University of Diyala

Collage of Eng.
Dep . Chemical

Student : Mohammed Khudhur

Class : 2nd class

2/Feb/2025

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Experiment 1 – Density
Overview
This experiment will give you an opportunity to learn how to/practice using several
pieces of glassware and other important laboratory equipment. You should pay special attention
to the proper reading and recording of data, as different pieces of equipment allow for
measurement to varying levels of precision. As such, another main learning goal of this
experiment is to practice the proper use of significant digits in calculations.

Density
Density () is an intensive property (a property that is independent of the amount of
substance present) that related mass to volume for a given sample of matter. Like many intensive
properties, it is a given by the ratio of two measurable extensive properties (properties that
depend on the amount of substance present) of a substance – in the case, mass and volume. In
this experiment, we will measure the density of number of substances using various methods of
determining the mass of the sample as well as various methods of determining the volume of a
sample.

Example: What is the volume of a piece of gold ( = 19.3 g/cm3) that has a mass of 12.4 g?

Solution: We can use the density to convert between the mass and the volume.

𝑐𝑚3
12.4 𝑔 ∙ = 0.64249 𝑐𝑚3 = 0.642 𝑐𝑚3
19.3 𝑔

Note: Since both the density and the mass are measured to 3 significant digits, the answer should
be rounded to three significant digits as well.

In many applications, the volume of a sample can be measured directly. For example, the
volume of a liquid can be measured using a piece of glassware such as a graduated cylinder or
a volumetric pipet. The difference between these pieces of glassware is that they provide
different levels of precision (different numbers of significant digits) leading to smaller
uncertainties in values calculated from these measurements.
The choice of measurement tools is not trivial. Oftentimes, the precision of a given
measurement is vital in determining the precision of a final calculated value. Other times (such
as when a reagent is to be added in excess) the precision has no effect whatsoever on the final
calculated value. Understanding when high-precision (generally more expensive) equipment is
needed and when lower precision (cheaper) equipment can be used goes a long way toward
impressing a colleague (or employer) with your understanding of what you are doing. Failure to
make these distinctions will quickly get you labeled as one who does not understand what she or
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 he is doing in the laboratory. This experiment will help you to grow in your appreciation of how
various tools are used in the lab and how they affect the precision of calculated values based on
measurements using those pieces of equipment.

Graduated Cylinder
A graduated cylinder is an inexpensive piece of
equipment that is used to determine the volume of a sample of
liquid. It is a cylindrical container with markings (graduations)
indicating the volume. The example shown to the right is a 10
mL graduated cylinder, and has major markings every mL, and
minor markings every 0.2 mL. Graduated cylinders come in
many different sizes. The size to be used depends on the total
volume to be measured. For example, when needing to measure
~850 mL of solution, a 10 mL graduated cylinder would be a
poor choice. A better choice might be a 1000 mL graduated
cylinder!
Graduated glassware is properly read by estimating the
position of the bottom of the meniscus (in the case of aqueous
media) to within ± 0.2 of a minor marking. This is accomplished
by estimating the last decimal place. In the case of this particular graduated cylinder, that
means measuring to within 0.04 mL. Failure to indicate the correct number of decimal places
will result in a poor score on this laboratory because it indicated incorrect usage of the piece of
glassware.

Example: Indicate the volume of liquid contained in the graduated cylinder shown
in the diagram.

Solution: The meniscus lies between the 8 mL and 9 mL major markings. It also
lies between the 0.2 mL and 0.4 mL minor markings. Thus, the correct volume will
be between 8.2 L and 8.4 mL. If it is estimated to be about half-way between the
minor markings, the correct volume will be reported as 8.30 mL ± 0.04 mL.

Note: reporting the volume as 8.3 mL will result in a deduction of points due to
reporting too few significant digits! This misrepresents the uncertainty in the
measurement to be ±0.1 mL rather than the correct uncertainty of ±0.04 mL.

Volumetric Pipet
Graduated cylinders are very useful, but oftentimes do not provide the precision needed
for a measurement. Each piece of volumetric glassware is individually calibrated to deliver a
very specific volume of solution. (The individual calibration process leads to the high cost of
these devices, so don’t break them!) When precise and reproducible volumes of liquid samples
are required, a volumetric pipet is perfect for the job.
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 A volumetric pipet is designed to deliver the same volume
of liquid each time it is used. In order to do this, it must be
carefully calibrated by the manufacturer. Each pipet will have a
mark someone on the glass above the bulb. The actual precision
of a volumetric pipet should be printed on the side of the pipet, or
made available by the manufacturer. For most applications in the
lab (for example using 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 mL volumetric pipet) it is a
good bet that the precision will be to ±0.02 mL. So the reported
volume using a 10 mL volumetric pipet would be 10.00 ±0.02
mL, giving four significant digits in the value.
The pipet should be rinsed three times with the sample
that is to be delivered to a reaction vessel (such as a flask or a
beaker.) This ensures that any residual sample in the pipet is at
the same concentration as the sample itself. Once rinsed, the
pipet can be used to deliver a sample.
Using a rubber bulb (never pipet by mouth!) liquid is drawn into the pipet to a level
above the mark. The bulb is then removed and the user places a finger over the opening to
prevent the liquid from draining. By carefully manipulating an opening with a finger, the user
can drain just enough liquid until the meniscus rests with its bottom just on the mark. The sample
can then be delivered to the desired container by removing the finger and allowing the liquid to
drain freely.
If properly used, (using only gravity to drain the pipet), there will be a small amount of
liquid remaining in the tip of the pipet. Do not use the bulb to “blow” this liquid out! The pipet is
calibrated to account for this small amount of liquid that remains.

Measuring volume with a beaker

Most beakers have markings on the side that indicate approximate volumes. These
markings are only approximate and cannot be trusted for precise measurements of volume! If one
needs only an approximate volume (such as in the case of a reagent to be added in clear excess) a
beaker can be used to estimate the volume. However, in cases where better precision is needed,
one should choose to use a graduated cylinder (moderate precision) or a volumetric pipet
(highest precision) for the job.

Having discussed the glassware needed to determine liquid volume, it is time to discuss
the kinds of lab equipment used to determine mass.

Top-loading Balance
A top loading balance can be used to conveniently determine a mass to within ±0.01 g.
It can be used when there is no need for greater precision than that (such as when a reagent is to
be added in excess). The top-loading balance is a good choice for quick measurements, or for
measurements of masses that will not be used in final calculations (since the use of the top-loader
may limit the number of significant digits in one’s final calculated values.

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 Many modern electronic top-lading balances have self-taring feature. To understand
what this is, let’s consider how one might measure the mass of a sample using a non-self-taring
method.
Assuming one is to measure the mass of NaCl(s) to be used in an experiment, one might
use a piece of weighing paper or a weigh boat. The mass of the weigh boar or weighing paper
(or beker or whatever contains the weighed sample) is called the tare mass. Consider the
following example:

Example: Kritika records the following data in her laboratory notebook in order to determine the
mass of NaCl(s) she is using in her experiment:

Description Mass
Weigh boat 1.04 g
Weigh boat + sample 12.83 g

What mass of NaCl(s) did she use?

Solution: The mass of sample is calculated as a simple difference:

Weigh boat + sample 12.83 g

Weigh boat -1.04 g
Sample 11.79 g

Note: One must be careful with significant digits when subtracting the tare mass of a weigh boat
or weighing paper (or beaker, or whatever is the tare container) because it is possible to lose
significant digits when taking differences!

Self-taring balances allow the user to set the “zero” by pressing a button or bar on the
balance after the weigh boat or weighing paper is placed on the pan. This can be very convenient
for many applications, although some applications require manual taring.

Analytical Balance
An analytical balance is capable of measuring a mass to very high precision (±0.0001
g). This tolerance is so small that the mass of a fingerprint on a piece of glassware is measurable!
This requires a number of precautions when using the analytical balance. A couple of pointers to
keep in mind:

1. Always close the windows around the pan when using an analytical balance. Air currents
can disrupt the pan and alter the measured mass of an object!
2. Never attempt to measure the mass of an object that is not at room temperature.
Temperature differentials inside the glass box can disrupt the pan, altering the perceived
mass of the sample!

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 3. When measuring the mass of a liquid sample, the liquid container must be closed.
Evaporation will lead to a continually decreasing mass, wheich is measurable on the
analytical balance!
4. Handle glassware in such a way as to avoid fingerprints. The mass of a fingerprint is
significant compared to the tolerance of the balance.
5. Like all high-precision laboratory equipment, analytical balances are expensive. Treat
them with care!

A top-loading balance (left) and an analytical balance (right).

With these tools in place, one can measure the density of a liquid fairly easily. The
measurement of the density of a solid sample is a little bit more challenging. While it is easy to
determine the mass of the sample, the determination of volume might require a bit more
creativity. We will use three different methods in this experiment.

Determining the Density of a Solid Sample

When a solid sample has a simple shape (such as a rectangular solid) for which the
calculation of volume is simple, one needs simply to calculate the volume from direct
measurements, perhaps using a ruler.

Example: José measures the length, width, and height of a rectangular block of metal using a
ruler. He find the values to be 6.0 mm x 9.0 mm x 43.2 mm respectively. Using a top-loading
balance, he determines the mass to be 45.02 g. What is the density of the block?

Solution: Density is given by mass/volume. The volume in this case is given by the product of
the end measurements.
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 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 45.02 𝑔 103 𝑚𝑚3 𝑔
𝜌= = ∙ = 19. 2987
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (6.0 𝑚𝑚)(9.0 𝑚𝑚)(43.2 𝑚𝑚) 𝑐𝑚3 𝑐𝑚3

The correct answer will have 2 significant digits, due to the measurement of the length and the
width. If the result is needed to more significant digits, José would need to use a more precise
measuring tool to get the length and the width.

Thought question: Would the use of the analytical balance to get the mass of the metal improve
the precision (increase the number of significant digits) in José’s calculated density?

Displacement Method
Archimedes very famously used the method of displacement to measure the volume of an
object that did not have a regular shape (in this case, the King’s crown.) (1) The method is very
simple:
1. Measure a volume of liquid. Call this the initial volume.
2. Drop the object into the liquid.
3. Measure the new volume level. Call this the final volume.
The volume of the object is given by the difference between the initial and final volume
measurements.

Example: Kofi measures the density of a cylindrical piece of metal using the method of
displacement. He measures an initial volume of 3.42 mL of water in a 10 mL graduated cylinder.
He then carefully places the metal into the cylinder and notes that the water level has now
increased to 7.15 mL. Using an analytical balance, Kofi measures the mass of the metal to be
46.2517 g. What is the density of the metal?

Solution: First, let’s find the volume. This is given by the difference between the final and initial
volumes measured in the graduated cylinder.

𝑐𝑚3
𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 = (7.15 𝑚L − 3.42 𝑚L) ∙ = 3.73 𝑐𝑚3
𝑚L

The density is then given by the ratio of the mass divided by the volume.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 46.2517 𝑔 𝑔
𝜌= = = 12. 39992
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 3.73 𝑐𝑚3 𝑐𝑚3

The final value will have three significant digits, and be reported as 12.4 g/cm3.

Thought Question: Would Kofi’s final result be any different if he had used the top-loading
balance instead of the analytical balance?

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 Pycnometer Method
A pycnometer is a constant volume device that can be used to determine the volume of a
solid sample. The method involves measuring the internal volume of the device, using the mass
of a liquid of known density needed to fill the pycnometer. Then, the pycnometer is loaded with
the solid sample, and the remaining volume is filled with the liquid. Subtracting the mass of the
pycnometer and solid sample yields the mass of liquid not displaced by the solid. The volume of
the solid is then calculated using the difference of the volume of the pycnometer, and the volume
of liquid not displaced by the solid.

Example: From the following data, determine the density of the solid sample. The liquid being
used is ethyl alcohol, which as a density of 0.78945 g/mL at 20 oC.

Mass (g)
Pycnometer 32.4572
Pycnometer + alcohol 54.0378
Pycnometer + solid sample 54.8212
Pycnometer + solid sample + alcohol 75.3843

Solution: First, let’s determine the internal volume of the pycnometer. To get this, we need to
know the mass of alcohol needed to fill the device.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙 = (54.0378 𝑔 − 32.4572 𝑔) = 21.5806 𝑔

The volume of alcohol (and thus the internal volume of the pycnometer) can now be determined
from the density:

21.5816 𝑔
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = = 27.33751 𝑚L
0.78945 𝑔/𝑚L

The mass of sample used can be determined by a very simple difference:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 = (54.8212 𝑔 − 32.4572 𝑔) = 22.3640 𝑔

Now for the tricky part. The volume of the solid is determined by the total volume of the
pycnometer minus the volume of alcohol surrounding the solid sample. In order to get that, We
need to use the mass of alcohol surrounding the sample. Fortunately, that can be determined by
simple difference!

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟. 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 = (75.3843 𝑔 − 54.8212 𝑔) = 20.5631 𝑔

The volume of this amount of alcohol can be calculated from the density:

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 20.5631 𝑔
𝑣𝑜𝑙. 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟. 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 = = 26.04737 𝑚L
0.78945 𝑔/𝑚L

The volume of the sample then is calculated as the difference of the volume of the pycnometer
and that of the alcohol surrounding the sample:

1 𝑐𝑚3
𝑣𝑜𝑙. 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 = (27.33751 𝑚L − 26.04737 𝑚L) ∙ = 1.29014 𝑐𝑚3
1 𝑚L

And finally, the density is given by the mass to volume ratio:

22.3640 𝑔 𝑔 𝒈
𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 = = 17.3346 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟑𝟑
1.29014 𝑐𝑚3 𝑐𝑚3 𝒄𝒎𝟑

Note: Due to taking differences where significant figure as lost, it was necessary to know the
density of the liquid to five significant figures in order to get the density of the sample to four
significant digits!

Experimental description
This experiment will consist of two main parts. Part I will involve the determination of
the density of a liquid sample. Part II will involve the determination of the density of a solid
sample.

I. Density of a Liquid
a. Using a graduated cylinder, determine the density of the liquid to which you are
assigned by your laboratory instructor, using the
i. Top loading balance
ii. Analytical balance
b. Using a volumetric pipet to determine the volume of sample, determine the
density of your liquid using the
i. Top-loading balance
ii. Analytical balance
II. Density of a Solid
a. Using a ruler to determine the dimensions of your assigned solid sample,
determine its volume. Then, using an appropriate balance, determine the mass of
the object. From these data, calculate the density.
b. Now determine the density of a solid using the displacement of liquid methods
discussed in the text. You will do this using two different methods:
i. Graduated Cylinder method
ii. Pycnometer method

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 Vocabulary and Concepts
analytical balance .................................... 4, 8 pycnometer .............................................. 7, 8
Archimedes ................................................. 6 self-taring .................................................... 4
density ......................................................... 1 tare mass...................................................... 4
extensive property ....................................... 1 top loading balance ................................. 3, 8
graduated cylinder ............................... 1, 2, 8 volume......................................................... 1
intensive property........................................ 1 volumetric pipet .................................. 1, 2, 8
mass............................................................. 1 weigh boat ................................................... 4
meniscus ...................................................... 2 weighing paper ............................................ 4
precision ...................................................... 1

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