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YOUR NOTES
A Level Physics OCR 

1.2 Handling Data

CONTENTS
1.2.1 Presenting & Interpreting Results
1.2.2 Analysing Quantitative Data
1.2.3 Plotting & Interpreting Graphs
1.2.4 Evaluating Results & Drawing Conclusions
1.2.5 Observations & Measurements
1.2.6 Presenting in a Scientific Way
1.2.7 Use of Software & Tools
1.2.8 Research & Citation Skills
1.2.9 Precision, Accuracy & Experimental Limitations
1.2.10 Significant Figures
1.2.11 Methods to Increase Accuracy

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1.2.1 Presenting & Interpreting Results YOUR NOTES


Presenting Observations & Data
Data can be presented in a variety of ways, such as on graphs, charts, or tables
Tables are applicable to any experiment yielding data
Graphs, on the other hand, are a little trickier depending on the type of data collected e.g.
quantitative or qualitative
Quantitative data uses numerical values
Qualitative data is observed but not measured with a numerical value e.g. colour
Presenting Data in a Table
When taking readings, a sensible range should be taken, and the values should all be stated
to an appropriate number of significant figures or decimal places
This is usually the same number as the resolution of the measuring instrument
The columns in any table should have both a quantity and a unit in their heading
When labelling columns, the names of the quantities should be separated from their
unit by a forward slash ( / )
For data displayed in a table:
The first column should contain the independent variable
The second column should contain the dependent variable
If repeat readings of the dependent variable are required, these should be included
with a column for the mean value at the end
Any columns required for processing data e.g. calculations should come after this

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Conventions for presenting data in a table. The length is the independent variable and the YOUR NOTES
frequency is the dependent variable 
Presenting Data on a Graph
All readings, including suspected anomalous results, should be plotted on a graph so that
they can be easily identified
When taking repeat readings, it is the mean value that is plotted
The way data is presented on a graph depends on what type of data it is
Discrete data
Only certain values can be taken, normally a whole number e.g. number of students
This should be displayed on a scatter graph or bar chart
Continuous data
Can take any value on a scale e.g. voltage in a circuit
This should be displayed on a line or scatter graph
Categorical data
Values that can be sorted into categories e.g. types of material
This should be displayed on a pie or bar chart
Ordered data
Data that can be put in ordered categories e.g. low, medium, high
This should be displayed on a bar chart

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Processing, Analysing & Interpreting Experimental Results YOUR NOTES

After an experiment has been carried out, sometimes the raw results will need to be 
processed before they are in a useful or meaningful format
Sometimes, various calculations will need to be carried out in order to get the data in the
form of a straight line
This is normally done by comparing the equation to that of a straight line: y = mx + c

 Worked Example
A student measures the background radiation count in a laboratory and obtains the
following readings:

The student is trying to verify the inverse square law of gamma radiation on a
sample of Radium-226. He collects the following data:

Use this data to determine if the student’s data follows an inverse square law.

Step 1: Determine a mean value of background radiation

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YOUR NOTES

The background radiation must be subtracted from each count rate reading to
determine the corrected count rate, C
Step 2: Compare the inverse square law to the equation of a straight line
According to the inverse square law, the intensity, I, of the γ radiation from a point
source depends on the distance, x, from the source

Intensity is proportional to the corrected count rate, C, so

The graph provided is of the form 1/C–1/2 against x

Comparing this to the equation of a straight line, y = mx
y = 1/C–1/2 (counts min–1/2)
x = x (m)
Gradient = constant, k
If it is a straight line graph through the origin, this shows they are directly proportional,
and the inverse square relationship is confirmed
Step 3: Calculate C (corrected average count rate) and C–1/2

Step 4: Plot a graph of C–1/2 against x and draw a line of best fit

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YOUR NOTES


The graph shows C–1/2 is directly proportional to x, therefore, the data follows an
inverse square law

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1.2.2 Analysing Quantitative Data YOUR NOTES


Analysing Quantitative Data
Maths is very important throughout the whole of physics
In particular, maths skills are required when dealing with data from experiments
The mathematical skills required for the analysis of quantitative data include:
Using standard form
Quoting to an appropriate number of significant figures
Calculating mean values
Graph skills
Using Standard Form
Often, physical quantities will be presented in standard form
This makes it easier to present numbers that are very large or very small without having to
repeat many zeros
For example, the speed of light in a vacuum equal to 3.00 × 108 m s−1
It will also be necessary to know the prefixes for the numbers of ten
Using Significant Figures
Calculations must be reported to an appropriate number of significant figures
Also, all the data in a column should be quoted to the same number of significant figures

It is important that the significant figures are consistent in data

Calculating Mean Values
When several repeat readings are made, it will be necessary to calculate a mean value
When calculating the mean value of measurements, it is acceptable to increase the
number of significant figures by 1

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YOUR NOTES


Graph Skills
In several experiments during A-Level Physics, the aim is generally to find if there is a
relationship between two variables
This can be done by translating information between graphical, numerical, and algebraic
forms
For example, plotting a graph from data of displacement and time, and calculating the
rate of change (instantaneous velocity) from the tangent to the curve at any point
Graph skills that will be expected during A-Level include:
Understanding that if a relationship obeys the equation of a straight-line y = mx + c
then the gradient and the y-intercept will provide values that can be analysed to draw
conclusions
Finding the area under a graph, including estimating the area under graphs that are
not linear
Using and interpreting logarithmic plots
Drawing tangents and calculating the gradient of these
Calculating the gradient of a straight-line graph
Understanding where asymptotes may be required

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1.2.3 Plotting & Interpreting Graphs YOUR NOTES


Plotting & Interpreting Graphs
When plotting graphs, it is important to consider the importance of the following factors:
Selecting appropriate scales
Labelling axes with quantities and units
Carefully plotting the points
Measurement of gradients and intercepts
Choice of Scale
When choosing a scale, it must be big enough to accommodate all the collected values
using as much of the graph paper as possible
At least half of the graph grid should be occupied in both the x and y directions
Scales should be clearly indicated and have suitable, sensible ranges that are easy to work
with
For example, scales with multiples of 3 should be avoided
The scales should increase outwards and upwards from the origin
Each axis should be labelled with the quantity that is being plotted, along with the correct
unit
Labelling the Axes
Label each axis with the name of the quantity and its unit
For example, F / N means force measured in Newtons
The convention is that a forward slash ( / ) is used to separate the quantity and the unit
In general:
The independent variable goes on the x-axis
The dependent variable goes on the y-axis
Plotting the Points
Points should be plotted so that they all fit on the graph grid and not outside it
All values should be plotted, and the points must be precise to within half a small square
Points must be clear, and not obscured by the line of best fit, and they need to be plotted
with a sharp pencil so that they are thin
There should be at least six points plotted on the graph, with any major outliers identified
Line or Curve of Best Fit
There should be equal numbers of points above and below the line of best fit
Using a clear plastic ruler will help with this
Not all lines will pass through the origin and nor should they be forced to
The line (or curve) of best fit should not be too thick or joined dot-to-dot like a frequency
polygon
Anomalous values that have not been identified during the implementation stage should
be ignored if they are obviously incorrect

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This is because they will have a large effect on the gradient of the line of best fit YOUR NOTES
Calculating the Gradient 
The gradient can be calculated by dividing the rise (change in y) by the run (change in x)

The calculation needs to be shown, including the correct substitution of identified plotted
points from the axes into the equation
The triangle used to calculate the gradient should be drawn on the graph and it needs to be
as large as possible
Small triangles are not acceptable for working out a gradient
When using the results from a table of values, the triangle that is used to obtain the gradient
can utilise points that lie on the line of best fit but not values that lie away from the line
Determining the y-intercept
The y-intercept is the y value obtained where the line crosses the y-axis at x = 0
Values should be read accurately from the graph, with the scale on the y-axis being
interpreted correctly

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A student investigates the effect of placing an electric fan in front of a wind turbine.
The wind turbine is connected to a voltmeter. When the wind turbine turns, it
generates a voltage.The student obtains the following results:

Plot the student’s results on the grid and draw a curve of best fit on the graph.

Step 1: Identify the independent and dependent variables

Independent variable = blade angle / °
Dependent variable = voltage / V
Step 2: Choose an appropriate scale

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The range of the blade angle is 0 – 90° YOUR NOTES

Ideally, every small square represents 10° 
The range of the voltage is 0 – 2.2 V
Ideally, each small square represents 0.5 V
Both axes should occupy at least 50% of the grid
Step 3: Label the axes
The dependent variable (voltage / V) goes on the y-axis
The independent variable (blade angle / °) goes on the x-axis
Both axes should be labelled with a quantity and a unit
Step 4: Plot the points
Each point should be accurate within half a small square

Step 5: Draw a curve of best fit

The curve should be smooth with a roughly equal distribution of points on either side of
the curve
It must start at (0,0) and peak at (20, 2.2)

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YOUR NOTES


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1.2.4 Evaluating Results & Drawing Conclusions YOUR NOTES


Evaluating Results & Drawing Conclusions
Evaluating experimental results and drawing conclusions from them are two very
important skills
Evaluation of results is a different skill from evaluation of the
experimental procedure used to obtain those results
Conclusions can only be drawn from the results once they have been properly evaluated
For example, during the planning of an experiment, potential limitations of the
experimental procedure should have already been identified
Before drawing conclusions, the impact that these limitations could theoretically have
had (or may actually have had) on the data collected should be evaluated
If this evaluation shows these potential impacts to be negligible, a conclusion can
more likely be drawn from the results
If it is decided that the limitations could have had a significant impact on the data,
then it is much harder to draw a conclusion and it should be recognised that any
conclusions drawn have a greater chance of being incorrect

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Identifying Anomalies YOUR NOTES

Experimental errors (also known as operator errors or ‘one off’ errors) will affect the 
results of an experiment and can produce anomalies
These anomalies should be identified during the evaluation of results and before
drawing conclusions
Anomalies can be identified by looking for results or data points on a graph that do not
fit with the trend or with other replicates carried out during the experiment
These anomalous results will show a larger difference from the mean than the rest of
the results (a result is often taken to be anomalous if it differs from the mean result
by more than 10%)
The results or ‘data’ collected from an experiment can be made more reliable if the
experiment is repeated several times and anomalies are removed
This, in turn, allows more valid conclusions to be drawn

Identifying an anomalous result from a graph

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If an anomaly occurs in the experiment: YOUR NOTES

Ignore this value when calculating the mean 
Repeat this measurement

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1.2.5 Observations & Measurements YOUR NOTES


Following Written Instructions
Scientists always record instructions for their experiments so that they can be repeated
The instructions should allow an individual to successfully carry out the experiment without
any additional help or input
It is very important to record all required details within these instructions
For example:
The aims of the investigation
The variables investigated
The apparatus used
The step-by-step method
Often students struggle to think about the theoretical implications and explanations of the
practical at the same time
It is important to focus on these before and after the practical has been carried out to
develop a solid understanding of the purpose of the experiment

Observations & Measurements

Making observations and recording measurements is a key skill in practical physics
Making Observations
Observations should be recorded using the appropriate scientific vocabulary and should
be precise
Vague and ambiguous language, such as ‘the time wasn’t measured very accurately’,
should be avoided
Instead, a more appropriate thing to say would be ‘using a stopwatch to measure the
oscillation time of the pendulum introduced an error due to the reaction time of the
experimenter’
Recording Measurements
Making measurements using a range of equipment is essential in physics
When using a digital measuring device eg. top pan balance or ammeter
Record all the digits shown
Except in the case of a digital timer, such as a stopwatch, there is no need to record to
more than two decimal places
When using a non-digital device eg. a ruler or a measurement cylinder)
Record all the figures that are known
Where appropriate, an additional estimated figure may be allowed

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Recording Experimental Activities YOUR NOTES

Observations and measurements should be routinely recorded in a notebook, file or 
electronically
This enables a physical copy of the completed experiments to be kept
These records should be made during the laboratory session and are the primary evidence
of the outcomes of experiments
The following will need to be included:
A clear explanation of the measurements or observations taken
Analysis of the raw data through graphs or calculations
The conclusions drawn from the outcomes of the experiment
An evaluation of the experiment eg. calculating errors and/or commenting on the
limitations of experimental procedures
The method does not necessarily need to be included unless an investigative approach is
taken where the student develops part of the procedure themselves

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1.2.6 Presenting in a Scientific Way YOUR NOTES


Presenting in a Scientific Way
When presenting scientific data, the following may be included:
Tables
Graphs
Diagrams
Presenting Tables
When presenting tables, the following must be included:
Clear headings, or symbols, for columns
Relevant units for measurements
Readings listed to the same number of significant figures

An example of a correctly labelled table with corresponding graph

Presenting Graphs
When presenting graphs, the following must be included:
An explanatory title
Clearly labelled axes
Relevant units for measurements
Well plotted points
A smooth line or curve of best fit

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YOUR NOTES


An example of a correctly labelled and plotted graph

Presenting Diagrams
When presenting diagrams, such as apparatus set-up, all the relevant parts must be clearly
labelled

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YOUR NOTES


An appropriately labelled diagram of the set-up of an investigation into simple harmonic

motion

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1.2.7 Use of Software & Tools YOUR NOTES


Use of Software & Tools
The use of electronic software and tools is increasingly used in classroom experiments
These improve accuracy and remove sources of uncertainty such as human error
Spreadsheets
Graph plotting and data analysis software, such as Microsoft Excel, can be an invaluable
tool
Spreadsheets provide a very effective way of processing data, particularly when the
amount of data is large
Data Loggers
Electronic data loggers are more accurate, quick and reliable than manual logging
They can take multiple readings per second and present the data as a graph or table in real-
time
Cameras
Cameras can be used to take photos in experiments that happen too quickly to read a
scale
A camera can be used to take a photo burst as the experiment happens
The scale can then be read from the photos afterwards
If the time each photo is taken is known, or if the frame rate is known, then properties such
as velocity can be calculated

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1.2.8 Research & Citation Skills YOUR NOTES


Online & Offline Research Skills
Research is very important in order to gather information about others who have carried out
similar experiments
For example, when carrying out a risk assessment for a practical, the CLEAPSS Student
Safety Sheets are an ideal resource
Suitable sources to use for research include:
Books and textbooks
Scientific articles and journals
Reputable websites

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Citing Sources of Information YOUR NOTES

A citation is a quotation or reference to an academic text when it is included within a 
practical report
The information to be included when citing sources depends on the type of resource
Referencing Books
The following information is required:
Author(s)
Book title
Chapter and page numbers
Edition (if relevant)
Date published
Publisher
The general format is:
Authors (year), Title, edition, publisher’s location, publisher, pp. xxx–xxx
Note: If the reference is to a single page then 'p.' should be used, if reference is made to
several pages then 'pp.' is used
For example:
Young, H., Freedman, R. (2004). University Physics with modern physics, 12th ed.,
Boston, Addison Wesley, p. 125
For books that have an editor or editors, include (ed.) or (eds) after the names.
If a book does not have named authors or editors, the reference begins with the title, such
as:
CLEAPSS Laboratory Handbook (2001), Uxbridge, CLEAPSS School Science Service
Referencing Articles
The following information is required:
Author(s)
Article title
Date published
Journal
The general format is:
Authors (year), ‘Article title’, Journal title, vol. no, issue no, pp. xxx–xxx
For example:
Aad, G, et al (2012), ‘Observation of a new particle in the search for the Standard Model
Higgs boson with the ATLAS detector at the LHC’ Physics Letters B vol 716, no 1, pp 1-
29
Referencing Websites
The following information is required:
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Author(s) YOUR NOTES

Website title 
Date written
URL
Date accessed
The general format is:
Authors (year), Title [online] Last accessed date: URL
For example:
Dianna Cowern (2014), Crazy pool vortex [online] Last accessed 15 June 2021:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pnbJEg9r1o8

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1.2.9 Precision, Accuracy & Experimental Limitations YOUR NOTES


Limitations in Experimental Procedures
Even if the experimental result is close to the true value, there are always potential
limitations of experimental methods such as the presence of random errors
Random errors cannot be completely removed but their effect can be reduced by taking as
many repeats as possible and using the average of the repeats
There are always opportunities to identify limitations of the procedure, some common
examples include:
Parallax error when reading scales
Not using a fiducial marker (eg. when measuring the time period of a pendulum using a
stopwatch)
Not repeating measurements to reduce random errors
Not checking for zero errors to reduce systematic errors
The equipment not working properly or not checking beforehand with small tests
Equipment with poor precision and resolution (eg. a ruler over a micrometer)
Difficult to control variables (eg. the temperature of the classroom)
Unwanted heating effects eg. in circuits

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Precision, Accuracy & Error Margins YOUR NOTES

Precision 
Precision is how close the measured values are to each other
If a measurement is repeated several times, then they can be described as precise when
the values are very similar to, or the same as, each other
The precision of a measurement is reflected in the values recorded
Measurements to a greater number of decimal places are said to be more precise than
those to a whole number
Accuracy
Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the true value
The accuracy can be increased by repeating measurements and finding a mean average

The difference between precise and accurate results

Measurements of quantities are made with the aim of finding the true value of that quantity
In reality, it is impossible to obtain the true value of any quantity, there will always be a
degree of uncertainty
The uncertainty is an estimate of the difference between a measurement reading and the
true value
Random and systematic errors are two types of measurement errors which lead to
uncertainty
Random Error
Random errors cause unpredictable fluctuations in an instrument’s readings as a result of
uncontrollable factors, such as environmental conditions
This affects the precision of the measurements taken, causing a wider spread of results
about the mean value
To reduce random error:
Repeat measurements several times and calculate an average from them
Systematic Error

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Systematic errors arise from the use of faulty instruments used or from flaws in the YOUR NOTES
experimental method 
This type of error is repeated every time the instrument is used or the method is followed,
which affects the accuracy of all readings obtained
To reduce systematic errors:
Instruments should be recalibrated or the technique being used should be corrected
or adjusted

Representing precision and accuracy on a graph

Zero Error
This is a type of systematic error which occurs when an instrument gives a reading when the
true reading is zero
This introduces a fixed error into readings which must be accounted for when the results are
recorded
Margin of Error
Most items of apparatus will have a margin of error that can be used in percentage
error calculations
This percentage error will then give an idea of the magnitude of any error and therefore how
much of an impact it may have had on the results
If the percentage error is too high, any conclusions drawn may be rejected or further
testing may be required by making improvements to the apparatus used or to the
experimental procedure in order to reduce the percentage error
Percentage Uncertainty in Apparatus
The uncertainty in a measurement is related to the resolution or smallest scale division of
the measuring instrument

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When measuring with analogue instruments, the reading must be rounded up or down to YOUR NOTES
the nearest scale division 
The uncertainty in the measurement is, therefore, half the smallest scale division
For a protractor:
Angles are measured to the nearest degree
The uncertainty is half a degree, 0.5°
For a ruler:
Lengths are measured to the nearest millimetre
The uncertainty is half a millimetre, 0.5 mm
For a stopwatch:
Time is measured to the nearest 0.01 s
However, reaction time is 0.1 – 0.5 s so a degree of precision of 0.1 – 0.5 s is much
more reasonable
In this case, the uncertainty would be 0.05 – 0.25 s
The percentage of uncertainty in any single reading taken using the equipment is found
using:

It is important to note that for a particular piece of apparatus, the larger the value
measured, the smaller the percentage error
For example, when measuring the length of a piece of wire there will be a greater
percentage error in measuring a length of 7.6 cm than in measuring a length of 38.9 cm
using the same ruler

 Exam Tip
It is very common for students to confuse precision with accuracy - measurements
can be precise but not accurate if each measurement reading has the same error.
Precision refers to the ability to take multiple readings with an instrument that are
close to each other, whereas accuracy is the closeness of those measurements to
the true value.

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1.2.10 Significant Figures YOUR NOTES


Significant Figures
Significant figures must be used when dealing with quantitative data
Significant figures are the digits in a number that are reliable and absolutely necessary to
indicate the quantity of that number
There are some important rules to remember for significant figures
All non-zero digits are significant
Zeros between non-zero digits are significant
4107 (4.s.f.)
29.009 (5.s.f)
Zeros that come before all non-zero digits are not significant
0.00079 (2.s.f.)
0.48 (2.s.f.)
Zeros after non-zero digits within a number without decimals are not significant
57,000 (2.s.f)
640 (2.s.f)
Zeros after non-zero digits within a number with decimals are significant
689.0023 (7.s.f)
When rounding to a certain number of significant figures:
Identify the significant figures within the number using the rules above
Count from the first significant figure to the specified number
Use the next number as the ‘rounder decider’
If the decider is 5 or greater, increase the previous value by 1

 Worked Example
Write 1.0478 to 3 significant figures

Step 1: Identify the significant figures

They are all significant figures
Step 2: Count to the specified number (3rd s.f.)
1.0478
Step 3: Round up or down
1.05 (3 s.f)

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 An exam question may sometimes specify how many significant figures the answer

should be, make sure you keep an eye out for this, as a mark is often given for that!

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1.2.11 Methods to Increase Accuracy YOUR NOTES


Methods to Increase Accuracy
The accuracy of an experiment can be increased by repeating measurements and using
mean values
Methods seeking to reduce systematic errors result in increased accuracy
In order to reduce the uncertainty of results for an experiment some changes may need to
be made to the method, such as:
Timing over multiple oscillations
Using a fiducial marker
Using a set square or plumb line
Using Multiple Oscillations
Uncertainty in a measurement of periodic time can be reduced by:
Measuring many oscillations to calculate the average time for one oscillation
Increasing the total time measured for multiple swings
It would be ideal to measure the time taken for the pendulum to complete 10 (or more)
oscillations and divide this time by 10 to determine the time period of one oscillation

One complete oscillation of a pendulum

Fiducial Marker
A fiducial marker is a useful tool to act as a clear reference point, such as when measuring
time period of a pendulum using a stopwatch
This improves the accuracy of a measurement of periodic time by:
Making timings by sighting the pendulum as it passes the fiducial marker
Sighting the pendulum as it passes the fiducial marker at its highest speed. The
pendulum swings fastest at its lowest point and slowest at the top of each swing

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YOUR NOTES
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A fiducial marker is used to mark the centre of the oscillation of the pendulum
Set Squares & Plumb Lines
A set square can be used to determine whether:
An object is vertical
Two objects are at right angles to each other
Two lines are parallel
A plumb line can be also be used to determine if a setup is vertically aligned accurately

Page 33 of 34

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YOUR NOTES
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A plumb line and set square used to make sure the setup is completely vertical

Page 34 of 34

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