PHYSICS EDEXCEL COMBINED SCIENCE

KEYWORD REVISION GUIDE

Welcome to the Physics Keyword Revision Guide, a comprehensive tool designed to enhance
your understanding and retention of key physics concepts. This guide is meticulously crafted
to support your journey through the fascinating world of physics, whether you're preparing
for exams, reinforcing classroom learning, or simply indulging your curiosity. To get the
most out of this guide, here are some strategies to effectively utilize it in your study routine:

1. Structured Approach: Start by familiarizing yourself with the layout of the guide.
It's organized into distinct topics, each covering a specific area of physics. Begin with
topics you find challenging, as this will help build your confidence as you progress to
easier sections.
2. Active Engagement: Rather than passively reading, engage actively with the
material. This can involve annotating key points, summarizing concepts in your own
words, or creating mind maps to visualize connections between different ideas.
3. Regular Review: Physics concepts often build upon one another. Regularly review
previous sections as you advance, to reinforce your understanding and create a solid
foundation of knowledge.
4. Practice with Purpose: Utilize the example questions and exam-style queries
provided in each section. These are designed to test your comprehension and apply
the theoretical knowledge in practical scenarios. After attempting a problem, compare
your solution with the ideal approach outlined in the guide.
5. Clarify Misconceptions: Each section addresses common misconceptions, helping
you identify and correct misunderstandings. Pay special attention to these areas, as
they can be crucial in developing a correct understanding of complex topics.
6. Interactive Learning: Discuss topics with peers or teachers. Explaining concepts to
others is a powerful way to solidify your own understanding and gain new
perspectives.
7. Customize Your Study: Adapt your use of the guide to your personal learning style.
Whether you prefer detailed note-taking, colourful diagrams, or verbal explanation,
tailor your study methods to what works best for you.
8. Consistent Study Habits: Establish a regular study schedule. Consistency is key in
retaining complex information and developing a deep understanding of physics.
9. Seek Additional Resources: While this guide is comprehensive, complementing it
with other learning materials such as textbooks, online courses, or educational videos
can provide a richer understanding.
10. Stay Curious and Motivated: Maintain a positive and curious mindset. Your interest
in the subject can be your best motivator. Remember, mastering physics not only
helps you academically but also nurtures critical thinking and problem-solving skills
valuable in everyday life.

By following these strategies, you can maximize the effectiveness of this guide in your
physics studies. Remember, the journey through physics is not just about memorizing facts
but about understanding the fundamental principles that govern the world around us. Happy
studying!

Author: Steven Ross

Email: [email protected] Website: https://tutorful.co.uk/tutors/wrq2lobk
Table of Contents
Topic 2: Motion and Forces ..................................................................................................... 9
Acceleration due to Gravity ................................................................................................. 9
Acceleration ....................................................................................................................... 9
Braking Distance ................................................................................................................ 9
Centripetal Force ............................................................................................................... 9
Circular Motion ................................................................................................................ 10
Conservation of Momentum ............................................................................................. 10
Displacement .................................................................................................................. 10
Distance/Time Graph........................................................................................................ 10
Distance .......................................................................................................................... 11
Free Fall ........................................................................................................................... 11
Human Reaction Time ...................................................................................................... 11
Inertial Mass..................................................................................................................... 11
Momentum ...................................................................................................................... 12
Newton (Unit) ................................................................................................................... 12
Newton's First Law ........................................................................................................... 12
Newton's Second Law ...................................................................................................... 12
Newton's Third Law .......................................................................................................... 13
Resultant Force ................................................................................................................ 13
Scalar Quantities.............................................................................................................. 13
Speed .............................................................................................................................. 13
Stopping Distance ............................................................................................................ 13
Thinking Distance ............................................................................................................. 14
Vector Quantities ............................................................................................................. 14
Velocity-Time Graph ......................................................................................................... 14
Velocity ............................................................................................................................ 14
Weight ............................................................................................................................. 15
Topic 3: Conservation of Energy ............................................................................................ 15
Closed System ................................................................................................................. 15
Conservation of Energy ..................................................................................................... 16
Efficiency ......................................................................................................................... 16
Fossil Fuels ...................................................................................................................... 16
Gravitational Potential Energy ........................................................................................... 16
Joule ................................................................................................................................ 16
Kinetic Energy................................................................................................................... 17

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 Lubrication....................................................................................................................... 17
Non-Renewable Energy Resource ..................................................................................... 17
Renewable Energy Resource ............................................................................................. 17
Thermal Conductivity ....................................................................................................... 17
Thermal Insulation............................................................................................................ 18
Useful Energy Transfer ...................................................................................................... 18
Waste Energy Transfer....................................................................................................... 18
Topic 4: Waves ..................................................................................................................... 18
Amplitude ........................................................................................................................ 18
Frequency ........................................................................................................................ 19
Longitudinal Wave ............................................................................................................ 19
Period (of a Wave) ............................................................................................................. 19
Refraction ........................................................................................................................ 19
Transverse Wave ............................................................................................................... 20
Seismic Waves ................................................................................................................. 20
Sonar ............................................................................................................................... 20
Ultrasound Waves ............................................................................................................ 20
Wave Velocity ................................................................................................................... 21
Wavelength ...................................................................................................................... 21
Topic 5: Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum .................................................................. 21
Critical Angle.................................................................................................................... 21
Constant Temperature ...................................................................................................... 21
Concave Lens .................................................................................................................. 22
Convex Lens ..................................................................................................................... 22
Diffuse Reflection ............................................................................................................. 22
Electromagnetic Spectrum ............................................................................................... 22
Electromagnetic Waves .................................................................................................... 23
Focal Length .................................................................................................................... 23
Gamma Rays.................................................................................................................... 23
Infrared Radiation ............................................................................................................. 23
Infrared ............................................................................................................................ 24
Law of Reflection .............................................................................................................. 24
Lens................................................................................................................................. 24
Microwaves ...................................................................................................................... 24
Power of a Lens ................................................................................................................ 24
Principal Focus................................................................................................................. 25

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 Radio Waves .................................................................................................................... 25
Ray Diagram ..................................................................................................................... 25
Real Image ....................................................................................................................... 25
Reflection ........................................................................................................................ 26
Refraction ........................................................................................................................ 26
Topic 6: Radioactivity ........................................................................................................... 26
Activity ............................................................................................................................. 26
Alpha Particle ................................................................................................................... 26
Atomic Number ................................................................................................................ 27
Background Radiation ...................................................................................................... 27
Becquerel ........................................................................................................................ 27
Beta Particle ..................................................................................................................... 27
Bohr Model....................................................................................................................... 27
Chain Reaction................................................................................................................. 28
Electrons ......................................................................................................................... 28
Element ........................................................................................................................... 28
Energy Levels ................................................................................................................... 28
Fission Products ............................................................................................................... 29
Gamma Ray ..................................................................................................................... 29
Geiger-Müller Tube ........................................................................................................... 29
Half-Life ........................................................................................................................... 29
Ions ................................................................................................................................. 30
Irradiation ........................................................................................................................ 30
Isotopes ........................................................................................................................... 30
Mass Number ................................................................................................................... 30
Negative Ions ................................................................................................................... 30
Neutrons .......................................................................................................................... 31
Nuclear Fission ................................................................................................................ 31
Nuclear Fusion ................................................................................................................. 31
Nucleus ........................................................................................................................... 31
PET Scanner ..................................................................................................................... 32
Plum Pudding Model ......................................................................................................... 32
Positive Ions ..................................................................................................................... 32
Protons ............................................................................................................................ 32
Radioactive Contamination .............................................................................................. 33
Radioactive Decay ............................................................................................................ 33

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 Random Nature of Radioactive Decay ............................................................................... 33
Topic 7: Astronomy............................................................................................................... 34
Artificial Satellites ............................................................................................................ 34
Big Bang Theory ................................................................................................................ 34
Circular Orbits.................................................................................................................. 35
CMBR (Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation) ............................................................. 35
Main Sequence Star ......................................................................................................... 35
Milky Way Galaxy .............................................................................................................. 35
Nebula ............................................................................................................................. 35
Orbital Radius .................................................................................................................. 36
Protostar .......................................................................................................................... 36
Red Giant Star .................................................................................................................. 36
Red-Shift .......................................................................................................................... 36
Star Life Cycle .................................................................................................................. 37
Steady State Theory .......................................................................................................... 37
Supernova........................................................................................................................ 37
Weight ............................................................................................................................. 37
White Dwarf ..................................................................................................................... 38
Topic 8: Energy - Forces Doing Work ...................................................................................... 38
Closed System ................................................................................................................. 38
Dissipation of Energy ........................................................................................................ 38
Efficiency ......................................................................................................................... 38
Gravitational Potential Energy ........................................................................................... 39
Kinetic Energy................................................................................................................... 39
Power............................................................................................................................... 39
Resistive Force ................................................................................................................. 39
Watt ................................................................................................................................. 39
Work Done ....................................................................................................................... 40
Topic 9: Forces and Their Effects ........................................................................................... 40
Balanced Forces .............................................................................................................. 40
Contact Force .................................................................................................................. 40
Electric Field .................................................................................................................... 40
Equilibrium ...................................................................................................................... 41
Force Field ....................................................................................................................... 41
Friction ............................................................................................................................ 41
Gears ............................................................................................................................... 41

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 Gravitational Field ............................................................................................................ 41
Topic 10: Electricity and Circuits ........................................................................................... 42
Alternating Current (AC) .................................................................................................... 42
Ammeter .......................................................................................................................... 42
Amperes (Amps) ............................................................................................................... 42
Circuit Breaker ................................................................................................................. 42
Coulomb .......................................................................................................................... 43
Direct Current (DC)........................................................................................................... 43
Electrical Resistance ........................................................................................................ 43
Ohm's Law ....................................................................................................................... 43
Parallel Circuit .................................................................................................................. 43
Potential Difference .......................................................................................................... 44
Power............................................................................................................................... 44
Resistance ....................................................................................................................... 44
Resistors in Series ............................................................................................................ 44
Resistors in Parallel .......................................................................................................... 44
Series Circuit.................................................................................................................... 45
Thermistor ....................................................................................................................... 45
Volt .................................................................................................................................. 45
Voltmeter ......................................................................................................................... 45
Watt ................................................................................................................................. 46
Topic 11: Static Electricity..................................................................................................... 46
Earthing ........................................................................................................................... 46
Electric Field Lines ........................................................................................................... 46
Electric Field .................................................................................................................... 46
Lightning .......................................................................................................................... 47
Like Charges .................................................................................................................... 47
Parallel Plates................................................................................................................... 47
Point Charge .................................................................................................................... 47
Sparking ........................................................................................................................... 48
Static Charge ................................................................................................................... 48
Unlike Charges ................................................................................................................. 48
Topic 12: Magnetism and the Motor Effect ............................................................................. 49
Current-Carrying Wires ..................................................................................................... 49
Electric Motor................................................................................................................... 49
Electromagnet.................................................................................................................. 49

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 Force on a Wire ................................................................................................................ 49
Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule .................................................................................................. 50
Induced Magnet ............................................................................................................... 50
Like Magnetic Poles .......................................................................................................... 50
Magnetic Field .................................................................................................................. 50
Magnetic Field Lines ......................................................................................................... 51
Magnetic Materials ........................................................................................................... 51
Magnetic Poles ................................................................................................................. 51
Permanent Magnet ........................................................................................................... 51
Solenoid .......................................................................................................................... 52
Tesla ................................................................................................................................ 52
Unlike Magnetic Poles....................................................................................................... 52
Topic 13: Electromagnetic Induction ..................................................................................... 52
Alternator ......................................................................................................................... 52
Dynamo ........................................................................................................................... 53
Generator Effect ............................................................................................................... 53
Loudspeaker .................................................................................................................... 53
Microphone ...................................................................................................................... 53
Power Cables ................................................................................................................... 54
Step-Down Transformer .................................................................................................... 54
Step-Up Transformer ........................................................................................................ 54
Transformer...................................................................................................................... 54
Turns Ratio ....................................................................................................................... 55
Voltage Ratio .................................................................................................................... 55
Topic 14: Particle Model ....................................................................................................... 55
Absolute Zero ................................................................................................................... 55
Change in Thermal Energy................................................................................................. 55
Chemical Changes ........................................................................................................... 56
Condensation .................................................................................................................. 56
Density ............................................................................................................................ 56
Evaporation ...................................................................................................................... 56
Freezing ........................................................................................................................... 56
Gas Temperature .............................................................................................................. 57
Gas .................................................................................................................................. 57
Internal Energy ................................................................................................................. 57
Kelvin ............................................................................................................................... 57

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 Latent Heat ...................................................................................................................... 57
Liquid............................................................................................................................... 58
Melting ............................................................................................................................. 58
Pascals ............................................................................................................................ 58
Physical Changes ............................................................................................................. 58
Pressure of a Gas.............................................................................................................. 58
Pressure........................................................................................................................... 59
Solid ................................................................................................................................ 59
Specific Heat Capacity ..................................................................................................... 59
Specific Latent Heat of Fusion .......................................................................................... 59
Specific Latent Heat of Vaporisation.................................................................................. 59
Topic 15: Forces and Matter .................................................................................................. 60
Atmospheric Pressure ...................................................................................................... 60
Density ............................................................................................................................ 60
Distortion ......................................................................................................................... 60
Elastic Distortion .............................................................................................................. 60
Elastic Limit ..................................................................................................................... 61
Floating ............................................................................................................................ 61
Fluid ................................................................................................................................ 61
Hooke’s Law ..................................................................................................................... 61
Limit of Proportionality ..................................................................................................... 62
Linear Relationship ........................................................................................................... 62
Plastic Distortion .............................................................................................................. 62
Pressure in a Liquid Column ............................................................................................. 62
Sinking ............................................................................................................................. 63
Spring Constant ............................................................................................................... 63
Upthrust .......................................................................................................................... 63
Weight ............................................................................................................................. 63

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Topic 2: Motion and Forces
Acceleration due to Gravity
• Definition: The acceleration gg experienced by an object in free-fall, typically 10
m/s² at Earth's surface.
• Example: An apple falling from a tree accelerates at this rate towards the ground.
• Misconception: Often thought heavier objects fall faster due to gravity, but all
objects accelerate at the same rate in vacuum.
• Clarification: Acceleration is due to gravity only, irrespective of the object's mass.
• Exam Question: Calculate the time for a ball to reach the ground when dropped from
20 meters, assuming no air resistance and g=10g=10 m/s².

Acceleration
• Definition: Rate of change of velocity, calculable from the gradient of a velocity-time
graph.
• Example: A car increasing its speed from 0 to 60 km/h in 5 seconds.
• Misconception: Often believed to be only about speeding up, but it also includes
slowing down and changing direction.
• Clarification: Acceleration is a vector and can be in any direction, not just the
direction of motion.
• Exam Question: Find the acceleration of a cyclist increasing their speed uniformly
from 4 m/s to 12 m/s in 4 seconds.

Braking Distance
• Definition: The distance a vehicle travels under braking force, influenced by road and
weather conditions, and vehicle condition.
• Example: A car braking suddenly to stop at a traffic light.
• Misconception: Commonly assumed that braking distance is constant, but it varies
with speed and external conditions.
• Clarification: Braking distance increases with speed and is longer in poor conditions.
• Exam Question: Estimate the braking distance for a car traveling at 100 km/h, given
a 12-meter braking distance at 50 km/h, assuming similar conditions.

Centripetal Force
• Definition: The resultant force acting towards the centre of a circular path in circular
motion.
• Example: The force keeping a roller coaster car on its track while moving through a
loop.

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 • Misconception: Often thought of as a new kind of force, but it's the net force causing
circular motion.
• Clarification: It can be gravitational, tension, friction, or another force, depending on
the situation.
• Exam Question: Calculate the centripetal force required to keep a 2 kg object
moving in a circle of radius 5 m with a speed of 10 m/s.

Circular Motion
• Definition: Motion of an object traveling in a circle, requiring constant acceleration
due to directional change.
• Example: A satellite orbiting Earth.
• Misconception: Misinterpreted as implying constant speed, but the object is always
accelerating due to changing direction.
• Clarification: Speed may be constant, but velocity changes due to direction change.
• Exam Question: Explain why an object moving in a circular path at a constant speed
is still accelerating. Include the role of centripetal force in your answer.

Conservation of Momentum
• Definition: Total momentum of a system remains constant before and after an event,
in the absence of external forces.
• Example: Two ice skaters pushing off each other.
• Misconception: Commonly thought to be conserved only in stationary systems.
• Clarification: Applies in all isolated systems, regardless of motion.
• Exam Question: Calculate the total momentum before and after the collision of two
trolleys, one of mass 2 kg and the other 3 kg, moving towards each other at 1 m/s and
2 m/s, respectively.

Displacement
• Definition: The straight-line distance in a given direction from the start to the finish
point, a vector quantity.
• Example: A swimmer moving 30 meters east from one end of a pool to the other.
• Misconception: Often confused with distance, but displacement considers direction.
• Clarification: Distance is the total path length, while displacement is the straight-line
measure.
• Exam Question: Calculate the magnitude and direction of a student's displacement
after walking 4 meters east and then 3 meters north.

Distance/Time Graph
• Definition: A plot showing how an object's distance changes over time; the gradient
equals speed.
• Example: Graph depicting a car's journey from home to a store.
• Misconception: Steeper graph interpreted as faster speed, but it indicates a greater
rate of distance change.

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 • Clarification: Horizontal line indicates no movement; steeper line signifies higher
speed.
• Exam Question: Interpret a distance-time graph with varying slopes and describe the
motion represented at different sections.

Distance
• Definition: The total path length an object moves, irrespective of direction, a scalar
quantity.
• Example: A person jogging around a 400-meter track.
• Misconception: Often used interchangeably with displacement, but distance does not
consider direction.
• Clarification: Distance is purely the length of the path travelled, without any
directional component.
• Exam Question: Calculate the total distance run by a runner completing three laps of
a 400-meter track.

Free Fall
• Definition: Motion under the force of gravity alone, without any air resistance.
• Example: An object dropped from a height in a vacuum chamber.
• Misconception: Believed that objects in free-fall experience no forces other than
gravity, but air resistance can be a factor outside of a vacuum.
• Clarification: True free-fall only occurs in a vacuum where air resistance is absent.
• Exam Question: Describe the difference in the acceleration of an object in free-fall
on Earth and the Moon.

Human Reaction Time

• Definition: The time it takes for the brain to react to a stimulus, typically between
0.2-0.9 seconds.
• Example: The time taken by a driver to start braking after seeing a stop sign.
• Misconception: Reaction time is constant for all individuals, but it varies widely
among different people and situations.
• Clarification: Factors like tiredness, drugs, or alcohol can significantly affect
reaction time.
• Exam Question: Discuss the impact of a driver's reaction time on the stopping
distance of a car.

Inertial Mass
• Definition: A measure of how difficult it is to change an object’s velocity, equal to
the ratio of force over acceleration.
• Example: The greater the inertial mass of a car, the more force is required to change
its speed.
• Misconception: Inertial mass is the same as gravitational mass.
• Clarification: Inertial mass measures resistance to motion change, while gravitational
mass measures gravitational pull.

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 • Exam Question: Describe the relationship between inertial mass and acceleration
when a constant force is applied to different masses.

Momentum
• Definition: The product of an object's mass and velocity, a vector quantity.
• Example: A moving train has considerable momentum due to its large mass and
speed.
• Misconception: Often confused with inertia, but inertia is the tendency to resist
changes in motion.
• Clarification: Momentum is a measure of the motion an object has and is dependent
on both mass and velocity.
• Exam Question: Compare the momentum of two cars, one traveling at 30 km/h and
the other at 60 km/h, if both have the same mass.

Newton (Unit)
• Definition: The SI unit of force, defined as the force required to give a 1 kg mass an
acceleration of 1 m/s².
• Example: The force applied to accelerate a 1 kg mass by 1 m/s².
• Misconception: A newton is a large unit of force; however, it is relatively small.
• Clarification: One newton is the force needed for a small acceleration of a small
mass.
• Exam Question: Calculate the force exerted by a 5 kg mass when it is accelerated at
2 m/s².

Newton's First Law

• Definition: An object remains at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless
acted upon by an external force.
• Example: A book remains stationary on a table until it is pushed.
• Misconception: Motion requires a continuous force, but according to this law, motion
can continue without a force.
• Clarification: This law explains inertia - objects resist changes to their state of
motion.
• Exam Question: Describe what happens to a ball rolling on a frictionless surface and
explain why, using Newton's First Law.

Newton's Second Law

• Definition: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force
acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.
• Example: Pushing a shopping cart harder to make it accelerate more.
• Misconception: Double the force always doubles the acceleration, but mass also
plays a role.
• Clarification: Acceleration depends on both the force applied and the object's mass.
• Exam Question: A force of 10 N acts on two objects, one with a mass of 2 kg and the
other with a mass of 5 kg. Compare their accelerations.

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Newton's Third Law
• Definition: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• Example: A rocket launching into space.
• Misconception: The forces cancel each other out, leading to no motion, but they act
on different objects.
• Clarification: The forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and act on
different bodies.
• Exam Question: Explain how Newton's Third Law applies when a person jumps off
a boat onto a dock.

Resultant Force
• Definition: The single overall force that results from the combination of all forces
acting on an object.
• Example: The net force acting on a car moving forward while experiencing air
resistance.
• Misconception: The largest force is always the resultant force.
• Clarification: The resultant force is the vector sum of all forces, not just the largest.
• Exam Question: If three forces of 5 N, 10 N, and 15 N act in the same direction on
an object, calculate the resultant force.

Scalar Quantities
• Definition: Physical quantities that have magnitude but no direction, such as distance
or speed.
• Example: Temperature, which has a value (e.g., 20°C) but no direction.
• Misconception: Scalars are less important than vectors.
• Clarification: Scalars are fundamental in physics, providing essential information
like size or magnitude.
• Exam Question: Give two examples of scalar quantities in physics and explain why
they are considered scalars.

Speed
• Definition: The rate of change of distance, a scalar quantity.
• Example: A car traveling at 60 km/h.
• Misconception: Speed and velocity are the same.
• Clarification: Speed is a scalar (no direction), while velocity is a vector (has
direction).
• Exam Question: Calculate the average speed of a train that travels 300 km in 4 hours.

Stopping Distance
• Definition: The sum of thinking distance and braking distance.

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 • Example: The total distance a car travels before it comes to a stop after the driver
sees a need to halt.
• Misconception: It's only the distance travelled during braking.
• Clarification: Includes the distance covered during the driver's reaction time before
braking begins.
• Exam Question: How do factors like road conditions and driver's alertness affect the
stopping distance of a vehicle?

Thinking Distance
• Definition: The distance a vehicle travels during the driver's reaction time.
• Example: The distance covered by a car from the moment the driver decides to brake
to when the brakes are applied.
• Misconception: It's negligible compared to braking distance.
• Clarification: It can be significant, especially at high speeds or with delayed
reactions.
• Exam Question: Explain how a driver's reaction time can affect the total stopping
distance of a car.

Vector Quantities
• Definition: Physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction.
• Example: Velocity, which includes both speed and direction.
• Misconception: Vector quantities are always more complex than scalar quantities.
• Clarification: Vectors provide more detailed information about direction and
magnitude.
• Exam Question: Give an example of a vector quantity in physics and explain its
components.

Velocity-Time Graph
• Definition: A plot showing how an object’s velocity changes over time; gradient
equals acceleration.
• Example: Graph representing a car accelerating and then maintaining constant speed.
• Misconception: A steeper gradient always means higher speed.
• Clarification: Gradient indicates acceleration; horizontal lines indicate constant
speed.
• Exam Question: Interpret a velocity-time graph where the gradient changes and
describe the motion of the object.

Velocity
• Definition: The rate of change of displacement, a vector quantity.
• Example: A car moving 60 km/h north.

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 • Misconception: Velocity and speed are the same.
• Clarification: Velocity includes direction, whereas speed does not.
• Exam Question: How does changing direction affect an object's velocity, even if its
speed remains constant?

Weight
• Definition: The force acting on an object due to gravity, dependent on mass and
gravitational field strength.
• Example: The weight of a person varies slightly between the Earth's surface and a
mountain top.
• Misconception: Weight and mass are the same.
• Clarification: Mass is a measure of the amount of matter, while weight is a force.
• Exam Question: Explain why an astronaut's weight changes when traveling from
Earth to the Moon, despite their mass remaining constant.

Topic 3: Conservation of Energy

Closed System
• Definition: A system with no net change in total energy during energy transfers
within it.
• Example: An insulated thermos maintaining the temperature of its contents.
• Misconception: Closed systems are completely isolated, but they can exchange
energy internally.
• Clarification: Energy transfer occurs within the system, but not across its boundaries.
• Exam Question: Explain how a closed system conserves energy, using a thermos as
an example.

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Conservation of Energy
• Definition: The principle that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred
or transformed.
• Example: Converting electrical energy to kinetic energy in an electric fan.
• Misconception: Energy can be lost; in reality, it’s just converted to different forms.
• Clarification: Energy changes form, like from potential to kinetic, but the total
remains constant.
• Exam Question: Describe an everyday process where multiple energy
transformations illustrate the conservation of energy.

Efficiency
• Definition: The ratio of useful output energy to total input energy, expressed as a
percentage.
• Example: A light bulb converting electrical energy to light with some energy lost as
heat.
• Misconception: 100% efficiency is achievable, but some energy is always lost,
usually as heat.
• Clarification: Efficiency is always less than 100% due to energy transformations.
• Exam Question: Discuss the efficiency of a device that uses 100 J of electrical
energy and produces 60 J of useful light energy.

Fossil Fuels
• Definition: Natural fuels like coal, oil, and gas formed from the remains of living
organisms.
• Example: Coal used in power plants for electricity generation.
• Misconception: Fossil fuels are an unlimited resource.
• Clarification: They are finite and take millions of years to form.
• Exam Question: Explain the impact of fossil fuel usage on the environment and
energy conservation.

Gravitational Potential Energy

• Definition: Energy stored in an object due to its position in a gravitational field.
• Example: Water held in a reservoir above a hydroelectric dam.
• Misconception: Only large objects have significant gravitational potential energy.
• Clarification: Depends on mass, height, and gravitational field strength.
• Exam Question: Calculate the gravitational potential energy of a 2 kg book placed on
a shelf 3 meters high.

Joule
• Definition: The SI unit of energy, equal to the energy transferred when a force of one
newton moves an object one meter.
• Example: Lifting a small apple approximately 1 meter off the ground.

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 • Misconception: Joules represent only large amounts of energy.
• Clarification: It's a basic unit, suitable for measuring everyday energy transfers.
• Exam Question: How many joules of energy are used when a 5 N force is applied to
move an object 2 meters?

Kinetic Energy
• Definition: The energy of motion, proportional to mass and the square of velocity.
• Example: A moving car.
• Misconception: Kinetic energy is only significant in fast-moving objects.
• Clarification: Even slow-moving objects can have substantial kinetic energy if their
mass is large.
• Exam Question: Calculate the kinetic energy of a 1000 kg car traveling at 10 m/s.

Lubrication
• Definition: The process of reducing friction between surfaces using substances like
oil.
• Example: Oil used in car engines.
• Misconception: Lubrication permanently eliminates friction.
• Clarification: It reduces but does not eliminate friction.
• Exam Question: Describe how lubrication affects the efficiency of a mechanical
system.

Non-Renewable Energy Resource

• Definition: Energy sources that cannot be replenished in a short period, like fossil
fuels.
• Example: Natural gas used for heating homes.
• Misconception: They are perpetually available.
• Clarification: These resources are finite and deplete over time.
• Exam Question: Discuss the sustainability challenges associated with non-renewable
energy resources.

Renewable Energy Resource

• Definition: Energy sources that are replenished naturally, such as solar or wind
power.
• Example: Solar panels generating electricity.
• Misconception: Renewable means unlimited energy.
• Clarification: While replenishable, their availability can vary.
• Exam Question: Compare the advantages of renewable energy resources to non-
renewable ones.

Thermal Conductivity
• Definition: A measure of how well a material conducts heat.

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 • Example: Copper's high thermal conductivity makes it ideal for cooking pots.
• Misconception: Only metals have thermal conductivity.
• Clarification: All materials have some level of thermal conductivity, but metals
typically have higher values.
• Exam Question: Why are materials with low thermal conductivity preferred for
thermal insulation?

Thermal Insulation
• Definition: The use of materials to reduce heat transfer.
• Example: Insulating material used in building walls to retain heat.
• Misconception: Insulation stops all heat transfer.
• Clarification: It reduces, but doesn't completely stop, heat transfer.
• Exam Question: Describe how thermal insulation in a house affects energy
efficiency.

Useful Energy Transfer

• Definition: The transfer of energy that serves the intended purpose of the system.
• Example: The light emitted by a bulb.
• Misconception: All energy transfers in a device are useful.
• Clarification: Some energy is always lost in forms like heat, not serving the primary
purpose.
• Exam Question: Identify the useful and waste energy transfers in an electric toaster.

Waste Energy Transfer

• Definition: Energy transfer that does not serve the primary purpose of the system.
• Example: Heat loss from an electric motor.
• Misconception: Waste energy is useless and has no impact.
• Clarification: Waste energy can affect efficiency and the environment.
• Exam Question: Discuss the implications of waste energy transfer on the
environment and resource management.

Topic 4: Waves
Amplitude
• Definition: The maximum displacement of a wave from its undisturbed (equilibrium)
position.
• Example: The height of a wave in the ocean.
• Misconception: Amplitude is related to wave speed; however, it's about wave height.
• Clarification: Amplitude measures the energy of the wave, not its speed.
• Exam Question: How does the amplitude of a wave affect the energy it carries?

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Frequency
• Definition: The number of waves passing a given point in a second, inverse of the
wave’s time period.
• Example: The number of sound waves a tuning fork produces per second.
• Misconception: Frequency affects the amplitude of a wave; they are actually
independent.
• Clarification: Frequency is about how often waves occur, not how big they are.
• Exam Question: Describe the relationship between the frequency of a wave and its
energy.

Longitudinal Wave
• Definition: Waves where the oscillation of particles is parallel to the direction of
energy transfer.
• Example: Sound waves in air.
• Misconception: All waves travel perpendicular to energy transfer.
• Clarification: It depends on wave type; sound waves are longitudinal.
• Exam Question: Compare and contrast longitudinal and transverse waves.

Period (of a Wave)

• Definition: The time for one complete cycle of a wave to pass a given point.
• Example: The time between two consecutive crests of a water wave.
• Misconception: Period and frequency are the same.
• Clarification: Period is the inverse of frequency.
• Exam Question: How does the period of a wave relate to its frequency?

Refraction
• Definition: The bending of waves as they pass from one medium to another due to a
change in speed.
• Example: A straw appearing bent in a glass of water.
• Misconception: Refraction changes the wave's frequency; it alters the wave speed
and direction.
• Clarification: Frequency remains constant; only wave speed and direction change.
• Exam Question: Explain how refraction affects the path of light as it moves from air
into water.

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Transverse Wave
• Definition: Waves where the oscillation of particles is perpendicular to the direction
of energy transfer.
• Example: Light waves or ripples on a water surface.
• Misconception: Waves only travel in the direction of particle movement.
• Clarification: In transverse waves, particle movement is perpendicular to wave
travel.
• Exam Question: Give an example of a transverse wave and describe its
characteristics.

Seismic Waves
• Definition: Waves that are produced by earthquakes.
• Example: Waves that travel through the Earth's layers during an earthquake.
• Misconception: Seismic waves only cause destruction.
• Clarification: They also provide valuable information about Earth's interior.
• Exam Question: Explain how seismic waves are used in studying the Earth's
structure.

Sonar
• Definition: A method of determining distances in water using the emission,
reflection, and detection of ultrasound waves.
• Example: Submarines using sonar to detect other vessels.
• Misconception: Sonar only works in deep water.
• Clarification: Effective in various depths, depending on the technology.
• Exam Question: Describe how sonar technology is used to map the seafloor.

Ultrasound Waves
• Definition: Waves that have a frequency higher than the upper limit of human
hearing (20 kHz).
• Example: Medical ultrasound used for imaging, like in pregnancy.
• Misconception: Ultrasound can be harmful.
• Clarification: Generally considered safe when used properly.
• Exam Question: Discuss how ultrasound waves are used in medical diagnostics.

Author: Steven Ross

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Wave Velocity
• Definition: The velocity at which energy is transferred through the medium, equal to
the product of the wave’s wavelength and frequency.
• Example: Speed of light in a vacuum.
• Misconception: Wave velocity is the same as particle velocity in the medium.
• Clarification: Wave velocity refers to the energy transfer, not individual particle
movement.
• Exam Question: Explain how the velocity of a wave is related to its wavelength and
frequency.

Wavelength
• Definition: The distance from a point on one wave to the same point on the adjacent
wave (e.g., peak to peak or trough to trough).
• Example: The distance between two consecutive crests of an ocean wave.
• Misconception: Wavelength determines a wave’s energy.
• Clarification: It's related to energy, but frequency is the key determinant.
• Exam Question: How does wavelength affect the properties of a wave?

Topic 5: Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Critical Angle
• Definition: The angle of incidence beyond which a wave will undergo total internal
reflection.
• Example: Light completely reflecting within an optical fibre.
• Misconception: Critical angle applies to all forms of reflection; it specifically relates
to total internal reflection.
• Clarification: Occurs when light moves from a denser to a less dense medium.
• Exam Question: Describe the conditions under which total internal reflection occurs
and its applications.

Constant Temperature
• Definition: Bodies at a fixed temperature radiate the same average power that they
absorb.
• Example: Earth's surface radiating heat it absorbs from the sun.
• Misconception: Objects at constant temperature do not emit radiation.
• Clarification: They emit radiation, but the net energy exchange balances out.
• Exam Question: Explain how the Earth's surface maintains a relatively constant
temperature despite continuous solar radiation.

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Concave Lens
• Definition: A lens that is thicker at the edges than in the centre, causing parallel rays
to diverge.
• Example: Eyeglasses for near-sightedness.
• Misconception: Concave lenses always diminish the size of images; they change how
light rays converge or diverge.
• Clarification: They spread light rays apart, often making images appear smaller.
• Exam Question: Explain how a concave lens corrects near-sightedness.

Convex Lens
• Definition: A lens that is thicker in the centre than at the edges, causing parallel rays
to converge.
• Example: A magnifying glass.
• Misconception: Convex lenses only magnify objects; their primary function is to
converge light rays.
• Clarification: They focus light rays, which can create magnified or real images.
• Exam Question: Describe how a convex lens forms a real image of a distant object.

Diffuse Reflection
• Definition: Reflection from a rough surface, causing light rays to scatter in different
directions.
• Example: Light reflecting off a white painted wall.
• Misconception: Reflection only occurs on shiny surfaces; it can happen on any
surface, but with different characteristics.
• Clarification: Diffuse reflection scatters light, unlike the mirror-like reflection from
smooth surfaces.
• Exam Question: Compare diffuse and specular reflection, citing examples of each.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Definition: A range of electromagnetic waves extending from radio waves to gamma
rays, each with different wavelengths and frequencies.
• Example: Visible light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Misconception: The electromagnetic spectrum is limited to visible light.
• Clarification: It includes many types of waves, most of which are invisible to the
human eye.
• Exam Question: Describe the electromagnetic spectrum and explain the differences
between its components.

Author: Steven Ross

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Electromagnetic Waves
• Definition: Transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the waves to an
absorber, forming a continuous spectrum of different frequencies and all traveling at
the same speed in a vacuum.
• Example: Radio waves used for communication.
• Misconception: All electromagnetic waves are visible.
• Clarification: The spectrum includes many invisible waves, such as radio waves and
X-rays.
• Exam Question: Explain why electromagnetic waves can travel through a vacuum,
unlike sound waves.

Focal Length
• Definition: The distance between the centre of a lens and its principal focus.
• Example: The distance from a camera lens to the point where it forms a sharp image.
• Misconception: Focal length is the same for all lenses.
• Clarification: It varies based on lens curvature and material.
• Exam Question: Describe how changing the focal length of a lens affects the image it
produces.

Gamma Rays
• Definition: High energy radiation rays used for detecting and treating cancers, and
sterilizing food and medical implements. They can cause cell damage and mutations.
• Example: Radiation therapy in cancer treatment.
• Misconception: Gamma rays are always harmful; while they can be dangerous, they
are also used beneficially in medicine.
• Clarification: Their high energy makes them useful in medical applications, but they
require careful handling due to their potential to cause harm.
• Exam Question: Discuss the benefits and risks associated with the use of gamma
rays in medical treatments.

Infrared Radiation
• Definition: A type of radiation that all objects emit and absorb. The hotter an object
is, the greater the infrared radiation it emits in a given time.
• Example: Heat sensors detecting warm bodies.
• Misconception: Infrared radiation is only associated with heat sources; all objects,
not just hot ones, emit some level of infrared radiation.
• Clarification: Its intensity increases with the object's temperature.
• Exam Question: Explain how infrared cameras can be used to detect living creatures
in the dark.

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Infrared
• Definition: A type of electromagnetic radiation used for cooking food, thermal
imaging, and short-range communications. It can cause skin burns.
• Example: Infrared cameras detecting heat signatures.
• Misconception: Infrared is visible or felt as heat; it is invisible but can be felt as
warmth.
• Clarification: Infrared can be detected through its heat effects but is not visible to the
human eye.
• Exam Question: Explain how infrared radiation is utilized in thermal imaging
technology.

Law of Reflection
• Definition: The principle that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
when a wave reflects.
• Example: Light reflecting off a mirror.
• Misconception: Reflection can occur at any angle.
• Clarification: The angle of incidence and reflection are always equal and measured
from the normal.
• Exam Question: Describe how the law of reflection is applied in the design of
periscopes.

Lens
• Definition: An object that forms an image through the refraction of light.
• Example: Lenses in eyeglasses or cameras.
• Misconception: All lenses magnify images; some lenses can also diverge light rays
and make images smaller.
• Clarification: Lenses can either converge or diverge light to form images.
• Exam Question: Discuss the differences in image formation between concave and
convex lenses.

Microwaves
• Definition: Used for satellite communications and cooking food. They can cause
internal heating of body cells.
• Example: Microwave ovens heating food.
• Misconception: Microwaves only exist in kitchen appliances.
• Clarification: They are a type of electromagnetic radiation also used in
communication technologies.
• Exam Question: Explain the principle of microwave heating in domestic ovens.

Power of a Lens
• Definition: Equal to the reciprocal of the focal length of a lens. Concave lenses have
negative powers, whereas convex lenses have positive powers.

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 • Example: A concave lens with a focal length of -2m has a power of -0.5 dioptres.
• Misconception: Lens power indicates the size of the lens; it's about the lens's ability
to converge or diverge light.
• Clarification: Power determines how much the lens can bend light rays.
• Exam Question: Compare the powers of a convex lens with a focal length of 0.5m
and a concave lens with a focal length of -0.5m.

Principal Focus
• Definition: The point before or after a lens where light rays appear to meet. The rays
may converge or diverge away from this point.
• Example: The point where parallel rays of light meet after passing through a convex
lens.
• Misconception: Principal focus is the same for all types of lenses.
• Clarification: For concave lenses, it's where rays appear to diverge from; for convex
lenses, where they actually converge.
• Exam Question: Describe how the principal focus of a convex lens differs from that
of a concave lens.

Radio Waves
• Definition: Used for television and radio signals. They can be produced by
oscillations in electrical circuits or can induce these oscillations themselves.
• Example: Broadcasting radio programs.
• Misconception: Radio waves are only for entertainment; they have numerous
communication and scientific applications.
• Clarification: They play a vital role in modern communication systems.
• Exam Question: Describe how radio waves are utilized in communication systems.

Ray Diagram
• Definition: A visual representation of the path of a wave, usually around the point
where it meets a boundary. Rays are usually drawn as straight lines with an arrow
pointing in their direction of travel.
• Example: Diagram showing light rays passing through a lens.
• Misconception: Ray diagrams are accurate representations; they are simplifications
to illustrate principles of wave behaviour.
• Clarification: They help visualize how waves interact with materials but are not to
scale.
• Exam Question: Interpret a ray diagram showing light passing through a convex
lens.

Real Image
• Definition: Image formed by the actual convergence of light rays, capable of being
projected onto a screen.
• Example: Image formed on a cinema screen by a projector.
• Misconception: Real images are always upright.

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 • Clarification: Real images can be inverted, depending on the lens or mirror used.
• Exam Question: Explain how a convex lens can create a real image and under what
conditions this image can be inverted.

Reflection
• Definition: The process of a wave, such as light, bouncing back from a surface.
• Example: Light reflecting off a mirror.
• Misconception: Reflection changes the wave's frequency.
• Clarification: It changes the direction, but frequency remains constant.
• Exam Question: Discuss the law of reflection and how it applies to a flat mirror.

Refraction
• Definition: The changing of speed and consequently the direction of a wave as it
changes medium, with wavelength change but constant frequency.
• Example: A straw appearing bent when partially submerged in water.
• Misconception: Refraction only occurs with light waves.
• Clarification: Refraction occurs with all types of waves, including sound and water
waves.
• Exam Question: Explain how the principle of refraction applies when light travels
from air into water.

Topic 6: Radioactivity
Activity
• Definition: The rate at which unstable nuclei decay in a radioactive substance.
• Example: Radioactive decay of uranium in a rock sample.
• Misconception: Activity remains constant over time.
• Clarification: Activity decreases as unstable nuclei decay.
• Exam Question: How does the activity of a radioactive source change over time and
why?

Alpha Particle
• Definition: A type of radiation consisting of two protons and two neutrons, emitted
from unstable nuclei.
• Example: Alpha decay observed in heavy elements like uranium.
• Misconception: Alpha particles are harmless due to their size.
• Clarification: They are highly ionizing but have low penetration power.
• Exam Question: Explain the properties of alpha particles and their effects when
absorbed by living tissue.

Author: Steven Ross

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Atomic Number
• Definition: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, defining the chemical
element.
• Example: Carbon has an atomic number of 6.
• Misconception: Atomic number and mass number are the same.
• Clarification: Atomic number is the count of protons; mass number includes protons
and neutrons.
• Exam Question: Explain why elements with different atomic numbers have different
chemical properties.

Background Radiation
• Definition: The low-level radiation present in the environment, originating from
natural and artificial sources.
• Example: Cosmic rays and radiation from building materials.
• Misconception: All background radiation is harmful.
• Clarification: Most background radiation is at a low enough level to be safe.
• Exam Question: Discuss the sources of background radiation and their potential
health impacts.

Becquerel
• Definition: The SI unit of radioactivity, defined as one decay per second.
• Example: Measuring the activity of a radioactive sample in becquerels.
• Misconception: Higher becquerel means more dangerous.
• Clarification: It indicates the rate of decay, not necessarily the danger level.
• Exam Question: Describe how radioactivity is measured and what a becquerel
represents.

Beta Particle
• Definition: A fast-moving electron emitted from the nucleus during radioactive
decay.
• Example: Beta decay in radioactive isotopes like Carbon-14.
• Misconception: Beta particles are the same as electrons from the electron cloud.
• Clarification: They are similar but originate from the nucleus.
• Exam Question: Compare and contrast beta particles with regular electrons.

Bohr Model
• Definition: A model of the atom proposing electrons orbit the nucleus at specific
distances.

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 • Example: Depictions of atoms with electrons in circular orbits.
• Misconception: The Bohr model accurately represents all aspects of atomic
behaviour.
• Clarification: It's a simplified model; actual electron behaviour is more complex.
• Exam Question: Explain the limitations of the Bohr model in describing atomic
structure.

Chain Reaction
• Definition: A series of nuclear reactions where the product of one reaction initiates
further reactions.
• Example: Nuclear fission in a reactor where emitted neutrons trigger additional
fission events.
• Misconception: Chain reactions are always explosive.
• Clarification: They can be controlled, as in nuclear reactors, or uncontrolled, as in
nuclear bombs.
• Exam Question: Describe how a controlled chain reaction is used to produce energy
in a nuclear reactor.

Electrons
• Definition: Negatively charged subatomic particles orbiting the nucleus of an atom.
• Example: Electrons in different energy levels around a hydrogen atom nucleus.
• Misconception: Electrons have a lot of mass compared to protons.
• Clarification: Electrons have much less mass than protons or neutrons.
• Exam Question: Explain the role of electrons in chemical bonding.

Element
• Definition: A pure substance consisting of only one type of atom, characterized by its
atomic number.
• Example: Gold, with all atoms having 79 protons.
• Misconception: Elements can be broken down into simpler substances.
• Clarification: Elements are the simplest form of matter that can't be broken down
chemically.
• Exam Question: How do elements differ from compounds?

Energy Levels
• Definition: The specific regions around the nucleus where electrons are likely to be
found.
• Example: The distinct orbits of electrons in the Bohr model of an atom.
• Misconception: Electrons move randomly around the nucleus.
• Clarification: Electrons occupy discrete energy levels or shells.
• Exam Question: Describe how electrons transition between energy levels and the
implications for photon emission.

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Fission Products
• Definition: The smaller nuclei and other particles produced by the splitting of a larger
nucleus.
• Example: The products of uranium-235 undergoing nuclear fission.
• Misconception: Fission products are always stable.
• Clarification: Many fission products are radioactive.
• Exam Question: Discuss the nature and significance of fission products in the
context of nuclear power.

Gamma Ray
• Definition: High-energy electromagnetic radiation emitted from a nucleus.
• Example: Gamma rays emitted during nuclear decay processes.
• Misconception: Gamma rays are only harmful radiation.
• Clarification: While high doses are dangerous, gamma rays are also used in medical
treatments and diagnostics.
• Exam Question: Explain how gamma rays are used in medical imaging and therapy.

Geiger-Müller Tube
• Definition: A device used to detect and measure ionizing radiation.
• Example: Measuring radioactivity in a laboratory.
• Misconception: Geiger-Müller tubes can identify specific isotopes.
• Clarification: They detect radiation presence and intensity but not the type of
isotope.
• Exam Question: Describe how a Geiger-Müller tube works and its applications in
monitoring radiation.

Half-Life
• Definition: The time taken for half of the unstable nuclei in a sample of a radioactive
isotope to decay.
• Example: Carbon-14 used in radiocarbon dating.
• Misconception: Half-life is affected by environmental factors.
• Clarification: Half-life is a constant property of a radioactive isotope, unaffected by
external conditions.
• Exam Question: How is the concept of half-life used in radiocarbon dating?

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Ions
• Definition: Atoms or molecules that have lost or gained electrons, resulting in a net
charge.
• Example: Sodium ions and chloride ions in table salt.
• Misconception: Ions are always single atoms.
• Clarification: Ions can be single atoms or groups of atoms (molecules).
• Exam Question: Explain the role of ions in conducting electricity in solutions.

Irradiation
• Definition: The process of exposing an object to nuclear radiation.
• Example: Food irradiation to kill bacteria and prolong shelf life.
• Misconception: Irradiation makes the object radioactive.
• Clarification: The object does not become radioactive unless it absorbs the radiation.
• Exam Question: Discuss the benefits and risks of using irradiation in food
preservation.

Isotopes
• Definition: Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
• Example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-14.
• Misconception: Isotopes of an element have different chemical properties.
• Clarification: They have similar chemical properties but different physical
properties.
• Exam Question: Explain how isotopes of an element are similar and how they differ.

Mass Number
• Definition: The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.
• Example: The mass number of oxygen-16 is 16.
• Misconception: Mass number and atomic mass are the same.
• Clarification: Mass number is a whole number, while atomic mass is an average that
can be fractional.
• Exam Question: How is the mass number of an isotope determined, and what does it
signify about the isotope?

Negative Ions
• Definition: Atoms that have gained electrons, resulting in a negative charge.
• Example: Chloride ions in salt (NaCl).
• Misconception: Negative ions are harmful or unnatural.
• Clarification: They are a natural part of matter and play essential roles in chemistry.
• Exam Question: Explain how negative ions are formed and their significance in
chemical reactions.

Author: Steven Ross

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Neutrons
• Definition: Neutrally charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
• Example: Neutrons in the nucleus of a carbon atom.
• Misconception: Neutrons don't influence an atom's behaviour.
• Clarification: They contribute to the stability of the nucleus and affect isotopic
properties.
• Exam Question: Discuss the role of neutrons in the nucleus and how they affect
isotopic characteristics.

Nuclear Fission
• Definition: The process where a large and unstable nucleus splits into two smaller
nuclei, releasing energy.
• Example: Fission reactions in a nuclear power plant.
• Misconception: Nuclear fission is always uncontrolled and leads to explosions.
• Clarification: It can be controlled and used as a reliable energy source.
• Exam Question: Describe how nuclear fission is utilized in energy production and
the challenges associated with it.

Nuclear Fusion
• Definition: The process where two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus,
releasing energy.
• Example: Fusion reactions that power the sun.
• Misconception: Nuclear fusion can easily be achieved on Earth.
• Clarification: It requires extremely high temperatures and pressures, currently
challenging to maintain.
• Exam Question: Explain the potential benefits of nuclear fusion as an energy source
and the obstacles in achieving it.

Nucleus
• Definition: The small, dense, positively charged centre of an atom, containing
protons and neutrons.
• Example: The nucleus in a helium atom, consisting of two protons and two neutrons.
• Misconception: The nucleus is a significant part of the atom's volume.
• Clarification: It occupies a tiny central region but contains most of the atom's mass.
• Exam Question: Describe the structure of the atomic nucleus and its role in
determining the atom's identity and properties.

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PET Scanner
• Definition: A medical imaging device that uses radioactive tracers and detectors to
create internal body images.
• Example: Using a PET scan to diagnose cancer or monitor treatment.
• Misconception: PET scans expose patients to harmful levels of radiation.
• Clarification: They use low-level radiation and are considered safe for medical
diagnostics.
• Exam Question: Explain how a PET scanner works and its importance in medical
diagnostics.

Plum Pudding Model

• Definition: An early model of the atom proposed by J.J. Thomson, depicting
electrons embedded in a positive sphere.
• Example: Like plums in a pudding, electrons were thought to be scattered randomly
in a positively charged ‘pudding’.
• Misconception: This model is an accurate representation of an atom.
• Clarification: Later experiments by Rutherford and others disproved this model.
• Exam Question: Describe the Plum Pudding Model and how subsequent experiments
led to its rejection.

Positive Ions
• Definition: Atoms that have lost one or more electrons, resulting in a net positive
charge.
• Example: Sodium ions (Na⁺) in table salt.
• Misconception: Positive ions are only created in chemical reactions.
• Clarification: They can also be formed through physical processes like ionizing
radiation.
• Exam Question: Discuss how positive ions are formed and their significance in
various physical and chemical processes.

Protons
• Definition: Positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
• Example: The nucleus of a hydrogen atom, which consists of a single proton.
• Misconception: Protons and neutrons have the same properties.
• Clarification: Protons are positively charged, while neutrons are neutral.
• Exam Question: Explain the role of protons in determining the atomic number and
the identity of an element.

Author: Steven Ross

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Radioactive Contamination
• Definition: The presence of radioactive substances in or on materials, organisms, or
areas.
• Example: Radioactive particles landing on skin or clothing.
• Misconception: Contamination always leads to immediate health risks.
• Clarification: Risk depends on the level and type of contamination.
• Exam Question: Discuss the differences between irradiation and contamination, and
their respective health risks.

Radioactive Decay
• Definition: The process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by
emitting radiation.
• Example: Uranium decaying to form radium.
• Misconception: Radioactive decay can be controlled or stopped.
• Clarification: It is a spontaneous and random process.
• Exam Question: Describe the three main types of radioactive decay and the particles
involved in each.

Random Nature of Radioactive Decay

• Definition: The unpredictability of when a specific nucleus will decay.
• Example: Not knowing which atom in a radioactive material will decay next.
• Misconception: Decay rates are constant and predictable for individual atoms.
• Clarification: While average decay rates can be predicted, individual decays are
random.
• Exam Question: Explain why the half-life of a radioactive isotope is useful, given the
random nature of radioactive decay.

Author: Steven Ross

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Topic 7: Astronomy
Artificial Satellites
• Definition: Man-made objects placed in orbit around the Earth or other celestial
bodies for purposes such as communication, weather monitoring, and research.
• Example: Communication satellites used for broadcasting and data transmission.
• Misconception: All satellites are natural like the Moon.
• Clarification: Artificial satellites are specifically designed and launched by humans.
• Exam Question: Describe the role of artificial satellites in global communication
systems.

Big Bang Theory

• Definition: The leading explanation about how the universe began, proposing it
started from a small singularity and expanded over the next 13.8 billion years.
• Example: Expansion of the universe from an extremely hot and dense state.
• Misconception: The Big Bang was an explosion in space.
• Clarification: It was an expansion of space itself.
• Exam Question: Explain the main concepts of the Big Bang Theory and how it
accounts for the observable universe.

Author: Steven Ross

Email: [email protected] Website: https://tutorful.co.uk/tutors/wrq2lobk
Circular Orbits
• Definition: Paths of objects in space that are circular in shape, often seen in moons
orbiting planets or artificial satellites around Earth.
• Example: The Moon's orbit around the Earth.
• Misconception: Objects in circular orbits have a constant velocity.
• Clarification: While speed may be constant, velocity changes due to the change in
direction.
• Exam Question: Discuss how gravity and velocity interact to create circular orbits
for celestial bodies.

CMBR (Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation)

• Definition: Electromagnetic radiation left over from an early stage of the universe in
Big Bang cosmology.
• Example: Microwave radiation detectable with a sensitive radio telescope.
• Misconception: CMBR only exists in certain parts of the universe.
• Clarification: It's present throughout the universe.
• Exam Question: Explain the significance of CMBR in understanding the Big Bang
and the evolution of the universe.

Main Sequence Star

• Definition: A stable phase in the life cycle of a star, during which energy is generated
through nuclear fusion in its core.
• Example: The Sun, currently in its main sequence phase.
• Misconception: All stars are main sequence stars.
• Clarification: Stars only spend part of their life cycle in the main sequence phase.
• Exam Question: Describe the characteristics of a main sequence star and its
importance in the life cycle of a star.

Milky Way Galaxy

• Definition: The spiral galaxy that contains our Solar System, along with billions of
other stars and celestial bodies.
• Example: The galaxy observed as a band of light in the night sky from Earth.
• Misconception: The Milky Way is the only galaxy in the universe.
• Clarification: It's one of billions of galaxies in the observable universe.
• Exam Question: Describe the structure of the Milky Way Galaxy and its place in the
universe.

Nebula
• Definition: A vast cloud of dust and gas in space, often the birthplace of stars and
planets.

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 • Example: The Orion Nebula, visible with the naked eye as a fuzzy patch in the
constellation Orion.
• Misconception: Nebulae are only remnants of exploded stars.
• Clarification: They can be both remnants of dead stars and cradles for new star
formation.
• Exam Question: Explain the role of nebulae in the life cycle of stars.

Orbital Radius
• Definition: The average distance between an object in orbit and the body around
which it orbits.
• Example: The distance from the Earth to the Sun, approximately 150 million
kilometres.
• Misconception: Orbital radius is constant for all planets in the Solar System.
• Clarification: Each planet has a distinct orbital radius.
• Exam Question: Discuss how the orbital radius affects a planet's orbital period and
its climate.

Protostar
• Definition: The early stage of a star's formation, where gravitational forces cause gas
and dust to collapse and heat up.
• Example: A forming star within a stellar nursery in a nebula.
• Misconception: Protostars are visible like main sequence stars.
• Clarification: They are often obscured by dust and gas.
• Exam Question: Describe the process of star formation, from nebula to protostar.

Red Giant Star

• Definition: A late stage in a star's life cycle where it expands and cools after using up
most of its hydrogen fuel.
• Example: The future state of our Sun, billions of years from now.
• Misconception: Red giants are burning more fuel than main sequence stars.
• Clarification: They are expanding due to changes in nuclear fusion processes.
• Exam Question: What causes a star like the Sun to become a red giant, and what are
the implications for its solar system?

Red-Shift
• Definition: The observed increase in the wavelength of light from distant galaxies,
indicating their movement away from us.
• Example: Light from distant galaxies appearing more red than it should.
• Misconception: Red-shift indicates that objects are turning red.
• Clarification: It's a shift in the light's spectrum, not a change in colour.

Author: Steven Ross

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 • Exam Question: Explain how red-shift provides evidence for the expansion of the
universe.

Star Life Cycle

• Definition: The various stages a star passes through over its lifetime, from nebula to
final stages like white dwarfs or supernovae.
• Example: The Sun's evolution from a main sequence star to a red giant and
eventually to a white dwarf.
• Misconception: All stars have the same life cycle.
• Clarification: A star’s life cycle depends on its initial mass.
• Exam Question: Describe the different stages in the life cycle of a star like the Sun.

Steady State Theory

• Definition: An alternative theory to the Big Bang, suggesting the continuous creation
of matter as the universe expands.
• Example: The idea that new matter is formed to fill the gaps as galaxies move apart.
• Misconception: Steady State Theory is still a widely accepted model.
• Clarification: It has been largely discarded in favour of the Big Bang Theory.
• Exam Question: Compare and contrast the Big Bang Theory with the Steady State
Theory.

Supernova
• Definition: A stellar explosion occurring at the end of a massive star's life cycle,
resulting in the dispersion of its elements into space.
• Example: The 1054 supernova, whose remnants formed the Crab Nebula.
• Misconception: A supernova marks the end of all star activity.
• Clarification: Supernovae can lead to the formation of neutron stars or black holes.
• Exam Question: Explain the process leading to a supernova and its significance in
the universe.

Weight
• Definition: The force exerted on a mass by gravity.
• Example: The weight of an astronaut being less on the Moon than on Earth.
• Misconception: Weight and mass are the same.
• Clarification: Weight is dependent on gravity, while mass is constant.
• Exam Question: How does weight vary with location in the universe and why?

Author: Steven Ross

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White Dwarf
• Definition: A small, dense star formed from the remnants of a low to medium mass
star after it has expended its nuclear fuel.
• Example: Sirius B, a white dwarf in the Sirius star system.
• Misconception: White dwarfs are new stars.
• Clarification: They are the end stage of a star's life cycle.
• Exam Question: Describe the properties and significance of white dwarfs in stellar
evolution.

Topic 8: Energy - Forces Doing Work

Closed System
• Definition: A system that experiences no net change in its total energy when energy
transfers occur within it.
• Example: An insulated thermos flask maintaining the temperature of its contents.
• Misconception: Closed systems are completely isolated from their surroundings.
• Clarification: Energy transfers can occur within the system but not across its
boundaries.
• Exam Question: Explain how a closed system conserves energy.

Dissipation of Energy
• Definition: The process by which energy is spread out into the surroundings, usually
as heat, due to a rise in temperature.
• Example: Heat loss from a hot cup of coffee to its surroundings.
• Misconception: Dissipated energy is lost and no longer exists.
• Clarification: Energy is conserved but transforms into a less useful form.
• Exam Question: Discuss the implications of energy dissipation in everyday
appliances.

Efficiency
• Definition: The ratio of useful output energy to total input energy, often expressed as
a percentage.
• Example: A car engine's efficiency in converting chemical energy from fuel into
kinetic energy.
• Misconception: 100% efficiency is achievable in practical systems.

Author: Steven Ross

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 • Clarification: Due to energy dissipation, usually as heat, no real-world system is
100% efficient.
• Exam Question: Explain why no machine can ever be 100% efficient and discuss the
implications for energy use.

Gravitational Potential Energy

• Definition: The energy an object has due to its position in a gravitational field.
• Example: Water held at height in a dam.
• Misconception: Only applies to objects at great heights.
• Clarification: It applies to any object with height above a reference point.
• Exam Question: How does the height of an object affect its gravitational potential
energy?

Kinetic Energy
• Definition: The energy that an object possesses due to its motion.
• Example: A moving car.
• Misconception: Depends solely on speed.
• Clarification: Dependent on both the object's mass and the square of its velocity.
• Exam Question: Calculate the kinetic energy of an object given its mass and
velocity.

Power
• Definition: The rate of doing work or transferring energy.
• Example: A lightbulb rated at 60 watts.
• Misconception: Power and energy are the same.
• Clarification: Power is the rate at which energy is used or transferred.
• Exam Question: How is power related to energy and time in physical processes?

Resistive Force
• Definition: A force that opposes the motion of an object, doing work against it.
• Example: Air resistance against a moving vehicle.
• Misconception: Resistive forces only slow objects down.
• Clarification: They oppose motion but can also shape motion in systems.
• Exam Question: Describe how resistive forces are overcome in transport systems.

Watt
• Definition: The unit of power, equivalent to one joule per second.
• Example: A light bulb consuming 40 watts of power.
• Misconception: Higher wattage always means brighter light.
• Clarification: Wattage indicates energy use, not necessarily light output.

Author: Steven Ross

Email: [email protected] Website: https://tutorful.co.uk/tutors/wrq2lobk
 • Exam Question: What does the wattage of an electrical appliance tell you about its
energy consumption?

Work Done
• Definition: Work is done when a force causes an object to move through a distance.
• Example: Lifting a box onto a shelf.
• Misconception: Work is done whenever a force is applied.
• Clarification: Work requires movement in the direction of the force.
• Exam Question: Explain the relationship between force, displacement, and work
done.

Topic 9: Forces and Their Effects

Balanced Forces
• Definition: Forces equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, resulting in no
change in motion.
• Example: A book at rest on a table where gravitational force and normal force are
balanced.
• Misconception: Balanced forces cause objects to move steadily.
• Clarification: They lead to no motion or constant velocity.
• Exam Question: Explain the effect of balanced forces on the motion of an object.

Contact Force
• Definition: A force exerted when two objects are in physical contact.
• Example: The force exerted by a tennis racket on a ball.
• Misconception: All forces require contact.
• Clarification: Some forces, like gravity, are non-contact.
• Exam Question: Differentiate between contact and non-contact forces with
examples.

Electric Field
• Definition: A region where a charge experiences a force.
• Example: The field around a charged balloon attracting hair.
• Misconception: Electric fields require physical contact.
• Clarification: They exert forces over a distance.
• Exam Question: Describe how the strength of an electric field varies with distance.

Author: Steven Ross

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Equilibrium
• Definition: A state where an object has no net force or moment.
• Example: A balanced see-saw.
• Misconception: Equilibrium means not moving.
• Clarification: It can include steady motion.
• Exam Question: Explain how an object in motion can be in equilibrium.

Force Field
• Definition: A region where an object experiences a non-contact force.
• Example: Earth's gravitational field.
• Misconception: Only magnetic fields are force fields.
• Clarification: Includes gravitational and electric fields.
• Exam Question: Explain how a force field can act on an object without physical
contact.

Friction
• Definition: A force that opposes motion, often caused by the interaction of surfaces.
• Example: The resistance felt when pushing an object across a rough surface.
• Misconception: Friction is always undesirable.
• Clarification: It's essential for many everyday activities, like walking.
• Exam Question: Discuss the role of friction in daily life and various technologies.

Gears
• Definition: Mechanisms that transmit rotational force, often altering speed or
direction.
• Example: Bicycle gears changing the effort needed to pedal.
• Misconception: Gears only increase force.
• Clarification: They can change speed, force, or direction of motion.
• Exam Question: Explain how gears work and their applications.

Gravitational Field
• Definition: A region where an object experiences gravitational attraction.
• Example: Earth's gravitational pull on objects near its surface.
• Misconception: Gravitational fields are only significant on large scales.
• Clarification: They are present around all masses, though often weak.
• Exam Question: How does the gravitational field strength vary with distance from
the source?

Author: Steven Ross

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Topic 10: Electricity and Circuits
Alternating Current (AC)
• Definition: Current with charges that continually change direction at a set frequency.
• Example: Household electricity supply.
• Misconception: AC is less efficient than DC.
• Clarification: AC is more efficient for transmitting power over long distances.
• Exam Question: Why is alternating current used for mains electricity?

Ammeter
• Definition: A device to measure the current flowing through a component, connected
in series.
• Example: Measuring current in a circuit.
• Misconception: Ammeters measure voltage.
• Clarification: They specifically measure current.
• Exam Question: How does the position of an ammeter in a circuit affect its readings?

Amperes (Amps)
• Definition: The unit of electric current.
• Example: A device drawing 1 Ampere of current.
• Misconception: Higher amperes always mean more power.
• Clarification: Power also depends on voltage.
• Exam Question: Relate current (in amperes) to power and energy usage.

Circuit Breaker
• Definition: A safety device that cuts off power if a current surge is detected.
• Example: Tripping during a power surge to prevent damage.
• Misconception: Circuit breakers and fuses serve the same function.
• Clarification: Circuit breakers can be reset and are quicker than fuses.
• Exam Question: Compare the roles of circuit breakers and fuses in household
electrical safety.

Author: Steven Ross

Email: [email protected] Website: https://tutorful.co.uk/tutors/wrq2lobk
Coulomb
• Definition: The unit of electric charge.
• Example: A flow of one coulomb per second equates to a current of one ampere.
• Misconception: Coulombs directly measure electrical energy.
• Clarification: They measure charge, not energy.
• Exam Question: How is the coulomb related to other electrical units like the ampere?

Direct Current (DC)

• Definition: Current that flows in one direction only, typically used in batteries and
cells.
• Example: Battery-operated devices.
• Misconception: DC is only for small or portable devices.
• Clarification: DC is crucial in many electronics, regardless of scale.
• Exam Question: Compare the applications of DC and AC in electrical systems.

Electrical Resistance
• Definition: A measure of the opposition to the flow of current in a conductor.
• Example: Resistance in a light bulb filament.
• Misconception: Resistance is undesirable in all electrical circuits.
• Clarification: Resistance can be useful, like in controlling current flow.
• Exam Question: Explain how resistance affects the flow of current in a circuit.

Ohm's Law
• Definition: The current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points.
• Example: Calculating current in a circuit using Ohm’s Law.
• Misconception: Ohm’s Law applies under all conditions.
• Clarification: It applies to conductors at constant temperature.
• Exam Question: Describe how Ohm's Law is used to determine the relationship
between voltage, current, and resistance.

Parallel Circuit
• Definition: A circuit where components are connected in parallel, sharing the same
voltage.
• Example: Household electrical wiring.
• Misconception: A parallel circuit reduces the overall voltage.
• Clarification: Voltage remains the same across each branch.
• Exam Question: Discuss the advantages of using a parallel circuit in domestic
wiring.

Author: Steven Ross

Email: [email protected] Website: https://tutorful.co.uk/tutors/wrq2lobk
Potential Difference
• Definition: The energy transferred per unit charge between two points in a circuit.
• Example: Voltage across a battery.
• Misconception: Potential difference and current are the same.
• Clarification: Potential difference drives the flow of current.
• Exam Question: Explain how potential difference is related to the work done in
moving a charge.

Power
• Definition: The rate at which an appliance transfers energy. For a circuit component,
it is equal to the product of the current passing through it and the potential difference
across it.
• Example: A 60-watt light bulb consuming power in a circuit.
• Misconception: Higher wattage always means brighter light.
• Clarification: Wattage indicates energy use, not necessarily light output.
• Exam Question: Calculate the power consumed by a device given its current and
potential difference.

Resistance
• Definition: A measure of the opposition to current flow.
• Example: Resistance in a heating element.
• Misconception: Resistance is always undesirable.
• Clarification: It is essential for controlling current in many devices.
• Exam Question: Explain how resistance in a circuit can affect current and power
consumption.

Resistors in Series
• Definition: When resistors are connected end-to-end, the total resistance is equal to
the sum of the individual resistances.
• Example: Several resistors lined up in a single path in an electronic circuit.
• Misconception: Adding resistors in series decreases the total resistance.
• Clarification: It actually increases the total resistance.
• Exam Question: Calculate the total resistance of three resistors connected in series
with resistances of 2, 3, and 5 ohms.

Resistors in Parallel
• Definition: The total resistance is less than the lowest individual resistance.
• Example: Multiple resistors used in parallel circuits in electronics.
• Misconception: Adding more resistors always increases total resistance.
• Clarification: In parallel, it decreases.
• Exam Question: Compare the effect of adding resistors in series and in parallel on
the total resistance.

Author: Steven Ross

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Series Circuit
• Definition: Components connected in series have the same current but share the total
potential difference.
• Example: Christmas lights arranged in a series.
• Misconception: A break anywhere in a parallel circuit affects all components.
• Clarification: This is true for series circuits.
• Exam Question: Describe the properties of a series circuit and the implications of a
component failure.

Thermistor
• Definition: A temperature-dependent component whose resistance decreases as
temperature increases.
• Example: Thermistors used in temperature-sensing circuits.
• Misconception: Thermistors only provide high resistance.
• Clarification: Their resistance varies with temperature.
• Exam Question: Explain how a thermistor can be used in a circuit to respond to
temperature changes.

Volt
• Definition: The unit of potential difference. One volt is equal to one joule per
coulomb.
• Example: A 9-volt battery used in a smoke detector.
• Misconception: Voltage is the same as current.
• Clarification: Voltage is the potential difference, while current is the flow of charge.
• Exam Question: Discuss the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in
a circuit.

Voltmeter
• Definition: A device connected in parallel to measure the potential difference across a
component.
• Example: Using a voltmeter to measure the voltage across a battery.
• Misconception: Voltmeters are connected in series like ammeters.
• Clarification: They must be connected in parallel.
• Exam Question: Explain the correct way to use a voltmeter in a circuit and why it is
connected in parallel.

Author: Steven Ross

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Watt
• Definition: The unit of power.
• Example: A 100-watt light bulb uses 100 joules of energy per second.
• Misconception: Watts measure energy consumption over time.
• Clarification: Watts measure the rate of energy transfer per second.
• Exam Question: Calculate the energy used by a 50-watt appliance running for 3
hours.

Topic 11: Static Electricity

Earthing
• Definition: Providing a path for excess charge to flow safely to the ground.
• Example: Grounding electrical appliances for safety.
• Misconception: Earthing can increase the risk of electric shock.
• Clarification: It actually reduces the risk by safely diverting excess charge.
• Exam Question: Explain the purpose of earthing in electrical systems.

Electric Field Lines

• Definition: Lines indicating the direction of force a positive charge would experience
in an electric field.
• Example: Lines radiating out from a positive point charge.
• Misconception: Field lines show the path a charge moves.
• Clarification: They represent force direction, not charge movement.
• Exam Question: Describe what electric field lines indicate about the strength and
direction of the field.

Electric Field
• Definition: A region in which a charge will experience a non-contact electric force.
All charged objects have an electric field around them, and this field is stronger the
closer you are to the charge.
• Example: The electric field surrounding a charged balloon.
• Misconception: Electric fields require physical contact to exert force.
• Clarification: Electric fields exert force over a distance.

Author: Steven Ross

Email: [email protected] Website: https://tutorful.co.uk/tutors/wrq2lobk
 • Exam Question: Describe how the strength of an electric field changes with distance
from the charged object.

Lightning
• Definition: A consequence of static charge building up in clouds, with lightning
strikes caused by the discharge of this charge.
• Example: A lightning strike during a thunderstorm.
• Misconception: Lightning strikes only occur from the sky to the ground.
• Clarification: Lightning can occur within clouds or from the ground to the clouds.
• Exam Question: Explain the process of lightning formation in a thunderstorm.

Like Charges
• Definition: When two charges of the same polarity meet, they repel each other.
• Example: Two positively charged balloons repelling each other.
• Misconception: Like charges attract each other.
• Clarification: Like charges repel; unlike charges attract.
• Exam Question: Describe an experiment to demonstrate the repulsion between like
charges.

Parallel Plates
• Definition: The electric field between two charged plates is uniform, with field lines
parallel, equally spaced, and pointing from the positive plate to the negative plate.
• Example: Capacitors with parallel plates.
• Misconception: Electric fields are always non-uniform between plates.
• Clarification: Between parallel plates, electric fields are uniform.
• Exam Question: Discuss how parallel plates create a uniform electric field and its
applications.

Point Charge
• Definition: The electric field around a point charge weakens as the distance increases.
For a positive charge, the field lines point radially outwards; for a negative charge,
they point inwards.
• Example: Electric field around a single charged particle.
• Misconception: The electric field strength is the same at all distances from a point
charge.
• Clarification: It decreases with distance from the charge.
• Exam Question: Explain how the electric field varies around a point charge and why.

Author: Steven Ross

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Sparking
• Definition: The transfer of electrons between two surfaces that have an imbalance of
charges. Sparking can be dangerous in locations like petrol pumps, necessitating
earthing.
• Example: Sparks created when touching a metal object after walking on a carpet.
• Misconception: Sparking is only a minor nuisance.
• Clarification: It can be hazardous, especially near flammable substances.
• Exam Question: Discuss the dangers of sparking and the importance of earthing in
preventing accidents.

Static Charge
• Definition: A charge caused by an imbalance of positive and negative charges on an
object’s surface, often due to electron transfer.
• Example: Static cling in clothes.
• Misconception: Static charge only occurs in dry conditions.
• Clarification: It can occur in various conditions, though more common in dry air.
• Exam Question: Explain how static charge is created and give examples of its
everyday effects.

Unlike Charges
• Definition: When two charges of opposite polarities meet, they attract each other.
• Example: A negatively charged balloon sticking to a positively charged wall.
• Misconception: Opposite charges neutralize each other immediately upon contact.
• Clarification: They attract each other but may not neutralize immediately.
• Exam Question: Describe an experiment to demonstrate the attraction between
unlike charges.

Author: Steven Ross

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Topic 12: Magnetism and the Motor Effect
Current-Carrying Wires
• Definition: A magnetic field is generated around a wire when current flows through
it. The field's strength depends on the current's magnitude and distance from the wire.
• Example: The magnetic field around power lines.
• Misconception: Only permanent magnets create magnetic fields.
• Clarification: Current-carrying wires also generate magnetic fields.
• Exam Question: Explain how the strength of the magnetic field varies around a
current-carrying wire.

Electric Motor
• Definition: A device consisting of a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field. Forces
on the perpendicular sides of the coil cause rotation.
• Example: An electric fan's motor.
• Misconception: Electric motors convert electrical energy directly into motion without
using magnetic fields.
• Clarification: The interaction between current and magnetic field is crucial for
motion.
• Exam Question: Describe the principles of operation of an electric motor.

Electromagnet
• Definition: A solenoid with an iron core, enhancing its magnetic field.
• Example: Electromagnets used in scrap yards to lift cars.
• Misconception: Electromagnets are always on.
• Clarification: Their magnetism can be controlled by the current.
• Exam Question: Discuss the advantages of electromagnets over permanent magnets.

Force on a Wire
• Definition: A current-carrying wire placed perpendicular to a magnetic field
experiences a force proportional to the field's magnetic flux density and the wire's
current and length.
• Example: The force on the wire within an electric motor.
• Misconception: The force on the wire is independent of its orientation in the
magnetic field.
• Clarification: Orientation and magnetic field strength play crucial roles.
• Exam Question: Analyse the factors affecting the magnitude and direction of the
force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field.

Author: Steven Ross

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Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
• Definition: A rule used to determine the orientation of force (thumb), current (second
finger), and magnetic field (first finger) for a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field
(motor effect).
• Example: Predicting the direction of force in an electric motor.
• Misconception: The rule is applicable for any type of electromagnetic interaction.
• Clarification: Specifically used for the motor effect.
• Exam Question: Explain how Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule is used in determining the
direction of motion in an electric motor.

Induced Magnet
• Definition: A material that becomes a magnet when placed in an existing magnetic
field but quickly loses its magnetism once removed. Induced magnetism always
produces attractive forces.
• Example: Iron nails becoming temporary magnets near a permanent magnet.
• Misconception: Induced magnets can repel as well as attract.
• Clarification: They only produce attractive forces.
• Exam Question: Describe the process and properties of induced magnetism in
materials like iron.

Like Magnetic Poles

• Definition: When matching poles of a magnet are brought near each other, they repel.
• Example: The repulsion between the north poles of two magnets.
• Misconception: All magnetic poles attract each other.
• Clarification: Like poles repel; unlike poles attract.
• Exam Question: Demonstrate an experiment to show the repulsion between like
magnetic poles.

Magnetic Field
• Definition: The region around a magnet where another magnet or magnetic material
will experience a force.
• Example: The invisible field around a bar magnet affecting iron filings.
• Misconception: Magnetic fields are only present when visible effects are observed.
• Clarification: They exist around all magnets, visible or not.
• Exam Question: Explain how the magnetic field around a magnet can be mapped and
visualized.

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Magnetic Field Lines
• Definition: Lines that show the strength and direction of a magnetic field, pointing
from North to South. Their concentration represents the field's magnitude.
• Example: Field lines visualized using iron filings around a magnet.
• Misconception: Field lines are real physical entities.
• Clarification: They are a conceptual tool to represent magnetic fields.
• Exam Question: Describe what magnetic field lines indicate about the strength and
direction of a magnetic field.

Magnetic Materials
• Definition: Materials like iron, steel, cobalt, and nickel that are attracted to magnets
and can be magnetized.
• Example: Iron filings aligning along the magnetic field of a magnet.
• Misconception: All metals are magnetic.
• Clarification: Only certain metals, like iron and steel, exhibit strong magnetic
properties.
• Exam Question: Discuss why certain materials are magnetic while others are not.

Magnetic Poles
• Definition: The regions of a magnet where the magnetic forces are at their strongest.
• Example: North and South poles of a bar magnet.
• Misconception: Magnetic poles can exist independently.
• Clarification: Magnetic poles always come in pairs.
• Exam Question: Explain the concept of magnetic poles and how they interact with
each other.

Permanent Magnet
• Definition: A magnet that produces its own magnetic field.
• Example: A fridge magnet.
• Misconception: Permanent magnets can be easily demagnetized.
• Clarification: They maintain their magnetism over time unless subjected to certain
conditions.
• Exam Question: Describe the properties of a permanent magnet and how it differs
from an induced magnet.

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Solenoid
• Definition: A wire wrapped into the shape of a coil that has a strong and uniform
magnetic field inside of it. The solenoid’s magnetic field strength can be increased by
adding an iron core.
• Example: The coil in an electromagnet.
• Misconception: Solenoids only create magnetic fields when they have an iron core.
• Clarification: They create magnetic fields even without an iron core, but the core
intensifies it.
• Exam Question: Explain how a solenoid works and the effect of adding an iron core.

Tesla
• Definition: The unit of magnetic flux density.
• Example: The strength of a magnetic field measured in Tesla.
• Misconception: Tesla is a measure of magnetic field size.
• Clarification: It measures the strength of a magnetic field.
• Exam Question: Describe what one Tesla represents in terms of magnetic field
strength.

Unlike Magnetic Poles

• Definition: When opposite poles of a magnet are brought near each other, they attract
each other.
• Example: The attraction between the north pole of one magnet and the south pole of
another.
• Misconception: Opposite poles weaken each other's magnetic field.
• Clarification: They attract each other, strengthening the field between them.
• Exam Question: Demonstrate an experiment to show the attraction between unlike
magnetic poles.

Topic 13: Electromagnetic Induction

Alternator
• Definition: A device that uses the generator effect to produce alternating current.
• Example: Alternators in vehicles charging the battery.
• Misconception: Alternators and dynamos are the same.
• Clarification: Alternators produce AC, while dynamos produce DC.
• Exam Question: Explain how an alternator works and where it is commonly used.

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Dynamo
• Definition: A device that uses the generator effect to produce direct current.
• Example: A bicycle dynamo powering a light.
• Misconception: Dynamos can only generate small amounts of electricity.
• Clarification: They can be scaled for larger power generation.
• Exam Question: Describe the functioning of a dynamo and its applications.

Generator Effect
• Definition: The induction of a potential difference across a conductor when there is
relative motion between it and a magnetic field.
• Example: Inducing current in a coil by moving it through a magnetic field.
• Misconception: The generator effect requires a changing magnetic field.
• Clarification: It requires relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic
field.
• Exam Question: Explain how the generator effect is utilized in power generation.

Loudspeaker
• Definition: A device that converts variations in electrical current into vibrations to
produce sound waves.
• Example: Speakers in a sound system.
• Misconception: Loudspeakers and microphones work in completely different ways.
• Clarification: Both involve the conversion of sound and electrical signals, but in
opposite directions.
• Exam Question: Discuss how a loudspeaker converts an electrical signal into sound.

Microphone
• Definition: A device that converts pressure variations in sound into corresponding
electrical current variations.
• Example: Singing into a microphone to record vocals.
• Misconception: Microphones amplify sound.
• Clarification: They convert sound to an electrical signal, which can then be
amplified.
• Exam Question: Explain the process by which microphones convert sound waves
into electrical signals.

Author: Steven Ross

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Power Cables
• Definition: Metal wires part of the National Grid, transporting electricity at high
voltages for efficient energy transfer.
• Example: High-voltage transmission lines.
• Misconception: Higher voltage in power cables indicates greater power loss.
• Clarification: High voltage reduces energy loss over long distances.
• Exam Question: Why are high voltages used for the transmission of electricity in
power cables?

Step-Down Transformer
• Definition: A transformer that decreases the potential difference from the primary to
the secondary coil, usually having fewer turns in the secondary coil.
• Example: Transformers used in chargers for electronic devices.
• Misconception: Step-down transformers reduce power.
• Clarification: They reduce voltage while maintaining power, following the principle
of conservation of energy.
• Exam Question: How does a step-down transformer work, and what is its role in
electrical distribution?

Step-Up Transformer
• Definition: A transformer that increases the potential difference from the primary to
the secondary coil, typically having more turns in the secondary coil.
• Example: Transformers at power stations increasing voltage for transmission.
• Misconception: Step-up transformers create extra energy.
• Clarification: They increase voltage while conserving power.
• Exam Question: Describe the function of a step-up transformer in the National Grid.

Transformer
• Definition: A device with primary and secondary coils of wire wound around an iron
core, changing the magnitude of an alternating voltage.
• Example: Transformers in power grids adjusting voltage levels.
• Misconception: Transformers can work with direct current.
• Clarification: They require alternating current to function.
• Exam Question: Explain the principles of operation of a transformer and why it
cannot work with direct current.

Author: Steven Ross

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Turns Ratio
• Definition: The ratio of the number of turns in the primary coil to the secondary coil
in a transformer, equal to the voltage ratio in an efficient transformer.
• Example: A transformer with a 10:1 turns ratio.
• Misconception: The turns ratio is irrelevant to transformer function.
• Clarification: It determines the transformer's voltage ratio.
• Exam Question: Explain the significance of the turns ratio in determining a
transformer’s output voltage.

Voltage Ratio
• Definition: The ratio of potential difference across the primary coil to that across the
secondary coil in a transformer.
• Example: Comparing input and output voltages in a transformer.
• Misconception: Voltage ratio is independent of the turns ratio.
• Clarification: It is directly related to the turns ratio in an efficient transformer.
• Exam Question: Discuss how the voltage ratio is related to the turns ratio in a
transformer.

Topic 14: Particle Model

Absolute Zero
• Definition: The lowest possible temperature where particles have no kinetic energy
and are completely stationary.
• Example: The theoretical temperature in outer space.
• Misconception: Absolute zero can be easily achieved in laboratory conditions.
• Clarification: It's a theoretical limit that is practically unattainable.
• Exam Question: Explain the significance of absolute zero in the study of
thermodynamics.

Change in Thermal Energy

• Definition: The product of mass, specific heat capacity, and temperature change of a
substance.
• Example: Heating water in a kettle.
• Misconception: Temperature change alone determines thermal energy change.
• Clarification: Mass and specific heat capacity are also crucial.
• Exam Question: Calculate the thermal energy change when heating 2 kg of water by
20°C.

Author: Steven Ross

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Chemical Changes
• Definition: Changes to the chemical structure of a substance, often irreversible.
• Example: Rusting of iron.
• Misconception: All chemical changes are reversible.
• Clarification: Many chemical changes are permanent.
• Exam Question: Differentiate between chemical and physical changes with
examples.

Condensation
• Definition: The change from vapor to liquid state upon cooling.
• Example: Water droplets forming on a cold surface.
• Misconception: Condensation involves a temperature increase.
• Clarification: It occurs upon cooling.
• Exam Question: Explain how condensation plays a role in the water cycle.

Density
• Definition: Mass per unit volume of an object.
• Example: Comparing density of lead and Styrofoam.
• Misconception: Density is related to an object's size.
• Clarification: It's about mass in a given volume.
• Exam Question: Calculate the density of an object given its mass and volume.

Evaporation
• Definition: The change from liquid to vapor state upon heating.
• Example: Water evaporating from a puddle.
• Misconception: Evaporation occurs only at the boiling point.
• Clarification: It can happen at temperatures below boiling.
• Exam Question: Describe the factors affecting the rate of evaporation of a liquid.

Freezing
• Definition: The change from liquid to solid state upon cooling.
• Example: Water turning to ice in a freezer.
• Misconception: Freezing destroys molecules.
• Clarification: It rearranges them into a solid structure.
• Exam Question: Explain the process of freezing in terms of particle movement and
arrangement.

Author: Steven Ross

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Gas Temperature
• Definition: Directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of gas molecules.
• Example: Increasing temperature in a heated gas balloon.
• Misconception: Temperature is related to the number of gas particles.
• Clarification: It's about the average kinetic energy.
• Exam Question: How does changing the temperature of a gas affect the speed of its
molecules?

Gas
• Definition: A state of matter with particles spread apart, having high kinetic energy
and weak intermolecular forces.
• Example: Air in the atmosphere.
• Misconception: Gases have no mass.
• Clarification: They have mass but low density.
• Exam Question: Describe the properties of gases in terms of particle theory.

Internal Energy
• Definition: The total kinetic and potential energies of particles in a system.
• Example: The internal energy in a cup of hot coffee.
• Misconception: Internal energy is only about kinetic energy.
• Clarification: It includes both kinetic and potential energy.
• Exam Question: How does heating a substance affect its internal energy?

Kelvin
• Definition: The SI unit of temperature based on an absolute temperature scale.
• Example: Scientists using Kelvin for temperature measurements.
• Misconception: Kelvin and Celsius scales are similar.
• Clarification: Kelvin is an absolute scale starting at absolute zero.
• Exam Question: Convert a temperature from Celsius to Kelvin and explain the
significance of the Kelvin scale.

Latent Heat
• Definition: The energy required for a substance to change state.
• Example: Melting ice requires latent heat.
• Misconception: Latent heat causes a temperature change.
• Clarification: It causes a change of state without temperature change.
• Exam Question: Discuss the role of latent heat in phase changes.

Author: Steven Ross

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Liquid
• Definition: A state of matter with particles in contact but able to flow over each other.
Intermolecular forces act between the particles.
• Example: Water in a glass.
• Misconception: Liquids are incompressible.
• Clarification: They have slight compressibility.
• Exam Question: Explain the properties of liquids in terms of particle movement and
forces.

Melting
• Definition: The change from solid to liquid state upon heating.
• Example: Ice turning into water.
• Misconception: Melting weakens molecular bonds.
• Clarification: It changes their arrangement.
• Exam Question: Describe the process and energy changes involved in melting.

Pascals
• Definition: The unit of pressure equal to a force of one Newton acting perpendicular
to an area of one square meter.
• Example: Atmospheric pressure measured in Pascals.
• Misconception: Pascals measure force.
• Clarification: They measure pressure.
• Exam Question: Calculate the pressure exerted by a force on a given area.

Physical Changes
• Definition: Changes to the physical properties of a substance that can be reversed,
including changes of state.
• Example: Freezing and then melting water.
• Misconception: All physical changes are permanent.
• Clarification: They are often reversible.
• Exam Question: Give examples of physical changes and explain their reversibility.

Pressure of a Gas
• Definition: The force exerted by gas particles colliding with the surfaces of their
container.
• Example: Pressure inside a filled balloon.
• Misconception: Gas pressure is solely due to the number of particles.
• Clarification: It also depends on temperature and volume.
• Exam Question: Explain how changing the temperature of a gas affects its pressure.

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Pressure
• Definition: The force acting perpendicularly on a surface per unit area.
• Example: Pressure exerted by a book resting on a table.
• Misconception: Pressure is the same as force.
• Clarification: It's force distributed over an area.
• Exam Question: Calculate the pressure exerted on a surface by a known force.

Solid
• Definition: A state of matter with tightly packed particles that can only vibrate about
their fixed positions. Strong intermolecular forces act between the particles.
• Example: Ice.
• Misconception: Solids are completely rigid and immovable.
• Clarification: Particles vibrate and can change position under certain conditions.
• Exam Question: Describe the characteristics of a solid in terms of particle
arrangement and movement.

Specific Heat Capacity

• Definition: The amount of energy needed to increase the temperature of one kilogram
of a given substance by one degree Celsius.
• Example: Heating water in a kettle.
• Misconception: Specific heat capacity is the same for all substances.
• Clarification: It varies among different materials.
• Exam Question: Calculate the energy required to heat a specific mass of a substance
given its specific heat capacity.

Specific Latent Heat of Fusion

• Definition: The amount of energy needed to change the state of one kilogram of a
substance from solid to liquid while maintaining constant temperature.
• Example: Melting ice into water.
• Misconception: The temperature of a substance increases during fusion.
• Clarification: Temperature remains constant during the change of state.
• Exam Question: Explain the concept of specific latent heat of fusion with an
example.

Specific Latent Heat of Vaporisation

• Definition: The energy required to change one kilogram of a substance from liquid to
vapor at constant temperature.
• Example: Boiling water into steam.
• Misconception: Vaporization involves a decrease in energy.
• Clarification: It requires energy input.
• Exam Question: Discuss the process of vaporization and the role of specific latent
heat.

Author: Steven Ross

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Topic 15: Forces and Matter
Atmospheric Pressure
• Definition: The pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere. It decreases with
altitude.
• Example: Atmospheric pressure is higher at sea level than on a mountain.
• Misconception: Atmospheric pressure is constant at all altitudes.
• Clarification: It varies with altitude, being highest at sea level.
• Exam Question: How does atmospheric pressure change with altitude and why?

Density
• Definition: The mass of a substance per unit volume.
• Example: Lead is denser than wood.
• Misconception: Density is the same as weight.
• Clarification: Density is a property of material, independent of its quantity.
• Exam Question: Explain how density affects the buoyancy of objects in a fluid.

Distortion
• Definition: The changing of an object’s size or shape as a result of a deforming force.
• Example: A rubber band stretching when pulled.
• Misconception: Distortion always permanently alters an object.
• Clarification: Some distortions are temporary (elastic), while others are permanent
(plastic).
• Exam Question: Explain the difference between elastic and plastic distortion.

Elastic Distortion
• Definition: A non-permanent deformation where the object returns to its original
shape when deforming forces are removed.
• Example: A spring returning to its original length after being compressed or
stretched.
• Misconception: All materials have the same capacity for elastic distortion.
• Clarification: Different materials have varying elastic limits.
• Exam Question: What factors determine the extent of elastic distortion in a material?

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Elastic Limit
• Definition: The maximum force beyond which an object will no longer deform
elastically and will instead deform plastically.
• Example: A metal wire permanently stretched beyond its elastic limit.
• Misconception: The elastic limit is the same as the breaking point.
• Clarification: The elastic limit is the threshold for permanent deformation, not
necessarily breakage.
• Exam Question: Describe how the elastic limit of a material can be determined
experimentally.

Floating
• Definition: An object floats if the volume of liquid it displaces has a greater weight
than the object itself, leading to a net upward force (upthrust) greater than the object’s
weight.
• Example: A wooden log floating on water.
• Misconception: All objects either float or sink regardless of the fluid.
• Clarification: Buoyancy depends on the relationship between the object's density and
that of the fluid.
• Exam Question: Explain why certain objects float in water while others sink, using
the concept of upthrust and displacement.

Fluid
• Definition: A substance that can flow, including both liquids and gases.
• Example: Water and air as examples of liquids and gases, respectively.
• Misconception: Fluids are only liquids.
• Clarification: Gases are also classified as fluids due to their ability to flow.
• Exam Question: Compare the properties of liquids and gases as fluids.

Hooke’s Law
• Definition: The law stating that the extension of a spring is directly proportional to
the force applied to it, up to the limit of proportionality. The constant in this
relationship is known as the spring constant.
• Example: The extension of a spring when weights are added to it.
• Misconception: Hooke’s Law applies under all conditions.
• Clarification: It's valid only up to the elastic limit of the spring.
• Exam Question: Describe an experiment to verify Hooke’s Law and determine the
spring constant.

Author: Steven Ross

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Limit of Proportionality
• Definition: The point beyond which the extension of an elastic object is no longer
directly proportional to the force applied to it.
• Example: A point in stretching a rubber band where it no longer obeys Hooke’s Law.
• Misconception: The limit of proportionality is the same as the breaking point of a
material.
• Clarification: It's the point beyond which Hooke’s Law ceases to apply, not
necessarily where the material breaks.
• Exam Question: How can you experimentally determine the limit of proportionality
for a material?

Linear Relationship
• Definition: A relationship between two variables where if one variable increases, so
does the other by the same factor. They produce straight lines when plotted.
• Example: The relationship between force and extension for a spring under the limit
of proportionality.
• Misconception: All physical relationships are linear.
• Clarification: Many relationships in physics are non-linear, especially beyond certain
limits.
• Exam Question: Provide examples of linear and non-linear relationships in physics.

Plastic Distortion
• Definition: A permanent deformation where the object no longer returns to its
original shape after the deforming forces are removed.
• Example: A plastic ruler bent so far that it doesn’t return to its original straight shape.
• Misconception: Plastic distortion implies the use of plastic material.
• Clarification: "Plastic" refers to the permanent nature of the deformation, not the
material type.
• Exam Question: Explain the process of plastic distortion and how it differs from
elastic distortion.

Pressure in a Liquid Column

• Definition: Equal to the product of the height of the column, the density of the liquid,
and the gravitational field strength.
• Example: The pressure at the bottom of a water-filled tank increases with depth.
• Misconception: Pressure at a point in a liquid depends only on the volume of the
liquid.
• Clarification: It depends on the depth (height of the liquid column), density of the
liquid, and gravitational force.
• Exam Question: How does the pressure change with depth in a fluid and why?

Author: Steven Ross

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Sinking
• Definition: An object will sink if the volume of liquid it displaces has a lower weight
than the object itself, resulting in a net downward force.
• Example: A stone sinking in water.
• Misconception: Objects sink because of their weight alone.
• Clarification: Sinking depends on the object's density relative to the fluid.
• Exam Question: Why do some objects sink in water while others float, given that
some very heavy objects like boats can float?

Spring Constant
• Definition: A measure of a spring’s stiffness. The higher the spring constant, the
smaller the extension is for a given force.
• Example: A stiffer spring requires more force to stretch a given amount compared to
a less stiff spring.
• Misconception: The spring constant is a universal constant.
• Clarification: It varies between springs and materials.
• Exam Question: How can you determine the spring constant of a given spring?

Upthrust
• Definition: The upward force acting on an object in a fluid due to it experiencing
greater pressure below it than above it. It is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
by the object.
• Example: A boat floating on water due to upthrust.
• Misconception: Upthrust only acts on objects fully submerged in a fluid.
• Clarification: It acts on any object in a fluid, partially or fully submerged.
• Exam Question: Explain the principle of upthrust and how it's related to an object's
buoyancy in a fluid.

Weight
• Definition: The force acting on an object due to gravity, equal to the product of the
object’s mass and the gravitational field strength at its location.
• Example: The weight of a person, which varies depending on where they are (e.g.,
Earth vs. Moon).
• Misconception: Weight and mass are the same.
• Clarification: Weight is a force dependent on gravity, while mass is a measure of
matter.
• Exam Question: How does the weight of an object vary with its location in the
universe?

Author: Steven Ross

Email: [email protected] Website: https://tutorful.co.uk/tutors/wrq2lobk
End of Document

Author: Steven Ross

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