CE363

Engineering Hydrology

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Asia Pacific
Marks Distribution
 Course Outline
• Hydrologic Cycle
• Weather and Hydrology
• Precipitation
• Evaporation and Transpiration
• Infiltration
• Stream Flow
• Application of Telemetry and Remote Sensing in
Hydrologic Data Acquisition
• Rainfall-Runoff Relations
• Hydrographs, Unit Hydrographs
• Hydrologic Routing
• Statistical Methods in Hydrology.
Hydrology

- Hydrology is the science of water:

- And it is the study of the hydrologic cycle;

occurrence, distribution, movement, physical and
chemical properties of waters of the earth and
their environmental relationships.
Application of Hydrology

• Determining water balance of a region

• Predicting floods and droughts
• Designing irrigation projects
• Preventing catastrophic events due to excess flooding
• Provide means to supply drinking water to a
communities
• Helps design dams, reservoirs, sewers, bridges and
other hydraulic structures
• Quantify GW aquifer storage
• Predict & model contaminant transport in GW aquifers
Hydraulic

• The science that deals with the application of fluid mechanics to

water flowing in an isolated environment (pipe, pump) or in an open
channel (river, lake, ocean).
Application of Hydraulics

• Design of hydraulic structures (i.e. sewage conduits,

dams).
• Management of waterways (i.e. erosion protection,
flood protection).
• Environment management (i.e. prediction of the
mixing and transport of pollution in surface water).
• Design of water distribution network.
• Design of stormwater drainage system.
• Design of irrigation systems.
The Hydrologic Cycle

• Continuous process through which water passes from vapor in the

atmosphere through precipitation upon land or water surfaces and
ultimately back into the atmosphere as a result of evaporation and
transpiration.
Elements of Hydrologic Cycle

• Evaporation, E
• Transpiration, T
• Precipitation, P
• Surface runoff, R
• Groundwater flow, G
• Infiltration, I
Hydrologic Budget

• The hydrologist must be able to estimate components of

hydrologic cycle in order to design projects and, more
importantly protect the public from excessive floods and
draughts.
• the hydrologic budget is a quantitative accounting
technique linking the components of hydrologic cycle
• It is a form of a continuity equation that balances the gains
and losses of water with the amount stored in a region. The
components of water budget are inflow, outflow and
storage.
Water Balance Equation or
Hydrologic Budget or Water Budget Equation
Typical Water Budget System Components
Example

In a given year, a 10,000 Km2 watershed received 30 cm of

precipitation. The annual rate of flow measured in the river
draining the area is 60 m3/sec. Estimate the
evapotranspiration. Assume negligible change of storage and
net groundwater flow.
Solution

Combining E and T, then

ET = P – R

In the above, the precipitation term P is given in cm and the

runoff term R is given in discharge unit. Since units in the
equation must be consistent, and since the area of the
watershed is constant, the volume of flow into the watershed
is converted to equivalent depth.
Solution
WATERSHED
• Definition: contiguous area that drains to an
outlet, specifically in regards to precipitation
• Basic hydrologic unit within which all measurements, calculations and
predictions are made
• Basin
• Drainage Area
• Catchment
Watershed Components
• Divide: the loci of points (the ridge line) that separates two adjacent
watersheds
• Function of elevation
• Delineated from topographic maps
• Outlet: point of exit where the of the watershed drains

• Drainage lines: channels

within watershed where
concentrated flow occurs
in direction of the outlet
Factors that affect watershed behavior

1. Rainfall intensity and duration

2. Size, Slope, Shape, Soil, Storage
3. Channel morphology
4. Soil type
5. Land use and cover
• Location
• Percent impervious
CE363
Engineering Hydrology
Precipitation
 Precipitation

Precipitation includes mainly:

• Drizzle
• Rainfall,
• Dew,
• Fog drip,
• Mist and
• Hail
 Distribution of Precipitation

Total Precipitation

Evap. Evap.

Land Surface Vegetation Stream/Lake/river/

Sea
Direct Surface RO Direct Surface RO
Infiltration

Soil Interception &

Depression Storage

Percolation When filled

If pervious

Aquifers
Direct RO
Measurement of Precipitation

Rain gauges are used.

There are two rain gauge types:

• Non-recording gauges for taking daily values

• Recording gauges.
Non-Recording Gauges – Manually observed

• Non-Recording gauges measure only the total

amount of rainfall and not the intensity of the
rainfall from time to time.

• For 24-hour collection, a standard rain gauge is

typically used. This is a hollow metal tube with an
open top that collects precipitation. The observer
uses a ruler to measure the depth of the water in
a small inner tube. .
Recording Gauges:

• Tipping Bucket: Automatically tips when a certain

amount of precipitation accumulates inside of it. Total
precipitation is determined by the number of tips.
Recording Gauges:

• Weighing Gauge: Tall and

typically cone-shaped. It
collects all types of
precipitation continuously
into a bucket. Its weight
presses down on a scale,
and every 15 minutes, a
hole is punched in a ticker
tape or a marking is made
on paper by pen to
record the bucket's
weight. This is useful for
hourly collections.
 Radar & satellite

Satellite observe earth in microwave or

infrared channels from space and estimate
Radar detecting the cloud by collecting precipitation using retrieval techniques
reflected microwaves
Rainfall interpolation in GIS
• Data are generally available as
points with precipitation stored in
attribute table.
 Rainfall maps in GIS

Nearest Neighbor “Thiessen” Isoheytal Interpolation

Polygon Interpolation
Rainfall Point Measurement

 Why measure rainfall?

• Water resource planning (annual)
• Urban drainage (hourly)

○ Reduce localized flooding

○ Need intensity and duration of rainfall
○ Spatial variation inside watershed
Rainfall Representation

• Spatial Representation
• Temporal Representation
Spatial Representation

• Isohyet – contour of constant rainfall

• Isohyetal maps are prepared by interpolating rainfall data
at gaged points
Temporal Representation

• Rainfall hyetograph – plot of rainfall depth or intensity

as a function of time
• Cumulative rainfall hyetograph or rainfall mass curve –
plot of summation of rainfall increments as a function
of time
• Rainfall intensity – depth of rainfall per unit time
 Incremental Rainfall

0.8

0.7
Incremental Rainfall (in per 5 min)

0.6

0.5

P
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150
Time
Time (min)

Rainfall Hyetograph
 Cumulative Rainfall

10

7
Cumulative Rainfall (in.)

P6
5
3.07 in
4 8.2 in

3 30 min
5.56 in
2

1 1 hr

2 hr
0
0 30 60 90 120 150
Time
Time (min.)

Rainfall Mass Curve

Average Precipitation Over an Area

The depth of precipitation over a specified area, either on

a storm, seasonal or annual basis is required in many types
of hydrologic problems. There are three major methods:

• Arithmetic Mean
• Thiessen Polygon Method
• Isohyetal Method
 Areal Precipitation

• The average depth of precipitation over a

specific area (watershed)
• Use point measurements
to determine average
• Three Methods:
• Arithmetic Mean
• Thiessen Polygon Method
• Isohyetal Method
Arithmetic Mean

• Takes arithmetic mean of rainfalls from available gages inside

or gages within the proximity to the area
• Not accurate for large areas with variable distribution
• Only works if gages are uniformly distributed
Thiessen Polygon Method

• Areal weighting of rainfall for each gage

• Series of polygons created by lines connecting each gauge
and perpendicular bisectors
• Uses ratio of polygon area to total area of interest
• Most widely used method
 Example: Thiessen Polygons

• A watershed of 437 ac with six rainfall gages can be divided

into Thiessen polygons with the listed date in the
accompanying table. Using the total storm rainfall depths
listed, find the average rainfall over the watersheds in ac-ft.

Gage Rainfall (in)

A 2.20
B 3.22
C 0.71
D 2.49
E 0.88
F 6.72
First Step: Connect the Closest Points

E
B

A
First Step: Connect the Closest Points

E
B

A
Second Step: Identify the Midpoint of each
segment
C

E
B

A
Third Step: Extend perpendicular lines from
the segments
C

E
B

A
Fourth Step: Compute the Area of each
Polygon
C
Gage Area
D (ac)
A 81
B 67
C 17
E
B D 89
E 153

F F 30

A
Fifth Step: Compute the Average Rainfall
over the Watershed
Pi*Ai/At
Gage Pi (in) Ai (ac) Ai/At (%)
(in)
A 2.20 81 0.185 0.41
B 3.22 67 0.153 0.49
C 0.71 17 0.039 0.027
D 2.49 89 0.204 0.51
E 0.88 153 0.350 0.31
F 6.72 30 0.069 0.46
1 2.21 in
At = S Ai = 437
Arithmetic mean

(2.1+3.1+5.2+3.8+4.5+5.4+3.3)/7

=3.91 in
1 2 3 10

Thiessen Polygon Method

• Count total squares inside the

area.

• Count the number of squares

for each polygon

• Lets assume, Total number of

squares is 207

• Lets assume, Total number of

squares in the marked
polygon is 21.5
Gage Pi Ai Ai/At Pi*Ai/At
(in) (%) (in)
A 2.1 21.5 0.104 0.2184
B 3.1
C 5.2
D 3.8
E 5.4
F 4.5
G 3.3
At = S Ai = 207 1 ??
Isohyetal Method

• Draw contours of equal precipitation based on gauge data

• Uses area between contour lines

• Needs an extensive gauge network

• Most accurate method
Isohyetal Example:

P = 2”

P = 1.8” P = 1.2”

P = 1”
First Step: Interpolate Isohyets
P = 2” 2”
1.8”
1.6”
1.4”
P = 1.8” P = 1.2” 1.2”
1”

P = 1”
Second Step: compute areas that intersects
isohyets and watershed divide
P = 2” 2”
1.8”
1.6” Isohyetal Area
1.4”
(in) (mi2)
P = 1.8” P = 1.2” 1.2”
1” 2 4.72
1.8 2.36
1.6 3.068
P = 1” 1.4 4.012
1.2 3.54
1 5.9
TOTAL 23.6
Third Step: Calculate Average
Precipitation
P = 2” 2”
1.8”
1.6” Isohyet Area Pav Ai x
1.4”
al (in) (mi2) (in) Pav (in)
P = 1.8” P = 1.2” 1.2”
1” 2 4.72 1.9 8.97
1.8 2.36 1.7 4.01
1.6 3.07 1.5 4.60
P = 1” 1.4 4.01 1.3 5.22
1.2 3.54 1.1 3.89
1 5.9 0.9 5.31
TOTAL 23.6 1.4 32.0
Missing Precipitation
Normal Ratio Method

P1, N1

P2, N2
P3, N3

PX, NX
 Inverse distance weighting
• Prediction at a point is more
influenced by nearby
measurements than that by P1=10
distant measurements
• The prediction at an ungauged
point is inversely proportional to P2= d1=25
the distance to the 20 d =15
measurement points 2
P3=
• Steps d =10
30
3
– Compute distance (di) from p
ungauged point to all N  Pi 
measurement points.
  2
 
i 1  d i 
Pˆ 
N 
1 
  2
i 1  d i 
10 20 30
2
 2
 2
Pˆ  25 15 10  25.24 mm
– Compute the precipitation at 1 1 1
 2 2
the ungaged point using the 2
25 15 10
following formula
 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves

Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves

describe the relationship between rainfall
intensity, rainfall duration, and return
period (or its inverse, probability of
exceedance). IDF curves are commonly
used in the design of hydrologic,
hydraulic, and water resources systems.
IDF curves are obtained through
frequency analysis of rainfall observations.
 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves

The development of IDF curves requires that a

frequency analysis be performed for each set of annual
maxima, one each associated with each rain duration.
The basic objective of each frequency analysis is to
determine the exceedance probability distribution
function of rain intensity for each duration. The
following methods can used to construct the IDF curves:

1) Use an empirical plotting position approach to

estimate the exceedance probabilities based on the
observations.
2) Fit a theoretical Extreme Value (EV) distribution (e.g.
Gumbel Type I) to the observations and then use the
theoretical distribution to estimate the rainfall events
associated with given exceedance probabilities.
 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves

(Empirical plotting position approach)

Procedure
From rainfall measurements, for every year of record,
determine the annual maximum rainfall intensity for
specific durations (or the annual rainfall depth over the
specific durations. Common durations for design
applications are: 5-min, 10-min, 15-min, 30-min, 1-hr, 2-
hr, 6-hr, 12-hr, and 24-hr.
 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves

(Empirical plotting position approach)

To construct the IDF curves based on rainfall observation, using
empirical plotting position approach, proceed as follows:

1) Rank the observations in descending order.

2) Compute the exceedance probability or the frequency or
the return period associated with each rainfall depth using
Weibull formula (i.e. T=(1/p)=[(m+1)/rank]).
where m is the number of observations, p is the exceedance
probability and T is the corresponding return period.
1) Transform the rainfall depth data into rainfall intensity by
dividing the depth by the corresponding duration.
2) Plot the IDF curve(s).
The above procedure is repeated for each of the desired
durations.
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves

(Empirical plotting position approach)

Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves

(Empirical plotting position approach)

Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves

(Empirical plotting position approach)

Reference

• Hydrology & Hydraulic Systems by Ram S. Gupta

CE363
Engineering Hydrology

Evaporation & Transpiration

Evaporation
Evaporation is often the most difficult
parameter to estimate
In many areas it is also the most important
parameter of Water Balance. Excessive
evaporation leaves salts behind, making the
land incapable of growing crops.
Heat of Vaporization
There are two basic mechanisms by which
moisture gets into the atmosphere; evaporation
and transpiration.
Evaporation is just a phase change in water
(from liquid to vapor) induced by the addition of
enough energy
Water has a high heat of vaporization—it takes
about 580 calories to vaporize 1 gram of liquid
water at standard surface conditions.
Liquid to Gas
Relatively loose bonds between water molecules are
broken with the addition of enough energy, allowing
individual molecules of water to fly free.
The two things that drive this process are how much
energy is available (sunlight), and how much water is
already in the atmosphere.
Saturation

Once the atmosphere is saturated (T = Tsat = Td) with water

vapor, the air cannot “carry” any more. If you lower the
temperature slightly, condensation starts and we see clouds,
including Fog.
Transpiration
Transpiration is also the conversion of liquid water to
water vapor, but it’s done by plants.
Plants have developed a very efficient system for pulling
water up from the ground based on capillary action. This
moves nutrients to tissues. They must lose water at leaves
for the process to continue.
Water vapor is lost from leaf surfaces through small
openings called stomatae during carbon dioxide diffusion
for photosynthesis.
 Conditions favorable for
Evaporation
Evaporation is greatest on hot, windy, dry days; and is
greatly reduced when air is cool, calm, and humid.
http://www.earlham.edu/~biol/desert/irrigation.htm
Factors Affecting Evaporation
 Methods of Estimating Evaporation

Evaporation from free water surface can be

estimated by two methods:

Direct Methods
Class-A pan

Indirect Methods
Hydrological budget
Empirical methods
 Estimating Evaporation
Direct Method: Pan Evaporation
Filled to 8 inches and observed daily.
Plus a rain gage, thermometer for water
temp, and a psychrometer for air
temperature and wet bulb temperature
(calculations reveal dewpoint Td)
Class A Evaporation Pan
 Estimating Evaporation
Direct Method: Pan Evaporation

We estimate how much

water evaporates from Class A Pan, 4’x10”
an area with a pan of
water. Stilling Well
Measure how much
water leaves the pan in
a day.
Out in the open, so you
need a rain gauge.
 Estimating Evaporation
Direct Method: Pan Evaporation
Pan evaporation is used to estimate the evaporation from lakes. Evaporation from
a natural body of water is usually at a lower rate because the body of water does
not have metal sides that get hot with the sun. A coefficient is applied to pan
observations to derive the equivalent lake or reservoir evaporation.

EL = K pan × E pan
where: EL = Lake evaporation or evaporation from water body
K pan = Pan coefficient
E pan = Evaporation from the pan

Most hydrologists suggest multiplying the pan evaporation by 0.75 to correct for
lakes.
 Evapotranspiration E + T
The pan actually measures evaporation, not evapo-
transpiration.
You have to multiply the pan evaporation by a
different pan coefficient to estimate the E+T over
plants
http://www.eijkelkamp.com/Portals/2/Eijkelkamp/Fil
es/Manuals/M4-1689e%20Evaporation%20pan.pdf

Notice some vegetation has high transpiration, pan coefficient > 1

Estimates of Pan Coefficient
The K pan is high if: the pan is placed in a fallow (plowed but unseeded) area, the humidity is
high (i.e. humid), the wind speed is low
The K pan is low if: the pan is placed in a cropped area, the humidity is low (i.e. dry), the wind
speed is high
If the pan factor is not known the average value .7 - .75 could be used. If more accuracy is
required, the pan factors can be taken from the table above( for class A pan only).
 Estimating Evaporation
Direct Method: Pan Evaporation

Example
Type of pan: Class A evaporation pan
Water depth in pan on day 1 = 150 mm
Rainfall (during 24 hours) = 1 mm
Water depth in pan on day 2 = 144 mm (after 24 hours)
Formula: E = K pan × E pan
K pan = 0.75, E pan = start + rain - finish
Calculation: E pan = (150 + 1 – 144) = 7 mm/day
E = 0.75 × 7 =5.2 mm/day
 Estimating Evaporation
Indirect Methods
Solution of evaporation from free water surface can
be found indirectly by the following techniques:

The water budget method or water balance method

The mass-transfer method (e.g. Meyer, Thornthwaile-
Holzman)
The energy budget method
Combination of energy budget and mass transfer methods
(e.g. Penman equation)
Water budget method or Water balance method

I – O = ∆S/∆t
 Mass transfer method

In this model, water is transferred from the water

surface to the air because of the difference in vapor
pressure between the water surface and air. Once
there, the wind “sweeps away” the newly arrived
moist air and brings in new, dry air, and the cycle
restarts.
 The Harbeck and Meyers Equation
Harbeck and Meyers developed this idea. They set the reference
heights for Tair and RH and wind speed and e to be 2m above the
surface, and used one tuning constant, b, derived for individual
areas. The result is:

Tuning constants b are all around 0.012 cm.sec/(m.mb.day) for lakes

 The Harbeck and Meyers Equation
Remember that you can use
tables to get the saturation
partial pressure esat for water at
a particular temperature. You
can get the Relative Humidity
at the 2 meter level above the
surface from a sling
psychrometer, and then
calculate
e2m = (es x RH)/100
Other empirical formulas
Author Equation Explanation

C=15 for small, shallow water and 11 for large

deep water
Dalton E (i/mo) = C(eO-ea)

ea measured 30 above ground surface

Meyer E (i/mo) = 11 (1+0.1 ug) (eO-ea)

u = speed of wind

Horton E (i/mo) = 0.4 [2 – exp(-2u)]) (eO-ea)

u2 = wind speed 2 meters above surface

Penman E (i/day) = 0.35 (1+0.24 u2) (eO-ea)

Ta = Average Temp OC + 1.9OC

TW = Average water surface temperature
Harbeck E(i/day)=0.001813 u (eO-ea)[1-0.03(Ta-Tw)]
 Energy budget method
The method is based on accounting for all heat energy received and dissipated
by a water body. The procedure is highly data intensive.
 Energy budget method
The method is based on accounting for all heat energy received and dissipated
by a water body. The procedure is highly data intensive.

The energy balance equation for a control volume (CV) is:

Rn – H – G - ρw λ Er = 0

Where
Rn = net radiation flux at the surface
H = sensible heat flux to air (+ when air is warming)
G = sensible heat flux to soil or water (+ if soil or water is warming)
ρw λ = latent heat flux (+ during evaporation)
Er = evaporation by energy balance method
The Penman-Kohler Nomograph
The Penman Equation combines mass transfer
and energy budget methods, but deliberately
avoids energy budget terms that are difficult to
measure. Because of its complexity, most of the
time we use Kohler’s graphic Nomograph of the
Penman equation to calculate evaporation.
 Use this Nomograph to
estimate shallow lake
evaporation.

Upper left T air = 70F and daily radiation 650 ly /day (langleys /day,1 langley = 1 calorie/cm2)
Upper right, the dew point Td = 50oF and Tair = 70oF
Lower right, Td = 50F and avg wind speed = 40 miles/day measured 6 inches above pan rim
Lower left, intersection of vertical from upper left and horizontal from lower right
Estimates daily pan evaporation in hundreds of inches = 0.22 inches.
 Full page
Penman-Kohler Nomograph
CE363
Engineering Hydrology

Infiltration
Infiltration
Rainwater that soaks into the ground and may reach the
groundwater table.
Infiltration

Infiltration is the actual rate at which water is entering the

soil at any given time (SCSA, 1976).
Infiltration capacity: Maximum rate (LT-1).
 Factors affecting infiltration
Condition of soil surface
Vegetative cover
Soil properties
Hydraulic conductivity
Antecedent soil moisture
 Field Tests

24 inch double ring infiltrometer with Mariotte Tubes http://www.hilbec.com/STORMWATER.htm

• Infiltration is measured in the field with bottomless rings. Mariotte

Tubes allow for measurement of liquid flow during the infiltration test by providing
a constant water level in the 24 inch Infiltration Rings
 Double-ring Infiltrometer

• Two rings eliminates overestimating the hydraulic conductivity

• Outer ring contributes to lateral flow , so
• Inner ring is contributing mostly to downward flow.
•Water from Mariotte bottles to rings via tap at base of bottles. Ring
water height equals that of the base of the bubble tube.
•When water moves into the soil, reducing the height of ring water to
below that of the bubble tube, more water is fed into the ring.
Empirical Models of Infiltration
Horton Model
Phi Index, Փ
Horton’s Infiltration Model
Infiltration rate
Rate at which water enters the soil at the surface (in/hr
or cm/hr)
Cumulative infiltration
Accumulated depth of water infiltrating during given
time period

t
F (t )   f ( )d
0
Horton’s Infiltration Model

Horton’s use the concept that when the rainfall

intensity “i” exceeds the infiltration rate “f”, water
will infiltrate the surface soil at a rate, which will
decrease with time.

i>f
 Horton’s Infiltration Model
The infiltration decreases exponentially with time
and ultimately reaches a constant rate

Where
ft is the infiltration rate at time t;
f0 is the initial infiltration rate or maximum infiltration rate;
fc is the constant or equilibrium infiltration rate after the soil
has been saturated or minimum infiltration rate; NOTE e is a
number, ~ 2.718
k is the decay constant specific to the soil.
the f’s have units in/hr and k is a time constant hr -1
Horton’s Infiltration Model for soil capacity

Infiltration starts at a constant rate, f0, and is decreasing

exponentially with time, t. After some time when the soil
saturation level reaches a critical value, the rate of infiltration
will level off to the rate fc.
Example
Փ – Index Model
Փ – Index Model

Infiltration Volume = total rainfall volume – runoff volume as measured

in the rain gages and at the outlet gage, respectively.

F assumes infiltration volume resulted from a constant infiltration rate.

It assumes a high initial infiltration is balanced by a low later
infiltration.
 Փ – Index Model

We will find F in this problem by guessing a value for F , calculating

the total runoff that would result, and comparing our answer to the
known runoff.
Փ – Index Model
Փ – Index Model




 
 





  




  

  

 










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Solution:
Computation of rainfall depth and intensity

Rainfall 10 min Running 30 min

Time depth intensity totals intensity
(min) (in) (in/hr) 30 min (in/hr)
10 0.05 0.3
20 0.2 1.2
30 0.3 1.8 0.55 1.1
40 0.25 1.5 0.75 1.5
50 0.1 0.6 0.65 1.3
Total
depth ∑ =0.9

(a) Storm hyetograph

Hyetograph
2
Rainfall intensity (in/hr)

1.5

0.5

0
10 20 30 40 50
Time (min)
 (b) The maximum 10 min intensity = (0.3*60)/10 = 1.8 in/hr
(c) The maximum 30 min intensity = (0.75*60)/30 = 1.5 in/hr
(d) Total depth of rainfall = 0.9 in

Solution: assuming pan coefficient 0.75

Water Daily
P
Day Added Pan Evaporation (in) evaporation
(in)
(in) Ep= P + water added
1 0 0.22 0.22 0.17
2 0 0.25 0.25 0.19
3 0.13 0.02 0.15 0.11
4 0.04 0.09 0.13 0.1
5 0 0.19 0.19 0.14
6 0.21 0 0.21 0.16
7 0.06 0.11 0.17 0.13
Solution:
Evaporation rate using Harbeck and Meyers (1970) formula:

Here, b = 0.0119 cm-sec/m.mb-day, an empirically derived constant

Rh = 40%
u2m= wind speed = 5 mph = (5*1.61*1000)/3600 m/s = 2.24 m/s
T = 27°F = 5/9 (27– 32) °C = -2.78°C
Saturated vapor pressure,

= 497.89 Pa = 4.98 mb
e2m = es* Rh = 497.89*0.4 =199.16 Pa = 1.99 mb
E = 0.0119*2.24*(4.98-1.99) cm/day = 0.08 cm/day
Solution:

Temperature = 25.6°C = (9/5* 25.6 + 32) = 78.1 °F

Mean daily dew point = 4.4°C = (9/5* 4.4 + 32) = 39.92°F
Daily solar radiation = 550 calories/cm2
Wind movement = 5.5 feet/sec = (5.5/5280) *3600*24 = 90 miles/day

From the graph, evaporation = 25/100 in = 0.25 in

 University of Asia Pacific
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE 363
Engineering Hydrology
Lecture 6: Infiltration exercise problems

Problem 1
According to field measurements, a watershed of interests is capable of infiltrating at a
rate of 2.6 in/hr at the beginning of a storm. By the end of the storm, it can only infiltrate
at ⅕ of the initial rate. Plot the infiltration rate versus time for the first 8 hours after the
storm starts. Assume the decay constant is 0.34 hr-1. How long after the storm the
infiltration rate will be ½ of the initial rate? When the infiltration rate will be ⅓ of the
initial rate?

Solution:
As we know,

Here,
The infiltration rate at time t, ft in/hr
The initial infiltration rate or maximum infiltration rate, f0 = 2.6 in/hr
The constant or equilibrium infiltration rate after the soil, fc = (⅕) f0 = 0.52 in/hr
The decay constant, k = 0.34 hr-1

So,
ft = 0.52+(2.6-0.52)e-0.34t = 0.52+2.08e-0.34t
Using this equation, the time dependent infiltration rate can be found
Time Infiltration 3
(hr) rate, (in/hr)
2.5
Infiltration rate (in/Hr)

0 2.6
1 2.000482 2
2 1.573763
1.5
3 1.270037
4 1.053854 1
5 0.899982
6 0.79046 0.5
7 0.712505
0
8 0.657019 0 2 4 6 8
Time (hour)
When,
ft = (½)f0 = 1.3 in/hr

1.3 = 0.52+2.08 e-0.34t

»
» t = 2.88 hr

When,
ft = (1/3)f0 = 0.867 in/hr

0.867 = 0.52+2.08 e-0.34t

»
» t = 5.26 hr

Problem 2
Use the values in problem 1 to derive the volume (depth) of water infiltrated versus
time. Plot this equation. Approximately how long after the storm, 1 inch of water will
be infiltrated? How long for 5.5 inches?
Solution:
Volume can be found by integrating the infiltration equation
SO, V = ʃ ʃ
ft dt = (0.52+2.08 e-0.34t) dt
Integrating between 0 to t
. .
=[ . + ]
− .
.
So, V = [ . − . ]
.
So, V = . − . + .
Using this equation, the time dependent infiltration depth can be found.

Infiltration
Time
volume, V 12
(hr)
Infiltration depth (in)

(in) 10
0 0 8
1 2.283389 6
2 4.058517 4
3 5.47188 2
4 6.627749 0
5 7.600342 0 2 4 6 8
6 8.442484 Time (hour)
7 9.191776
8 9.874978

For V = 1 inch
1= 0.52t-6.118 e-0.34t+6.118
» t= 0.4 hr
For V = 5.5 inch
5.5= 0.52t-6.118 e-0.34t+6.118
» t= 3.022 hr
Փ – Index Model

Փ – Index Model assumes infiltration volume resulted from a constant infiltration rate.
It assumes a high initial infiltration is balanced by a low later infiltration.
Problem 3
A 50 acre watershed has a total runoff volume of 130,000 ft3 after the storm recorded
in the table below. What is the phi-index for this watershed?

Here,
Area = 50 acre = (50×43560) ft2 = 2178000 ft2
Runoff volume = 130000 ft3
So, runoff depth, R = (130000/2178000) = 0.05968 ft = 0.716 in

Here, rainfall duration for each precipitation intensity is 1 hour.

So, Total precipitation, P = (0.1+0.25+0.8+1.3+1.3+1.5+0.8+0.5+0.3+0.1)×1= 6.95 in

Trial 1
Assume that rainfall intensity during the whole time was greater than φ
R= P – φ t
So, φ = (P-R)/t = (6.95-0.716)/10 =0.6234 in/hr
1 C2 C3 C4= C3*C2 C5 = C4-0.6234*C2
Time Precipitation Revised
interval intensity Precipitation, Runoff,
Time (hr) (in/hr) P (in) Runoff, R (in) R (in)
1 1 0.1 0.1 -0.5234 0
2 1 0.25 0.25 -0.3734 0
3 1 0.8 0.8 0.1766 0.1766
4 1 1.3 1.3 0.6766 0.6766
5 1 1.3 1.3 0.6766 0.6766
6 1 1.5 1.5 0.8766 0.8766
7 1 0.6 0.6 -0.0234 0
8 1 0.5 0.5 -0.1234 0
9 1 0.3 0.3 -0.3234 0
10 1 0.1 0.1 -0.5234 0
Total 2.4064

Here, Calculated R>Given R

Trial 2
φ = (0.8+1.3+1.3+1.5-0.716)/4 =1.046 in/hr

C1 C2 C3 C4= C3*C2 C5 = C4-1.046*C2

Time Precipitation Revised
interval intensity Precipitation, Runoff,
Time (hr) (in/hr) P (in) Runoff, R (in) R (in)
1 1 0.1 0.1 -0.946 0
2 1 0.25 0.25 -0.796 0
3 1 0.8 0.8 -0.246 0
4 1 1.3 1.3 0.254 0.254
5 1 1.3 1.3 0.254 0.254
6 1 1.5 1.5 0.454 0.454
7 1 0.8 0.8 -0.246 0
8 1 0.5 0.5 -0.546 0
9 1 0.3 0.3 -0.746 0
10 1 0.1 0.1 -0.946 0
Total 0.962

Here, Calculated R>Given R

Trial 3
Φ = (1.3+1.3+1.5-0.716)/3 = 1.128 in/hr
C1 C2 C3 C4= C3*C2 C5 = C4-1.128*C2
Time Precipitation Revised
interval intensity Precipitation, Runoff,
Time (hr) (in/hr) P (in) Runoff, R (in) R (in)
1 1 0.1 0.1 -1.028 0
2 1 0.25 0.25 -0.877 0
3 1 0.8 0.8 -0.328 0
4 1 1.3 1.3 0.172 0.172
5 1 1.3 1.3 0.172 0.172
6 1 1.5 1.5 0.372 0.372
7 1 0.8 0.8 -0.328 0
8 1 0.5 0.5 -0.628 0
9 1 0.3 0.3 -0.828 0
10 1 0.1 0.1 -1.028 0
Total 0.716

Here, Calculated R = Given R

So, Φ = 1.128 in/hr
CE363
Engineering Hydrology

Rainfall-Runoff Analysis
Hydrographs
Hydrograph: continuous plot of instantaneous discharge.
Flow rate (cfs or cms) vs. time

Watershed factors of importance:

Size and shape of drainage area
Slope of the land surface and the main channel
Soil types and distribution in watershed

Meteorological Factors that influence the shape and volume of

runoff:
Rainfall intensity and pattern
Areal distribution of rainfall over the basin
Size and duration of the storm event
Typical Hydrographs
Rising limb, a falling
limb, and a recession.
The rising limb and
falling limb are
separated by the
hydrograph crest, and
the limbs are separated
from the recession by
inflection points. The
rising limb is typically
steeper than the falling
limb.

The only steady contribution to the water in a channel during dry spells is coming
from subsurface flow, the base flow. During a storm, flow in the stream increases
due to runoff, then gradually decreases to some minimum value. The minimum is
from base flow.
The Watershed Response
Hydrograph
As rain falls over a watershed area, a certain portion will infiltrate
the soil. Some water will evaporate to atmosphere.

Rainfall that does not infiltrate or evaporate is available as overland

flow and runs off to the nearest stream.

Smaller tributaries or streams then begin to flow and contribute

their load to the main channel at confluences.

As accumulation continues, the streamflow rises to a maximum

(peak flow) and a flood wave moves downstream through the main
channel.

The flow eventually recedes or subsides as all areas drain out.

Convert the gross hyetograph to net rainfall by subtracting infiltration,
f, and totaling for the storm

Notice the
hyetograph
and hydrograph
areas are in
different scales

The inflection point on the falling limb is assumed to be the point where direct
runoff (DRO) ends.
Baseflow Separation
Separation by Recession Curve Approach
Separation by Arbitrary Approach
Recession Curve Approach
Inflection point
Arbitrary Approach
Arbitrary Approach
Arbitrary Approach
 Arbitrary Approach

Area = 6500 km2

Method 2

N = aA0.2
=
=
Direct runoff

Baseflow
 CE363
Engineering Hydrology

Flow Routing
 Flow Routing Q

• Procedure to t

determine the flow

Q
hydrograph at a
point on a
watershed from a
t
known hydrograph
upstream Q
• As the hydrograph
travels, it
– attenuates t
– gets delayed Q

t
2
 Why route flows?

 Account for changes in flow hydrograph as a flood wave passes

downstream
 This helps in
 Accounting for storages
 Studying the attenuation of flood peaks

3
 Types of flow routing
• Lumped/hydrologic
– Flow is calculated as a function of time alone at a
particular location
– Governed by continuity equation and flow/storage
relationship
• Distributed/hydraulic
– Flow is calculated as a function of space and time
throughout the system
– Governed by continuity and momentum equations

4
 Hydrologic Routing
Discharge I (t ) Discharge
Inflow
Transfer Q(t )
Function
Outflow

I (t )  Inflow Q(t )  Outflow

Upstream hydrograph Downstream hydrograph

Input, output, and storage are related by continuity equation:

dS
 I (t )  Q(t ) Q and S are unknown
dt
Storage can be expressed as a function of I(t) or Q(t) or both
dI dQ
S  f (I , ,  , Q, , )
dt dt
For a linear reservoir, S=kQ
5
 Lumped Flow Routing
Three types:
1. Level pool method (Modified Puls)
– Storage is nonlinear function of Q
2. Muskingum method
– Storage is linear function of I and Q
3. Series of reservoir models
– Storage is linear function of Q and its time
derivatives

6
S and Q relationships

7
 Level Pool Routing
• Procedure for calculating outflow hydrograph
Q(t) from a reservoir with horizontal water
surface, given its inflow hydrograph I(t) and
storage-outflow relationship

8
 Level Pool Methodology
dS
Discharge
Inflow  I (t )  Q(t )
dt
I j 1
Outflow S j 1 ( j 1) t ( j 1) t
Ij  dS   Idt   Qdt
Q j 1 Sj jt jt

Qj
t S j 1  S j I j 1  I j Q j 1  Q j
 
jt ( j  1) t Time t 2 2
Storage 2S j 1 2S j
 Q j 1  I j 1  I j  Qj
t t

Unknown Known
S j 1 Need a function relating

2S
Sj  Q, and Q
t
9
Time Storage-outflow function
 Level Pool Methodology
• Given
– Inflow hydrograph
– Q and H relationship

• Steps
1. Develop Q versus Q+ 2S/t relationship using
Q/H relationship
2 S j 1 2S j
2. Compute Q+ 2S/t using t  Q j 1  I j 1  I j  t  Q j
3. Use the relationship developed in step 1 to get Q

10
 Example
Given I(t) Given Q/H
Time Inflow Elevation H Discharge Q
(min) (cfs) (ft) (cfs)
0 0 0 0
10 60 0.5 3
20 120 400 1 8
30 180 1.5 17
40 240 2 30
50 300 300 2.5 43
60 360 3 60
Inflow (cfs)

70 320 3.5 78
80 280 4 97
200
90 240 4.5 117
100 200 5 137
110 160 5.5 156
120 120 100 6 173
130 80 6.5 190
140 40 7 205
150 0 0 7.5 218
160 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 8 231
170 0 8.5 242
180 0 Tim e (m in) 9 253
190 0 9.5 264
200 0 10 275
210 0

Area of the reservoir = 1 acre, and outlet diameter = 5ft

11
Solution
Step 1
Develop Q versus 2S/t+Q and Q versus 2S/t-Q, relationship using Q/H relationship

S  Area  Height  43560  0.5  21,780 ft 3

2S 2  21780
Q   3  75.6 cfs
t 10  60

300

Outflow Q (cfs) 250

200

150

100

50

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
2S/ t + Q (cfs)

12
Solution
Step 2
2 S j 1 2S j
Compute Q+ 2S/t using  Q j 1  I j 1  I j  Qj
t t

13
Solution
Step 3 300

250

Outflow Q (cfs)
200

Use the relationship between 2S/t + Q versus Q to 150

compute Q 100

50

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
2S/ t + Q (cfs)

Use the Table/graph created in Step 1 to compute Q

What is the value of Q if 2S/t + Q = 60 ?

From table in step 1
What is the value of Q if 2S/t + Q = 501.1 ?
(3  0)
Q 0 (60  0)  2.4 cfs (78−60)
Q= 60 +(586.2−495.6)(501.6-495.6)= 61.1
(76  0)
So Q2 is 2.4 cfs

What is the value of Q if 2S/t + Q = 235.2 ?

(30−17)
Q= 17 +(320.4−234.8)(235.2-234.8)= 17.1
14
Solution
Step 4
Use the relationship between 2S/t - Q versus Q to
compute 2S/t - Q

Use the Table/graph created in Step 1 to compute 2S/t - Q

What is the value of 2S/t - Q if Q = 17.1 ?

From table in step 1

(260.4−200.8)
2S/t - Q = 200.8 + (17.1-17)= 201.1
(30−17)

What is the value of 2S/t - Q if Q = 61.1 ?

(430.2−375.6)
2S/t - Q = 375.6 + (61.1-60)= 378.9
(78−60)

15
Results 2 S j 1
 Q j 1  I j 1  I j 
2S j
Qj
t t

16
 Results
12.0

10.0

Outflow
8.0
Storage (acre-ft)

hydrograph
6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Time (minutes) 400

350
Inflow
300

Discharge (cfs)
Peak outflow intersects with the 250

receding limb of the inflow hydrograph 200

150

100 Outflow
50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
TIme (minutes)
17
 Q/H Relationships

http://www.wsi.nrcs.usda.gov/products/W2Q/H&H/Tools_Models/Sites.html
Program for Routing Flow through
18 an NRCS Reservoir
 CE363
Engineering Hydrology
Flow Routing
(Muskingum Method)
 Muskingum Method
The Muskingum method was developed by McCarthy (1938) and utilizes the continuity equation and a
storage relationship that depends on both inflow and outflow.

The storage within the reach at a given time can be expresses by (Chow, 1959):
 Wedge and
Prism
Storage
• Positive wedge I>Q
• Maximum S when I = Q
• Negative wedge I<Q
 Hydrologic river routing
(Muskingum Method)
Wedge storage in reach
I
S Prism  KQ Advancing Q
Flood
S Wedge  KX ( I  Q ) Wave
I>Q
I Q
K = travel time of peak through the reach
X = weight on inflow versus outflow (0 ≤ X ≤ 0.5) Q Q
X = 0  Reservoir, storage depends on outflow, no
wedge
X = 0.5 yields equal weight to inflow and outflow,
which results in pure translation of the wave
X = 0.0 - 0.3  Natural stream. A typical value for I Q
most natural streams is x=0.2
Receding
S  KQ  KX ( I  Q) Flood QI
Wave
Q>I
S  K [ XI  (1  X )Q] I I
 CE363
Engineering Hydrology
Peak Flow Estimation
(Rational Method)
The Rational Method
In some engineering designs such as design storm water-sewer system, estimates of peak
flow rate from a small basin is required. Hydrologic methods including the rational method is
employed to estimate peak flow used for such designs.

The underlying assumption of the rational method is that a catchment area has a specific time
of concentration which is defined as the time needed for water to travel from the most remote
point of the area to travel through the outlet. The basic equation of the rational method is:

Q = CiA
where:
Q is the peak flow (cfs)
i is the aveage rainfall intensity (inlhr)
C is runoff (rational) coefficient and
A is the area of the watershed (acres).

Note that if Q is in m3 / s, i in mm / hr, A in km2, the equation should be written as,

Q = 0.278 CiA
 The Rational Method
(Assumptions and limitations)
 The Rational Method
(Assumptions and limitations)
The Rational Method
(Runoff Coefficient, C)
 The
Rational
Method
(Runoff Coefficient, C)
The Rational Method
(Rainfall Intensity, i)
 The
Rational • The time required
for the flow to
Method move from the
furthest point of
the watershed to
the outlet.
(Time of
Concentration, tc) • Tc = T(overland) +
T(sewer or pipe)
 Overland Time

The
Rational
Method
(Time of
Concentration,
tc)
 Sewer or Pipe time

The
Rational
Method
(Time of
Concentration, tc)
The Rational Method
(Time of Concentration, tc)
The Rational Method:

• Although the rational equation is

dimensionally consistent, it yields correct
values for Q in cfs, i in inches per hour and A
in acres. The figure below is provided by the
US Department of Transportation for
frequency correction factor. The table shows
some typical values of the rational coefficient
C for various surface areas.

• Note that the runoff coefficient varies from

0 to 1 which embodies a number of variables
that include rainfall duration and intensity,
soil type, shape and slope of the watershed,
design frequency, amount of depression
storage and interception
Application of Rational Method:
• Estimate the time of concentration (tc) which is the time
required for water to travel from the most remote area to reach
the outlet. For combination of various routes, tc is taken as the
longest time of travel to the outlet.
• Estimate the runoff coefficient C.
• Select a return period Tr and find the intensity of rain that will
be equaled or exceeded once every Tr. This is obtained from IDF
curves.
• Determine peak flow from the rational formula. This value is
then used for design of storm systems.
Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves
(IDF)
Runoff coefficients for Various Areas:
Business: Downtown Area 0.70 – 0.95
Business: Neighborhood Areas 0.50 – 0.70
Residential: Single-family areas 0.30 - 0.50
Multi units, detached 0.40 - 0.60
Multi units, attached 0.60 - 0.70
Residential (suburban) 0.25 – 0.40
Apartment dwelling areas 0.50 – 0.70
Industrial: Light areas 0.50 – 0.80
Industrial: Heavy areas 0.60 - 0.90
Park, cemeteries 0.10 – 0.25
Playgrounds 0.20 – 0.35
Railroad yard areas 0.20 – 0.40
Unimproved areas 0.10 – 0.30
 Area C

1 0.2

EXAMPLE 2 0.35

3 0.8

4 0.9

An urban watershed is
shown along with the
travel paths from the most
remote points in each
subareas. The details of
the subareas are given in
the accompanied Table.
Use the provided IDF curve
with Kirpich formula to
determine the 20-yr peak
flow at the drainage outlet
G.
 1. Travel time by paths:

Path Length Slope Overland time

(ft) (%) (min)
AE 1600 3 8.8
BF 1490 1.8 10.2
CE 1280 2.9 7.5
EF 1300 2.5 8.1
DF 1250 2.9 7.4

Solution FG 1510 2.5 9.1

2. Possible routes:
a. AE+EF+FG=8.8+8.1+9.1=26 min ← Tc (highest value)
b. CE+EF+FG=7.5+8.1+9.1=24.7 min
c. BF+FG=10.2+9.1=19.3 min
d. DF+FG=7.4+9.1=16.5 min

3. From the IDF curve, for 20-year frequency and Tc of 26 min, i = 6.5 in/hr

4
Area Area Drained C ac(acres) ∑aC(acres)
(acres)
1 14 0.2 2.8 2.8
2 12.5 0.35 4.38 7.18
3 11.1 0.8 8.88 16.06
4 8.5 0.9 7.65 23.71

5
Q=i∑aC=6.5*23.71= 154.12 cfs
Example
Solution
Solution
Solution
 Class Example
RATIONAL METHOD

Travel Time (min)

Inlet Area, a Coefficent, C ∑aC Route Inlet In sewer Total Time Intensity Q(peak)
(acres) (in/hr) (cfs)
1 5 0.2 1.9 AA→I1 12 0 12 4.13 7.84
3 0.3 AB→I1 10 0 10

2 5 0.2 3.5 AA→I1→I2 12 1 13 3.97 13.88

3 0.3 AB→I1→I2 10 1 11
4 0.4 AC→I2 8 0 8
 CE363
Engineering Hydrology

Frequency Analysis
 Introduction

Many hydrological occurrences such as rainfall, floods, drought, etc.

are random in nature which means that their occurrences are uncertain.
To investigate those hydrological processes, we need to analyze their
records of observations. Many characteristics of these processes can
not be handled through deterministic analysis. On other words,
deterministic relationships do not seem to be applicable for analysis
of these characteristics.
 Classification based on randomness.

Hydrologic Models

• Deterministic (e. g., Rainfall runoff analysis)

• Analysis of hydrological processes using deterministic approaches
• Hydrological parameters are based on physical relations of the various
components of the hydrologic cycle.
• Do not consider randomness; a given input produces the same output.

• Stochastic (e. g., flood frequency analysis)

• Probabilistic description and modeling of hydrologic phenomena
• Statistical analysis of hydrologic data.
 Frequency Analysis
In designing any water resources system, i.e. hydraulic structures, design of
reservoirs, irrigation systems, urban drainage systems, etc., we design it such
that it withstand a given value of peak flow that is associated with given return
period.
Frequency Analysis can help to correlate the magnitude of the hydrologic
event with its probability of occurrences. To do this, observed data are used to
find the basis of the “proper” probability distributions of the hydrological
variables. However, to have smooth curves of the frequency distributions,
investigators derived theoretical distributions that can “FIT” many
hydrological variables.
Frequency analysis can be performed by the following two methods:
1. Graphical Method.
2. Mathematical method.
 Frequency Analysis
(Hydrologic Extremes)
 Extreme events
o Floods
o Droughts
 Magnitude of extreme events is related to their
frequency of occurrence
1
Magnitude 
Frequency of occurence
 The objective of frequency analysis is to relate the
magnitude of events to their frequency of
occurrence through probability distribution
 It is assumed the events (data) are independent and
come from identical distribution
 Histogram
• Plots of bars whose height is the number ni, or fraction
(ni/N), of data falling into one of several intervals of
equal width
30
60
100
90
50
25
80
Interval = 50,000 cfs
occurences
of occurences
No. ofoccurences

70
40
20
60 Interval
Interval = 25,000
= 10,000 cfscfs
30
15
50
40
No. of

20
10
No.

30
1020
5
10
0
00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 350 00 400 50 450 00 500
0 05 50 50
10 100100
15 150
15020 200
20025 250
25030 300
300 35 350 4 400 4 450 5 500
Annual 3 3 3cfs)
Annualmm
Annual m ax
ax
ax flow
flow (10
flow(10
(10cfs)cfs)

Dividing the number of occurrences with the total number of points will give Probability
Mass Function
 Probability density function
• Continuous form of probability mass function is probability
density function
0.9
100
90
0.8
80
0.7
occurences

70
0.6
Probability

60
0.5
50
0.4
40
No. of

0.3
30
0.2
20
0.1
10
00
0 0 50
100 100 150
200 200 300
250 300 400350 400500450 500
600
3 3
Annualmm
Annual axaxflow
flow(10
(10 cfs)
cfs)
 Cumulative Distribution Function
(CDF)
• Cumulate the pdf to produce a CDF
• CDF describes the probability that a random variable is less
than or equal to specified value of x

1
P (Q ≤ 50000) = 0.8
0.8

P (Q ≤ 25000) = 0.4
Probability

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Annual m ax flow (103 cfs)
 Probability distributions

• Normal family
– Normal, lognormal, lognormal-III
• Generalized extreme value family
– EV1 (Gumbel), GEV, and EVIII (Weibull)
• Exponential/Pearson type family
– Exponential, Pearson type III, Log-Pearson type III
Probability Distributions Commonly Used in Hydrology
 Frequency Analysis
(Graphical Solution)
• Probability plot is a graphical tool to assess
whether or not the data fits a particular
distribution.
• The data are fitted against a theoretical
distribution in such as way that the points should
form approximately a straight line (distribution
function is linearized)
• Departures from a straight line indicate
departure from the theoretical distribution
 Frequency Analysis
(Graphical Solution)
The method involves fitting of a an assumed probability distribution to
observed data.

Data should be first ranked in order of decreasing magnitude. Thus, the value
represents the maximum magnitude in record. Once the data ranked in
decreasing order, the plotting position or return period can be computed.
There are different ways which the plotting position can be found. The most
common plotting position in hydrology is Weibull formula:

𝑛+1
𝑇=
𝑚
where
T = Return period
n = Number of values (total observations)
m = rank of decreasing values with largest equal to 1.0
 Frequency Analysis
(Graphical Solution)
1
Then, the observed values and their exceedance probabilities (i.e. 𝑃 = ) are
𝑇
plotted on the probability paper corresponding to the assumed probability
distribution.
 Frequency Analysis
(Mathematical Model or Frequency Factors )

• Once a distribution has been selected and its

parameters estimated, then how do we use it?
• Chow proposed using:
xT  x  KT s
where
xT  Estimated event magnitude fX(x)

KT  Frequency factor
x

KT s

T  Return period P( X  xT ) 
1
T
x  Sample mean
s  Sample standard deviation xT x
 Distribution Characteristics
(Central Tendency)
(a) Mean or Arithmetic Average

1 n
X   xi
n i 1

(b) Median:
is the middle value of the observed data and divide the distribution into
equal areas.
𝑥𝑛/2 +𝑥 𝑛
𝑥𝑛+1 +1
2
𝑥= 2
if “n” is odd OR 𝑥= 2
if “n” is even

(c) Mode:
Mode is the value occurring most frequently OR with the greatest
frequency in discrete variables. In continuous variables it is the peak
value of probability density. The mode may not exist and when it does it is
not necessary unique.
 Distribution Characteristics
(Variability)
(a) Standard Deviation (S) or (σ):
It represents the average deviation about the mean.
𝑛
𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖− 𝑥)
𝑆=
(𝑛 − 1)
where n = number of observations
𝑥 = mean

(b) Variance ( 𝑺𝟐 ) or (𝝈𝟐 )

Variance is an indicator of the closeness of the values of the sample or population to the mean.
If all values in a sample equaled the mean, the sample variance will equal to zero.
It has a unit of ( 𝐿2 )

Two distributions with same

mean, but different variances
 Distribution Characteristics
(Variability)
(c) Coefficient of Variation (CV):
It relative variability.
𝑆 𝜎
𝐶𝑉 = 𝑜𝑟
𝑥 𝜇

(d) Skew or Skewness (g) or (k) or (𝑪𝒔 ):

It measures the symmetry towards either side of the center.
 Frequency Analysis
(Normal & Log-Normal Distributions)
 Normal Distribution
• Central limit theorem – if X is the sum of n
independent and identically distributed random variables
with finite variance, then with increasing n the distribution of
X becomes normal regardless of the distribution of random
variables
• pdf for normal distribution
2
1  x 
1   
2  
f X ( x)  e
 2
 is the mean and  is the standard
deviation

Hydrologic variables such as annual precipitation, annual average streamflow, or

annual average pollutant loadings follow normal distribution
 Standard Normal Distribution
• A standard normal distribution is a normal
distribution with mean () = 0 and standard
deviation () = 1
• Normal distribution is transformed to
standard normal distribution by using the
following formula:
X 
z

z is called the standard normal variable
 Frequency Analysis
(Normal & Log-Normal Distributions)

Graphical Solution
 Normal Probability Plot
• Steps
1. Rank the data from largest (m = 1) to smallest (m = n)
2. Assign plotting position to the data (Weibull Formula)

• If the data falls on a straight line, the data comes from

a normal distribution

T = (N+1)/m
P is the exceedance probability
Normal Probability Paper
Exceedance Probability (%)
 Example 1
(Normal Distribution)
Assuming normal distribution, make a
frequency analysis of the annual
maximum flood measured at a local
valley. Plot the data using the Weibull
plotting position formula. Based on the
frequency curve and the mathematical
equation estimate the following:
(a) The 20-year annual maximum; and
(b) The exceedance probability and
return period for an event of 5500
cfs.
 Solution
(Graphical Method)
Raw Data

No. Max. Flood Rank Max. Flood Return Period (T) Probability (P=1/T)
(cfs) (cfs) (%)
1 4210 1 7230 23.00 4.35
2 2010 2 5220 11.50 8.70
3 5010 3 5170 7.67 13.04
4 4290 4 5010 5.75 17.39
5 3720 5 4290 4.60 21.74
6 2920 6 4280 3.83 26.09
7 2500 7 4210 3.29 30.43
8 2110 8 4050 2.88 34.78
9 3110 9 3860 2.56 39.13
10 2420 10 3720 2.30 43.48
11 4280 11 3650 2.09 47.83
12 3860 12 3590 1.92 52.17
13 3150 13 3260 1.77 56.52
14 4050 14 3150 1.64 60.87
15 3260 15 3110 1.53 65.22
16 7230 16 2920 1.44 69.57
17 5170 17 2550 1.35 73.91
18 2550 18 2500 1.28 78.26
19 5220 19 2420 1.21 82.61
20 3650 20 2110 1.15 86.96
21 3590 21 2010 1.10 91.30
22 650 22 650 1.05 95.65

Avg. 3589.091
STDV. 1380.572
 Solution
(Normal Probability Plot)
 Solution
(Using the Frequency Curve)

(a)
For 20-yrs, the exceedance probability = (1/20)=5%.
From the normal probability curve, the corresponding flow is
approximately = 5860 cfs.

(b)
From the curve, when Q=5500 cfs, the exceedance
probability = 0.0859.
Thus, the return period = (1/0.0859) = 11.6 yrs.
 Solution
(Using the Mathematical Model or Frequency Factors)
(a) Rank Max. Flood
(cfs)
1 7230
The general form of the mathematical model is: 2
3
5220
5170

xT  x  KT s 4
5
5010
4290
6 4280
7 4210
8 4050
9 3860

Substitute the mean and standard deviation of 10

11
3720
3650
12 3590
the raw data into the general form: 13 3260
14 3150
15 3110
16 2920
Q = 3589.091 + K(1380.572) 17
18
2550
2500
19 2420
20 2110
21 2010
22 650

Avg. 3589.091
STDV. 1380.572
 Solution
(Using the Mathematical Model or Frequency Factors)
(a) “Continue”
Using the table with a probability of 0.05 (i.e. P=(1/T) = (1/20) = 0.05) for the 20-yrs.

Now from table with P(exceedance)=0.05, the value of K=1.645

Substitute the mathematical model:

Q = 3589.091 + 1.645*(1380.572)=5860.13 cfs.

(b)
For Q=5500 cfs, the value of K = (Q-Qavg)/S=(5500-3589.091)/1380.572=1.384
From table, the corresponding exceedance probability = 0.917
Thus, the exceedance probability =0.083
Therefore, T=(1/P)=(1/0.083)=12.05 yrs.
 Example 2
(Log-Normal Distribution)
Assuming log-normal distribution, make a frequency analysis
of the annual maximum flood measured at a local valley. Plot
the data using the Weibull plotting position formula. Based on
the frequency curve and the mathematical equation estimate the
following:
(a) The 20-year annual maximum; and
(b) The exceedance probability and return period for an event
of 5500 cfs.

4210 3720 3110 3150 2550

2010 2920 2420 4050 5220
5010 2500 4280 3260 3650
4290 2110 3860 7230 3590
5170 650
 Solution
(Graphical Method)
Rank Max. Flood Log (Q) Return Period (T) Probability (P=1/T)
(cfs) (%)
1 7230 3.86 23.00 4.35
2 5220 3.72 11.50 8.70
3 5170 3.71 7.67 13.04
4 5010 3.70 5.75 17.39
5 4290 3.63 4.60 21.74
6 4280 3.63 3.83 26.09
7 4210 3.62 3.29 30.43
8 4050 3.61 2.88 34.78
9 3860 3.59 2.56 39.13
10 3720 3.57 2.30 43.48
11 3650 3.56 2.09 47.83
12 3590 3.56 1.92 52.17
13 3260 3.51 1.77 56.52
14 3150 3.50 1.64 60.87
15 3110 3.49 1.53 65.22
16 2920 3.47 1.44 69.57
17 2550 3.41 1.35 73.91
18 2500 3.40 1.28 78.26
19 2420 3.38 1.21 82.61
20 2110 3.32 1.15 86.96
21 2010 3.30 1.10 91.30
22 650 2.81 1.05 95.65

Avg. 3589.091 3.516

STDV. 1380.572 0.209
 Solution
(Normal Probability Plot)
 Solution
(Using the Frequency Curve)

(a)
For 20-yrs, the exceedance probability = (1/20)=5%.
From the normal probability curve, the corresponding flow (log Q) = 3.86.
Thus, the corresponding flow = 10^(3.86) = 7244 cfs.

(b)
To find the exceedance probability and return period for an event of 5500 cfs, first take
the log of 5500 which is equal to 3.74. Next, enter the normal probability plot with
3.74. From the curve, when log Q= 3.74, the exceedance probability = 0.1470.
Thus, the return period = (1/0.1470) = 6.8 yrs.
 Solution
(Using the Mathematical Model or Frequency Factors)
(a) Rank Max. Flood
(cfs)
Log (Q)

1 7230 3.86
The general form of the mathematical model is: 2
3
5220
5170
3.72
3.71

xT  x  KT s 4
5
5010
4290
3.70
3.63
6 4280 3.63
7 4210 3.62
8 4050 3.61
9 3860 3.59

Substitute the mean and standard deviation of 10

11
3720
3650
3.57
3.56
12 3590 3.56
the raw data into the general form: 13 3260 3.51
14 3150 3.50
15 3110 3.49
16 2920 3.47
log Q = 3.516 + K(0.209) 17
18
2550
2500
3.41
3.40
19 2420 3.38
20 2110 3.32
21 2010 3.30
22 650 2.81

Avg. 3589.091 3.516

STDV. 1380.572 0.209
 Solution
(Using the Mathematical Model or Frequency Factors)
(a) “Continue”
Using the table with a probability of 0.05 (i.e. P=(1/T) = (1/20) =0.05) for the 20-yrs.

Now from table with P(exceedance)=0.05, the value of K=1.645

Substitute the mathematical model:

log Q = 3.516 + K(0.209) = 3.516 + 1.645*0.209 = 3.86

Thus, Q= 10^(3.86)=7244 cfs.

(b)
For Q=5500 cfs, the value of K = (log Q-(avg log Q))/S=(3.74-3.516)/0.209 = 1.072
From table, the corresponding exceedance probability=0.142
Therefore, T=(1/P)=(1/0.142)=7.04 yrs.
Here,
Aquifer thickness, B = 40 ft
h1 = 60 ft, h2 = 59.2 ft, L = 1000 ft
Hydraulic conductivity, K = 0.03 ft/sec
.
Flow rate, q = = × 0.03 × 40
= 9.6 × ft3/sec per foot width (Ans)
Here,

K = 20 m/day
Aquifer thickness, B = 25 m
h1 = 55 m, h2 = 42 m, L = 2 km = 2000 m
Flow rate, q2 = = × 20 × 25
= 3.25 m3/day per meter width

K = 35 m/day
h1 = (55-25) m = 30 m, h2 = (42-25) m = 17 m, L = 2 km = 2000 m
L = 2 km = 2000 m
Flow rate, q1 = = ×
× 35
= 5.35 m3/day per meter width
Total flow rate, q = q1 + q2 = (3.25+5.35) m3/day per meter width
= 8.60 m3/day per meter width (Ans)
Here,
Q = 0.05 m3/sec, H = 25 m
h1 = (25-3) m = 22 m, h2 = (25-1.2) m = 23.8 m
r1 = 50 m, r2 = 150 m

Hydraulic conductivity, K

× ( . )
→0.05 =

→K = 2.12× m/sec
= 0.021 cm/sec
So, the deposit is clean coarse sand

Radius of influence, R
× ( )
Q=

× . × ×( )
→0.05 =

→R= 327.08 m
Here,
Q = 80 m3/hr = 0.022 m3/sec
rw= 0.5/2 = 0.25 m, H= 33 m
h1 = (33-1.8) m = 31.2 m, h2 = (33-1.1) m = 31.9 m
r1 = 18 m, r2 = 45 m

(a) Transmissivity, T = ?

× ( . . )
→0.022 =

→K = 1.45× 10 m/sec
Now, T = KH = 1.45× 10 × 33 = 4.79× m2/sec

(b) Drawdown, Sw = ?

× . × ( . )
→0.022 =
.

→ℎ = 766.9 → ℎ = 27.69 m
Drawdown, Sw = (H- hw) = (33-27.69) m = 5.31 m
(c) Radius of influence, R = ?

× . × ( . )
→0.022 =
.

→
.
= 5.75

→R =197.64 m

Using approximate equation

× . × × .
→0.022 =
.

→R = 357.06 m
 CE363
Engineering Hydrology

Groundwater Hydrology
 Groundwater Hydrology
So far we were concerned with various aspects
of surface hydrology which includes rainfall,
runoff, infiltration, evaporation, …, etc. Now, we
will discuss another process or phase in
hydrologic cycle which is GROUNDWATER.
 Groundwater Hydrology
Topics to be covered:

• Basic definitions of Groundwater (GW)

• Properties of GW
• Basic equations of GW flow
• Well hydraulics for both steady and unsteady
conditions.
 Basic Definitions
Groundwater:

• Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in soil

pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations.

• The study of the distribution and movement

of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater
hydrology.

• Groundwater is important because it can be considered as a major

source of water supply (i.e. agriculture or municipal use).
Basic Definitions
 Basic Definitions
Aquifer:

• The geologic formation that contains under ground water called

AQUIFER.

• A more exact definition is “the geologic formation that is

saturated and can transmit large quantities of water”.

• In groundwater, there are two types of aquifers:

➢ Confined Aquifer, and
➢ Unconfined Aquifer.
 Basic Definitions
Confined Aquifer:
• It is a geological formation that is bounded by two layers of confining
beds having water under pressure greater than atmosphere. The
bounded layers can be impervious or semi-impervious. The Confined
aquifers are also called “pressure aquifers”.
• The water level in a well penetrating a confined aquifer will rise above
the bottom of the upper confining layer; but may or may not reach the
land surface. When the water level reaches the land surface, the
aquifer is called “Artesian Aquifer”.

Unconfined Aquifer:
• It is not bounded by an upper confining bed, and it contains water that
is open to the atmosphere. It is also referred to as water-table aquifer.
Basic Definitions
 Aquifer Characteristics
1. Intrinsic permeability (k)
2. Hydraulic conductivity (K)
3. Transmissivity (T)
4. Porosity (n)
5. Storage coefficient or Storativity (S)
 Permeability (k)
• It is a function of the porous medium only.
• The permeability of a porous medium is a measure of its ability to transmit
fluid under a hydropotential gradient. It is considered to be approximately
proportional to the square of the mean grain diameter:

k = Cd^2
where:
k (L^2) is the permeability or specific permeability.
d is the mean grain diameter
C is a dimensionless constant called “shape factor” depends on
porosity range, distribution of particle size, shapes of grain, etc.

• Permeability is a property of the medium and is independent of the

properties of the fluid.
 Hydraulic Conductivity (K)

• Hydraulic conductivity or conductivity of the aquifer is a property of

medium (i.e. soil type) and fluid.
• It is a measure of how much an aquifer can transmit water from one point
to another.
• Hydraulic conductivity (K) has a unit (L/T).
• K = f(permeability of aquifer (k), specific weight of fluid (γ), and dynamic
viscosity of fluid (μ)).
• K and k are related by: K=(γk/ μ).
• K is also a function of direction and location in aquifer (homogeneous,
isotropic)
 Hydraulic Conductivity (K)
Isotropy/anisotropy
• Isotropic medium has uniform properties in all directions at a given point.
• Anisotropic medium has properties that are dependent on direction.

Homogeneity / Non-homogeneity
• Homogeneous medium has properties that are independent of position.
• Non-homogeneous medium has properties that change from position to
another.
• Non-homogeneous medium known as heterogenous.
Hydraulic Conductivity (K)
Typical Hydraulic Conductivities
(for water)
 Transmissibility (T)
• Transmissibility of an aquifer (sometimes referred to as Transmissivity) is a
measure of the ability of the aquifer to transmit water through its entire
depth.
• It is expressed in ((𝐿2 /𝑇) and it is equal to the product of hydraulic
conductivity (L/T) and the thickness of the aquifer.
• Transmissibility:
ഥ
𝑇 = 𝐾b
where T=Transmissibility (𝐿2 /𝑇)
ഥ = Average hydraulic conductivity (L/T)
𝑲
b = Thickness of confined aquifer (L)
OR
Average saturated thickness of unconfined aquifer (L)
 Transmissibility (T)
When the medium is stratified, two conditions might exist:
• Flow parallel to stratifications:
1
ഥ
𝐾 = 𝐾1 𝑏1 + 𝐾2 𝑏2 + … … . +𝐾𝑛 𝑏𝑛
𝑏

• Flow normal to stratifications:

𝑏
ഥ
𝐾=
𝑏1 𝑏 𝑏
ൗ𝐾 + 2ൗ𝐾 + … … . + 𝑛ൗ𝐾
1 2 𝑛
 Porosity
• Groundwater usually is
found in porous media
(not underground rivers).
• A porous medium is
comprised of solid space
and void or pore space.
– Liquids and gasses are
found in the pore space,
the solid matrix forms the
physical structure of
aquifers and other
geologic formations of
interest.
• The ratio of total pore
volume to bulk medium
volume is the porosity
 Porosity (n)
• The porosity is a direct measure of the water
contained per unit volume.
• Porosity averages about 25% to 35% for most
aquifer systems.
• It is expressed as the ratio of the volume of
voids Vv to the total volume V:
n = Vv/V
• 0<n<1, although sometimes we express it as
a percentage by multiplying by 100
 Porosity
• Range in values large for
geologic materials
 Specific Yield & Specific Retention
Specific yield (Sy)
• is a storage property of unconfined aquifer.
• It is defined as the volume of water released from unconfined
aquifer per unit surface area per unit head decline in the
water table.
1 𝑑𝑉
• 𝑆𝑦 =
𝐴 𝑑ℎ

Specific retention (Sr)

• is the amount of water retained within the pores (due to
surface tension (molecular forces) per unit volume of soil.
n = Sy + S r
 Specific Yield
• A concept related to
porosity is the specific
yield of a material
• Sy is the amount of
water that will drain
from a porous medium
under the influence of
gravity.
• Sr is the amount of
water left behind in
the material and is
called the specific
retention
 Specific Yield
• The specific yield is important in
water supply as it represents the
amount of water that can drain
to wells.
• Thus when making groundwater
reservoir estimates the water in
storage should be based on the
specific yield and not porosity.
 Storage coefficient & Specific storage
Storage coefficient (S or Sc)
• is a storage property of confined aquifer.
• It is defined as the volume of water that an aquifer releases from or
take into storage per unit surface area per unit change in
piezometric head.
• 𝑆 = 𝜌𝑔𝑏(𝛼 + 𝑛𝛽)
where 𝝆=water density; b=thickness of the aquifer; 𝜶 =aquifer
compressibility; n=porosity; 𝜷=water compressibility

Specific storage (Ss)

𝑺
• 𝑺𝒔 =
𝒃
 Release of Water
Confined Aquifer Unconfined Aquifer
• Water is released after pumping • Water is released after
due to compressibility of aquifer
and expandability of water. pumping due to gravity.
• Gravity plays little role in • Compressibility of aquifer
releasing water. plays very little role in
• Change in storage,∆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑐 ∆𝑉 releasing water.
• Change in storage, ∆𝑆 =
𝑺𝒄 =storage coefficient ranges from 0.00005 𝑆𝑦 ∆𝑉
to 0.005 indicating large pressure produces
small changes in storage.
∆𝑽=change in piezometric head times 𝑺𝒚 =specific yield.
horizontal area. ∆𝑽=change in water table times
horizontal area.
 CE335
Engineering Hydrology

Groundwater Hydrology
 Groundwater

Groundwater flows slowly through the voids between grains or the cracks in
solid rock. Much of our knowledge depends on field and laboratory
observations. Here, for example, is an experiment to measure head loss in an
aquifer.
 Darcy’s Law

• Darcy discovered the fundamental law of groundwater movement in 1856.

• Darcy ran an experiment on column sand under different conditions with
different inflow rates.
 Darcy’s Law
• Henri Darcy established empirically that the
energy lost Δh in water flowing through a
permeable formation is proportional to the length
of the sediment column ΔL.
• The constant of proportionality K is called the
hydraulic conductivity . The Darcy Velocity VD:
VD = – K (Δh/ΔL)

and since Q = VD A ( where A = total area)

Q = – KA (dh/dL)
Darcy’s allows an estimate of:
• The velocity or flow rate moving within the aquifer
• The average time of travel from the head of the aquifer to a
point located downstream
• Very important for prediction of contaminant plume arrival

Confined Aquifer
Darcy & Seepage Velocity

• Darcy velocity VD does not represent the

actual velocity, since it assumes that flow
occurs across the entire cross-section of
the sediment sample. Flow actually takes
place only through interconnected pore
channels (voids), at the seepage velocity VS.
Av voids
A = total area
 Darcy & Seepage Velocities

• From the Continuity Eqn. Q = constant

• “Pipe running full” means “Inputs = Outputs”
• Q = A VD = AV Vs
– Where: Q = flow rate
A = total cross-sectional area of
material AV = area of voids
Vs = seepage velocity VD = Darcy velocity
Since A > AV , and Q = constant, Vs > VD
Vs ) is higher than Darcy’s velocity (VD ).
Which means that the actual velocity (
 Limitations of Darcy’s Equation

1. For Reynold’s Number, Re, > 10 or where the flow is

turbulent, as in the immediate vicinity of pumped
wells.

2. Where water flows through extremely fine-grained

materials (colloidal clay)
 Limitations of Darcy’s Equation
• Darcy’s law is not valid where water flows through
extremely fine-grained material (e.g. colloidal clay).
1. For
• Reynold’s
Darcy’s lawNumber, Re, >where
is not valid 10 or medium
where the flowfully
is not is
turbulent, as in the immediate vicinity of pumped
saturated.
wells.

2. Where water flows through extremely fine-grained

materials (colloidal clay)
Example 1
Q = KA (dh/dL)
The hydraulic conductivity
K is a velocity, length / time

and n = Vol voids/ Vol total

• A confined aquifer has a source of recharge.

• K for the aquifer is 50 m/day, and porosity n is 0.2.
• The piezometric head in two wells 1000 m apart
is 55 m and 50 m respectively, from a common
datum.
• The average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m, and
the average width of the aquifer is 5 km = 5000m.
A piezometer is a small-diameter observation well used to measure the piezometric head of
groundwater in aquifers.
Piezometric head is measured as a water surface elevation, expressed in units of length.
 Example 1
(a) Compute the rate of flow through the aquifer
(b) Calculate the average time of travel from the head
of the aquifer to a point 4 km downstream
 Example 1
Solution

Q = KA (dh/dL)

• Cross-Sectional area= 30(5000) = 1.5 x

10 m
5 2

• Hydraulic gradient dh/dL=

(55-50)/1000 = 5 x 10 -3

• Find Rate of Flow for K = 50 m/day

Q = (50 m/day) (1.5 x 10 m ) ( 5 x 10 )
5 2 -3

Q = 37,500 m /day
3

• Darcy Velocity: V = Q/A

• = (37,500m /day) / (1.5 x 10 m ) =
3 5 2

0.25m/day
• Seepage Velocity: Vs = VD /n =
(0.25) / (0.2) = 1.25 m/day (about 4.1 ft/
day)

• Time to travel 4 km downstream:

• T = (4000m) / (1.25m/day) = 3200 days or
8.77 years
• This example shows that water moves very
slowly underground.

Lesson: Groundwater moves very slowly

 Example 2
A channel runs almost parallel to a river as shown below.
The water level in the river at an elevation of 120 ft and
in the channel at an elevation of 110 ft. The river and
the channel are 2000 ft apart and a previous formation
of average 30 ft thickness and hydraulic conductivity of
0.25 ft/hr joins them together. Determine the rate of
seepage flow from the river to the channel.
Aquifer

30 ft
 Example 2
Solution
• Consider 1-ft (i.e. unit) lengths of the river and
small channel. Q = KA [(h1 – h2) / L]

• Where: A = (30 x 1) = 30 ft2 K=

(0.25 ft/hr) (24 hr/day) = 6 ft/day

• Therefore, Q = [6ft/day (30ft2) (120 –

110ft)] / 2000ft Q = 0.9 ft3/day for each 1-foot
length
 Example 3
If ho=10m, hf=5m, K=10^-2 m/d, L=10m, what is the
discharge (Q) per unit width across the unconfined
aquifer?

Aquifer
Example 3
Solution
Example 2
Solution
Solution:

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7
2 hr 4 hr 6 hr DRH of 4
2 hr 8 hr UH
Time lagged lagged lagged cm in 8 hr
UH (cfs)
(hr) UH UH UH (cfs)=C2+
(cfs) =C6/4
(cfs) (cfs) (cfs) C3+C4+C5
0 0 0 0
1 100 100 25
2 200 0 200 50
3 400 100 500 125
4 300 200 0 500 125
5 200 400 100 700 175
6 100 300 200 0 600 150
7 50 200 400 100 750 187.5
8 0 100 300 200 600 150
9 50 200 400 650 162.5
10 0 100 300 400 100
11 50 200 250 62.5
12 0 100 100 25
13 50 50 12.5
14 0 0 0
Solution:

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7
S curve
2 hr
Time S curve S curve lagged 8 hr UH=
UH C4-C5
(hr) addition ordinate by 8 hr C6/(8/2)
(cfs)
(cfs) (cfs) (cfs)
0 0 0 0 0
1 100 100 100 25
2 200 0 200 200 50
3 400 100 500 500 125
4 300 200 500 500 125
5 200 500 700 700 175
6 100 500 600 600 150
7 50 700 750 750 187.5
8 0 600 600 0 600 150
9 750 750 100 650 162.5
10 600 600 200 400 100
11 750 750 500 250 62.5
12 600 600 500 100 25
13 750 750 700 50 12.5
14 600 600 600 0 0
15 750 750 750 0 0
Solution:

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9
Ordinate Ordinate Ordinate Ordinate of
Ordinate of 23 mm of 0 mm of 35 mm (10.5+23+35)
Total Flow
3 hr of 10.5 DRH DRH DRH 68.5 mm
Time Baseflow hydrograph
UH mm DRH lagged by lagged by lagged by DRH lagged
(hr) (m3/s) (m3/s)
(m3/s) (m3/s)= 3 hour 6 hour 9 hour (m3/s) =
=C7+C8
C2*10.5 (m3/s)= (m3/s) (m3/s) = C3+C4+C5+
C2*23 =C2*0 C2*35 C6
1200 0 0 0 10 10
1500 4.7 49.35 0 49.35 10 59.35
1800 7.5 78.75 108.1 0 186.85 11 197.85
2100 5.7 59.85 172.5 0 0 232.35 11 243.35
2400 4.3 45.15 131.1 0 164.5 340.75 11 351.75
0300 3.1 32.55 98.9 0 262.5 393.95 12 405.95
0600 2.4 25.2 71.3 0 199.5 296 12 308
0900 1.4 14.7 55.2 0 150.5 220.4 12 232.4
1200 0.8 8.4 32.2 0 108.5 149.1 13 162.1
1500 0.2 2.1 18.4 0 84 104.5 13 117.5
1800 0 0 4.6 0 49 53.6 13 66.6
2100 0 0 28 28 13 41
2400 0 7 7 13 20
0300 0 0 13 13