Past Modals

Grammar Practice Worksheets

Grammar Notes
PAST MODALS

A. Introduction to Modals

Modals (also known as modal verbs) and modal expressions are words that
come before the main verb and give it extra meaning.

Past modals and modal expressions are used in English to express

advisability, possibility, certainty, ability, and necessity in the past.
We also use them for repeated past actions. Before you look at the charts
in the next section, how many past modals can you think of?

B. Past Modal Pattern 1

Most past modals and past modal expressions are easily recognizable
from this pattern: modal + have + past participle (p.p.)

Key
plus-circle positive sentence minus-circle negative sentence question-circle question N/A not applicable (impossible or uncommon)

Meaning Use Modal Example

plus-circle Mae should have brought her

resume to the interview.

minus-circle Mae shouldn’t have worn jeans to

should + have + p.p.
the interview.
to make
recommendations question-circle Should Mae have called someone to
Advisability about what someone confirm the time of the interview?
should have
done instead plus-circle We ought to have entered
the contest.
ought to + have + p.p.
minus-circle N/A*

question-circle N/A

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Grammar Notes cont.

B. Past Modal Pattern 1 cont.

Meaning Use Modal Example

plus-circle H
 e had lots of time yesterday, so he
might have completed his project.

minus-circle He didn’t have much time

might + have + p.p.
yesterday, so he might not have
completed his project.

question-circle N/A**

plus-circle T
 hey were talking about moving,
so they may have put their house
to make a guess on the market.
Possibility about possible
may + have + p.p. minus-circle T
 hey weren’t sure if they wanted to
past outcomes
move, so they may not have put
their house on the market.

question-circle N/A

plus-circle I ’m not sure where she is. She could

have gone home.

could + have + p.p. minus-circle N/A

 he didn’t look well. Could she have

question-circle S
gone home?

 kira’s car is gone. He must have

plus-circle A
must + have + p.p. gone home.
to express past
(negative forms:
Certainty outcomes that you’re  kira’s car is still here. He must not/
minus-circle A
must not, could not,
very sure about couldn’t/can’t have gone home.***
or cannot)
question-circle N/A

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Grammar Notes cont.

*Note #1 Note #4
May have + p.p. (possibility) and ought to have + p.p. The past modal pattern with would is common in
(advisability) are quite formal and not as common as third conditional sentences. The third conditional
the other options. It is better to use might + have + p.p. expresses an outcome that didn’t happen but would
or could + have + p.p. for past possibility and should + have if certain conditions had been met in the past.
have + p.p. for past advisability.
PLUS-CIRCLE I f you had included me in the memo, I would have
Note that ought not to have + p.p. is rarely used in known about the meeting.
American and Canadian English and is not included in
 e wouldn’t have been late if his car hadn’t
minus-circle H
the chart.
broken down.

question-circle Would you have noticed if I hadn’t

shown up yesterday?
**Note #2
For questions that include a past modal of possibility,
could + have + p.p. is the most common choice. Note
Note #5
that might + have + p.p. is possible for questions, but
it is not commonly used in American and Canadian Would + rather + have + p.p. can be used to express
English. May + have + p.p. is never used for questions. preferences in affirmative past sentences. In
questions, would and wouldn’t are both possible. We
use wouldn’t when we are more certain that we know
the person’s answer.

***Note #3 plus-circle I had to go to school yesterday, but I’d rather have

gone to the beach.
In most cases, there is a slight difference in meaning
between can’t/couldn’t have + p.p. and must not have + question-circle I hear you went shopping last night. Would/
p.p. (See Note #6 on page 7 for more information.) Wouldn’t you rather have gone to the movies?

We use must not have + p.p. when we’re fairly sure

about an outcome.

• He told me he wasn’t feeling well yesterday, so he

must not have gone to the party last night.

When we’re very sure, it’s better to use couldn’t have +

p.p. or can’t have + p.p.

• I thought I saw my dog across the street, but he

died two years ago so it couldn’t have been him.

Note that while it is possible to contract must not have

+ p.p. to mustn’t have + p.p., it is formal and outdated
in American and Canadian English. The contracted
forms couldn’t have + p.p. and can’t have + p.p. are
very common, however.

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Grammar Notes cont.

C. Past Modal Pattern 2

A few past modals and modal expressions follow the same pattern as
present and future modals: modal + base verb.

Meaning Use Modal Example

plus-circle I could cook when I was

nine years old.

minus-circle I couldn’t cook when I was eight

could + base verb
years old.

question-circle C
 ould you cook when you were nine
to show what years old?
Ability someone was able to
do in the past plus-circle I was able to finish my report
last night.

was able to minus-circle I wasn’t able to finish my dinner

+ base verb last night.

question-circle W
 ere you able to finish your report
last night?

plus-circle Komal had to retake his driver’s test.

to express what was minus-circle K

 omal didn’t have to redo
Necessity required of someone had to + base verb his homework.
in the past
question-circle D
 id Komal have to buy a new phone
after he lost his other one?

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Grammar Notes cont.

C. Past Modal Pattern 2 cont.

Meaning Use Modal Example

 hen I was young, I would often

plus-circle W
pretend I was a superhero.

minus-circle I wouldn’t go to church with my

would + base verb mother when I was a teenager.

question-circle W
 ould you usually turn in your
homework on time when you were
to express what
Repeated in elementary school?
someone did many
Action
times in the past
 isa used to cry a lot when
plus-circle L
she was a toddler.

 isa didn’t use to smile very often

minus-circle L
used to + base verb
when she was young.

question-circle D
 id Lisa use to have many temper
tantrums as a child?

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Grammar Notes cont.

C. Past Modal Pattern 2 cont.

Note #6
The meanings of past modals of necessity, certainty, and possibility are easier to
understand on a scale. The percentage represents the likelihood that an action was
performed in the past. Forms are contracted when it is common to do so.

Percentage Positive Past Modals Negative Past Modals

100% • had to + V • didn’t have to + V

• couldn’t + have + p.p.

99%
• can’t + have + p.p.

95% • must + have + p.p. • must + not + have + p.p.

• could + have + p.p.

• might + not + have + p.p.
50% • might + have + p.p.
• may + not + have + p.p.
• may + have + p.p.

Note #7
The past modal “could” plays many different roles.
Before you read the following examples, can you name its roles?

• She could speak Arabic when she was seven years old. (ability)
• I’m not sure where she is. She could have gone home. (possibility)
• She couldn’t have gone home because her purse is still on her desk. (certainty)

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 Past Modals
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Exercise 1
MIXED MODALS

Circle the correct answer.

Ex. I took time off work, so I my friend while she 6. I loved living in Miami. We to the beach
was in the hospital. every day.

a) should visit a) would have gone

b) have to visit b) use to go
c) was able to visit c) would go

1. Yumi is a great swimmer. In fact, she when 7. to call me back?

she was only four years old.
a) Could he have forgotten
a) could swim b) May he have forgotten
b) can swim c) Must he have forgotten
c) might swim
8. Everyone on the team is smiling and laughing.
2. Luca couldn’t go to the game because he . They the game.

a) must have studied a) might have won

b) had to study b) must have won
c) couldn’t study c) would win

3. in Brazil? 9. It’s too bad she moved away before you asked her
out. You two a great couple.
a) Did you used to live
b) May you have lived a) must have made
c) Did you use to live b) can’t have made
c) could have made
4. I’m not sure who that man was. It
Josephine’s new boyfriend. 10. That horror movie was so bad. We
a comedy instead.
a) should have been
b) might have been a) were able to see
c) shouldn’t have been b) wouldn’t rather have seen
c) should have seen
5. The chicken was okay, but Rosa the fish.

a) would rather have had

b) should rather have had
c) could rather have had

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Exercise 2
POSSIBILITY, CERTAINTY & NECESSITY

Write what might or must have happened in each scenario using a past modal of possiblity,
certainty, or necessity. When you’ve finished writing, share your answers with your partner
and justify why you chose a modal of possibility, certainty, or necessity for each one.

Ex. I’m not sure where Juan is. He was here this morning.

He could have gone out for lunch.

1. Did Nivaldo leave work early? He hasn’t answered my email.

2. Hiro told me he felt dizzy during class.

3. Our teacher didn’t give us any homework to do this weekend.

4. Someone left their bag on the floor.

5. I invited Francesca to my party, but she didn’t come.

6. They’re being evicted from their apartment.

7. I wonder why Michelle didn’t call you back last night.

8. My son was really sick this morning.

9. Katarina failed her English test.

10. I saw something strange in the sky last night.

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Exercise 3 (Student A)
PAIR WORK

Take turns reading out the following scenarios to your partner and
ask what you should’ve done. Come up with your own scenarios
for the last three.

Ex. A: I saw a child run into the street. What should I have done?

B: You should’ve yelled at the child to stop. Then you could’ve looked around for the child’s parents.

1. I found a wallet on the street last night. What should I have done?

2. I saw a woman hitting her child in the store. What should I have done?

3. My friend refused to vote in the last federal election. What should I have done?

4. I saw someone throwing a cigarette butt out of their car window. What should I have done?

5. I saw my friend’s girlfriend kissing another man. What should I have done?

6. A big man cut in front of me in line at the post office yesterday. What should I have done?

7. My sister interrupted me while I was telling a story to a group of friends. What should I have done?

8.

9.

10.

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Exercise 3 (Student B)
PAIR WORK

Take turns reading out the following scenarios to your partner and
ask what you should’ve done. Come up with your own scenarios
for the last three.

Ex. A: I saw a child run into the street. What should I have done?

B: You should’ve yelled at the child to stop. Then you could’ve looked around for the child’s parents.

1. I saw someone throwing empty plastic bags onto the street. What should I have done?

2. My friend told me a story, but I know for a fact that it wasn’t true. What should I have done?

3. Someone was smoking next to me inside a restaurant even though it’s illegal. What should I have done?

4. My bank put $1,000 into my account in error. What should I have done?

5. I saw a skinny dog that looked cold and hungry outside my apartment building last night.
What should I have done?

6. Someone cut me off while driving last night. What should I have done?

7. My friend was complaining about chest pains but didn’t want to go to the hospital. What should I have done?

8.

9.

10.

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Exercise 4
COMPLETE THE CHART

Complete the chart using the given verb and a suitable past modal or past
modal expression.

# Type of Modal Verb Sentence

Reiko wasn’t feeling well, so she could have taken

Ex Possibility take
some medicine.

Sarah for that furniture store,

1 Repeated Action work
but she doesn’t anymore.

You your mother.

2 Advisability call
She was so worried!

This looks like Akmed’s jacket.

3 Certainty leave
He it behind.

When we were kids, our aunt

4 Repeated Action bake
cookies for us whenever we visited her house.

You Hye Eun about the party. It

5 Advisability tell
was supposed to be a surprise!

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Exercise 4 cont.

# Type of Modal Verb Sentence

Someone left their book on the desk.

6 Possibility be
It Pavel.

When I was 15, I five miles

7 Ability run
without stopping.

I heard you got a speeding ticket after work. You

8 Advisability drive
home so fast!

Mika an A in history. She failed

9 Certainty get
the last three tests!

I went to bed early last night because I

10 Necessity wake up
at 5:00 am this morning.

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Exercise 5
FIND THE ERROR

Find one error in each sentence. Rewrite the sentence correctly using a past
modal or modal expression. There may be more than one possible answer.

Ex. That woman could have been Jun’s grandmother. His grandmother passed away last month.

That woman couldn’t have been Jun’s grandmother. His grandmother passed away last month.

1. I couldn’t go out last night because I must clean my house.

2. When I worked in a Cuban restaurant, I would have eaten Cuban food every day.

3. Where is the rest of the pizza? Who had to eat it?

4. It’s a shame that Marla quit the company. If she hadn’t, she could not have been a manager now.

5. The couch was pretty comfortable, but I would rather slept on the bed.

6. You couldn’t have eaten so much at the party. That’s why you feel sick now.

7. Jamal shouldn’t left the party so early. Everyone started to dance after he left.

8. Because my brother-in-law works for Amazon, I was get a discount on a new TV.

9. Prisha must take the key. I don’t see it anywhere.

10. Adele couldn’t have continued working at this restaurant. She used to make a lot of money here.

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Exercise 6
LISTENING

Listen to the scenarios. Then choose the most appropriate response.

Ex. Jian shouldn’t have stayed out so late last night. 6. a) You shouldn’t have eaten before we left.
b) You should have eaten before we left.
a) He is exhausted today.
c) You must not eat before we left.
b) He feels great today.
c) He isn’t tired today.
7. a) She would rather have taken a biology class.
b) She could rather have taken a biology class.
1. a) She couldn’t watch her little sister.
c) She should rather have taken a biology class.
b) She had to watch her little sister.
c) She must not watch her little sister.
8. a) His grades were so high that he must have
found a job anywhere.
2. a) You might not have driven fast.
b) His grades were so high that he had to have
b) You could have been driving that fast.
found a job anywhere.
c) You shouldn’t have been driving that fast.
c) His grades were so high that he could have
found a job anywhere.
3. a) I would arrive home by 10:00 pm.
b) I would arrive home by 7:00 pm.
9. a) If our best player hadn’t been injured, we
c) I would arrive home by 6:00 pm.
wouldn’t have won.
b) If our best player hadn’t been injured, we would
4. a) She could eat four hot dogs.
have won.
b) She wouldn’t have eaten four hot dogs.
c) If our best player hadn’t been injured,
c) She shouldn’t have eaten four hot dogs.
we couldn’t have won.

5. a) He could play the piano when he was five

10. a) She passed her test.
years old.
b) She completed her test ahead of time.
b) He wasn’t able to play the piano when he was
c) She failed her test.
five years old.
c) He must not have played the piano when he was
five years old.

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Exercise 7
WRITING

Describe your childhood using past modals and modal expressions.

Example
I used to ride horses when I was a child. I could ride a horse by the time I
was seven years old. Every day after school, I would go for a ride on our
farm. Once, when I was nine, I fell off my horse. I shouldn’t have tried to
make my horse jump like that…

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Exercise 8
QUIZ

Circle the best response. Note that there may be more than one possible
answer. It is up to you to determine which choice is the most appropriate
for each sentence.

1. Layla couldn’t go out last night 5. When I lived in Philadelphia, 8. Hilary Hahn is such a
because she for her I my bike to school. great violinist that she
history exam. long pieces when she was
a) used to ride
only eight.
a) must have to study b) may have ridden
b) must have studied c) would not have ridden a) couldn’t play
c) had to study d) would to ride b) had to play
d) would have studied c) must not have played
6. Why did Miguel choose to d) could play
2. You three whole pizzas live in this inhospitable part
in five minutes. It is impossible of town? With the money he 9. When she lived in Brazil,
to eat that fast! makes, he a better Gisela to work.
apartment somewhere else.
a) could have eaten a) would walked
b) couldn’t have eaten a) didn’t have to find b) would walk
c) shouldn’t have eaten b) used to find c) used to walked
d) must have eaten c) would not have found d) used walk
d) could have found
3. I am so tired now. I a 10. The Italian restaurant was
nap before we left. 7. She wasn’t in class good, but I to an
yesterday. sick? Indian place.
a) should have taken
b) can’t have taken a) Had she to have been a) should rather have gone
c) would have taken b) Should she have been b) could rather have gone
d) couldn’t have taken c) Must she have been c) would rather have gone
d) Could she have been d) may rather have gone
4. Ken is really sick now.
He so much at the
buffet this morning.

a) should have eaten

b) should not eat
c) shouldn’t have eaten
d) should not eat

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