE – 1800 CE)

• The Enlightenment (1700 CE – 1800 CE) was a period of intellectual
transformation that shifted the way people thought about knowledge,
reason, and authority. Often called the "Age of Reason," this era placed a
strong emphasis on scientific inquiry, rational thinking, and questioning
established traditions, ultimately shaping the modern world.
• The Enlightenment (1700 CE – 1800 CE) was a period of intellectual
revolution that reshaped how people viewed knowledge, reason, and
authority. Known as the "Age of Reason," this era emphasized scientific
inquiry, rational thinking, and the questioning of traditional beliefs, laying
the foundation for the modern world.
The Scientific Revolution (1500 CE – 1700 CE)
cont…

Significant developments included:

▪ The period saw the popularization of the scientific
method, which became the cornerstone of modern
science.
❖Scholars like Francis Bacon and René Descartes
championed systematic approaches to inquiry—based on
observation, hypothesis testing, experimentation, and
drawing conclusions. This method fundamentally changed
how knowledge was acquired and validated.
The Scientific Revolution (1500 CE – 1700 CE)
cont…

▪ Carl Linnaeus revolutionized biology by creating a

systematic classification system for plants and animals,
which laid the foundation for modern taxonomy.
▪ His work helped scientists categorize living organisms in a
way that remains fundamental to biological sciences today
▪ Antoine Lavoisier, often called the father of modern
chemistry, was instrumental in shaping our understanding
of chemical reactions.
▪ His work in developing chemical nomenclature and
discovering the role of oxygen in combustion marked a key
turning point in chemistry, moving it from alchemy to a
more structured, empirical science