International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 8 No.

10 October 2020

EFFECTS OF HANDWRITING DIFFICULTIES ON ACADEMIC

PERFORMANCE OF LEARNERS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES IN
SELECTED PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN NAIROBI COUNTY, KENYA

Emily Narotho Mulanya,

Department of Early Childhood &Special Needs Education,

Kenyatta University,

P.O Box 43844,

Nairobi.

E mail: [email protected]

Corresponding Author: Dr. Beatrice Bunyasi Awori,

Department of Early Childhood &Special Needs Education,

Kenyatta University,

P.O Box 43844,

Nairobi.

E mail: [email protected]

Dr. Stephen M. Nzoka,

Department of Early Childhood &Special Needs Education,

Kenyatta University

P.O Box 43844

Nairobi.

E mail: [email protected]

1
 ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com

Abstract
This study aimed to find out the effects of handwriting on the academic performance of learners
with learning disabilities in selected public primary schools in Nairobi county. Specifically it
focused on finding out handwriting characteristics among pupils with learning disabilities, impact of
handwriting difficulties on the academic performance of learners with learning disabilities,
activities undertaken by the educators to address the challenge of handwriting difficulties among
learners with learning disabilities and to find out educators knowledge on factors influencing
handwriting development among learners with learning disabilities in Makadara sub-county. The
study was based on Logan and Crump two-loop theory of typewriting The study adopted the mixed
research design method. The study was conducted in 8 public primary schools in Makadara sub-
county. The target population included examiners, language teachers, class teachers, headteachers,
and learners with LD. The sample size was 5 examiners, 21 language teachers, 25 class teachers 3
headteachers, and 200 learners with LD. Data were collected using questionnaires, interview guides,
and observation checklists. A pretest of the research instruments was done to establish reliability
and validity. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 19 and results presented in graphs, tables, and
charts. The findings indicated that a majority of the respondents believe that learners with LD can
develop good handwriting, over 80% had a perception that handwriting difficulties impacted on the
learning behaviors of learners with learning disabilities, over fifty percent strongly agreed that
handwriting difficulties affected the academic performance of learners with LD. The study
recommended that teachers should acknowledge the existence of handwriting problems in the
regular classroom and have a positive attitude towards learners with LD who have handwriting
difficulties, acceleration of research on good practices and pedagogies on handwriting development
and lastly the need to institutionalize handwriting lessons in the national curriculum as part and
parcel of the official learning program.

Key words

Learning Disability, Academic Performance, Handwriting Difficulty, Assessment

2
 International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 8 No. 10 October 2020

Introduction
Handwriting is described as a language by hand (Berninger 2008). It is a mirror through which
individual creativity, abilities, patience, and organization is reflected. To a large extent, it is a
predictor of learning (Kushki et.al, 2011)
Learning disabilities is a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in
understanding or using a language, spoken or written. It may be manifested in the imperfect ability
to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do math calculations. (adapted from the Individual with
Disabilities Education Act of America, 2004) Types of learning disabilities include; Dyscalculia
which is a difficulty in mathematics facts, Dysgraphia which relates handwriting and fine motor
skills, Dyslexia which relates to disorders in reading and language-based skills. Auditory and visual
processing disorder is a sensory disability in which a person has difficulties in understanding
language despite the normal hearing and vision. Non-verbal Learning Disability, a neurological
disorder which originates in the right hemisphere of the brain, causing problems with visual-spatial,
intuitive, organizational, evaluative and holistic processing functions (National Joint Committee on
Learning Disabilities, NJCLD)
Handwriting difficulties entail having difficulty in developing writing skills and as a result, leads to
learners suffering in their educational and emotional development. Handwriting difficulties have to
do with the problem of learners expressing thoughts in written form. Mercer et.al, 2011 sites
numerous factors that contribute to handwriting difficulties. These include motor problems, such as
fine motor and gross motor which will dictate how a learner holds a writing tool, faulty visual
perception of letters and words, poor visual memory, poor instrumentation by caregivers and
teachers, and lack of motivation both intrinsic and extrinsic.
A variety of handwriting problems are highlighted by the same author which include slowness,
incorrect directionality of letters and numbers, too much or too little slant, spacing difficulty,
messiness, inability to stay on a horizontal line, illegible letters, too much or too little pencil
pressure, and mirror writing.
Handwriting difficulties do not affect general intelligence. Learners experiencing learning
difficulties are confronted with extraordinary barriers when it comes to the complex question of
mastering writing skills (Bara & Gentaz, 2011). The learners with handwriting difficulties use more
energy on motor functions adversely affecting their cognitive functions (Kendel et.al, 2017)
Academic performance refers to educational success, fulfillment, growth, achievement, curriculum
performance as per the syllabus. Learners with handwriting difficulties have a lot of challenges in
writing to communicate ideas. They may present difficulties in making sentences and using
grammatically accepted vocabulary and paragraph organization. This may make it difficult for
someone to read their handwriting as some of them write letters and numbers upside down or mirror
writing. Most of them have many spelling mistakes in their writing. With these problems, they are
always faced with poor academic performance as cited by (Ogano, 2012).

Statement of the Problem

Learning disability question is a complex one although there are limited standardized tools to assist
affected learners to overcome the barrier. One tool that appears to hold much leverage in identifying
and profiling learners with learning difficulties is the quality of handwriting. A study done by
Rasugu 2010 cited the 2008 Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) analysis by the Kenya
3
 ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com

National Examination Council (KNEC) 2009, which revealed that the performance of learners in
English and Mathematics was not good. This was because most of these learners experienced in
reading and writing difficulties. According to Rasugu (2010), children with a learning disability are
labeled as hard to teach, lazy, slow learners, and careless. This causes teachers in regular schools
not to pay attention to such learners due to the negative attitude they have about them.

In the year 2011, the Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) decried widespread
handwriting difficulties/challenges that have made objective marking and examining of some
learners’ scripts a tough task and subsequently called on teachers to embark on teaching
handwriting lessons to help the learners realize their full potentials (KNEC, 2011). It was noted that
the success in addressing handwriting difficulties lay with teachers in terms of their capacity,
attitude as well as intervention measures, design, and implementation. This had happened against
the background of limited standardized methods and curricula to enable teachers to handle the
situation. There is, therefore, a need to evaluate handwriting using a valid, reliable, standardized
tool combined with the informal observations, teacher observations, and collaboration. Addressing
the achievement gap between learners with and without learning disabilities remains a serious
challenge in the context of inclusive education. Thus, this study seeks to establish if indeed
handwriting difficulties affect the academic performance of learners with learning disabilities in
Nairobi county.

Purpose and objectives

The purpose of this study was to assess handwriting difficulties among pupils with learning
disabilities and determine its effects on their academic performance in the sub-county of Makadara.
The objectives were to find out handwriting characteristics among pupils with learning disabilities,
to determine the impact of handwriting difficulties on the academic performance of learners with
learning disabilities, to investigate activities undertaken by the educators to address the challenge of
handwriting difficulties among learners with learning disabilities and to determine educators
knowledge on factors influencing handwriting development among learners with learning
disabilities in Makadara sub-county.

Methodology
According to Silverman (2010), the methodology section systematically provides a clear and open
depiction of the steps a researcher takes to arrive at findings. A research design is a framework that
brings together different parts of the research problem in an organized, systematic, and coherent
way (Trochim, 2005). According to Blakstad (2016), research design refers to the overall strategy
that a researcher chooses to integrate the different components of the study coherently and logically,
thereby, ensuring it effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement, and analysis of data.
The research design adopted was two-tier. It employed a mixed research method (Cresswell 2014)
since both qualitative quantitative data were to be analyzed. There was also a need to investigate the
problem from various angles since there was not much information on the topic available. The
quantitative method gives a reliable, statistically verified result. The quality of work of the
researcher in such a method can be easily verified while the virtue of the qualitative method is that
it allows the researcher to understand what is difficult to isolate and compute with the help of
quantitative methods.

4
 International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 8 No. 10 October 2020

Location of the study

The study was carried out in Makadara sub-county, Nairobi County. The sub-county has four wards
namely; Makongeni/Mbotela, Viwanda, Maringo/Hamza, and Harambee. The sub-county has an
area coverage of 20.3 kilometers square. The sub-county has both public and private schools, the
number of public schools is 26. However, most of the learners attend public schools that are funded
by the government (Nzau, 2017). The sub-county hosts Education Assessment Resource Center
(EARC). The center gives a glimpse into the sordid status of the learning facilities in the country.
The EARC is supposed to play a leading role in the screening of disabilities. The centers are
equipped with the facilities to screen children with visual impairment, mental handicaps, and
physical disabilities (Rasugu, 2010).

Target population
The study targeted 26 headteachers 532 teachers and 21289 pupils from Makadara Sub-County. Out
of this 2000 learners with learning disabilities from class 6 and 7 who had handwriting difficulties
were identified and studied.

Sampling technique
The study was carried out in 8 selected public primary schools. An equal number of boys and girls
were used in this study. Non-probability sampling approach was employed to zero down on a
representative study sample. This approach was chosen because the intention of the study was an
exploration of handwriting difficulties and not the provision of an in-depth understanding of the
problem. Non-probability sampling techniques were handy in getting the necessary study
population for this task. Specifically, a purposive sampling technique was deployed in this research.
The criteria for inclusion were developed during the pilot stage of the research, and extensive
interrogation of the literature. The researcher used checklists adapted from the National
Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY) for identification of learners with
learning disabilities and the Minnesota handwriting assessment (1999), a standardized tool for
assessing handwriting.
Handwriting assessment was done by learners writing a sentence containing all letters of the
alphabet.

Sample size
According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), a sample size representing 10% of the target
population is adequate. The study is limited to pupils and teachers in Makadara Division, Makadara
Sub-county, Kenya. From a population of 2000 learners with LD,200 was picked as a sample size.
Out of 532 teachers, 54 teachers were picked as sample size and lastly, 3 headteachers out of 26
were used for the study. The total number of respondents was 254. This sample size was distributed
as shown:

5
 ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com

Sample Size Distribution

Category Population Percent Sample size

Examiner teachers 45 10 5
Language teachers 208 10 21
Class teachers 253 10 25
Head teachers 26 10 3
Learners with HD 2000 10 200
Total 2532 10 254
Source; Fieldwork, 2018

Research instruments
Data was collected using the following instruments;

 Questionnaires
 Interview guides
 Observation checklists

Data Collection Technique

The researcher proceeded to the field to collect data from the identified sites and maintained a daily
log of all activities and deliverables for each day during the data collection. The researcher collected
data by use of interview guides, observation checklists, and questionnaires, and tape recorders.
Interview guides were used to gather information from headteachers. The researcher tape-recorded
the interview and took notes during the interview to avoid losing the information gathered. The
recorded interviews were transcribed and information compared with the field notes. Questionnaires
were used to collect data from teachers and examiners. The questionnaires were delivered to the
teachers on the day agreed upon by the researcher and the respondents. They were collected after
they had fully been filled by respondents. Data was collected between October 2018 and January
2019.

Data analysis
The study yielded both qualitative and quantitative data. This called for qualitative and quantitative
data analysis.
The following verbatim by Howe (1992) captures the process involved in qualitative data analysis;
Qualitative analysis is about meaning. The social meanings people attach to their experiences,
circumstances, and situations, as well as the meanings people embed into texts and other objects,
are the locus of qualitative analysis. Therefore, at the heart of their work, qualitative analysis tries to
extract meaning from the data. The focus of research is generally words and texts, as opposed to
numbers or statistics.
6
 International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 8 No. 10 October 2020

The data collected using semi-structured interviews and observation were analyzed. The recorded
interviews were transcribed and each transcription was given a number. A transcript had several
lines. These lines were subsequently numbered to facilitate references and retrieval of data. Data
captured using observation were coded and filed. The information gathered from reviewed
documents was filed instead of the interview case that corresponded to it. A transcript based on data
collected using qualitative instruments was made and assigned value. The recurrent themes were
identified from the transcripts. The themes were coded based on their similarities and differences.
The identified themes were clustered and finally a conversation based on field experience, reviewed
literature, and conceptual and theoretical framework for the study.

Quantitative data analysis, by comparison, entailed creating a database using SPSS. This process is
about figures, numbers, and graphic representations (Howe, 1992). Consequently, questionnaires
were checked for consistency, later cleaning of the questionnaire was done to iron out
inconsistencies. Coding was done using SPSS software version 19. This process allowed the
generation of graphs, means, percentages, and standard deviation. The resulting descriptive data
was subjected to inferential analysis using the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) technique to
ascertain the significance and deviation from the expected mean.

Results of the study

Effects of Handwriting Difficulties on the Academic Performance of Pupils with Learning

Disabilities
To answer the overarching question on this objective, quantitative data were collected using a
questionnaire guide, teachers and learners were involved. The analysis of the objective involved
both qualitative and quantitative data that were later subjected to inferential analysis to determine
the significance of the hypothesis. Both imperceptible and perceptible learner behaviors were
scrutinized to determine if they predisposed or compromised learner’s ability to focus on the task at
hand. Imperceptible data denoted the effects on composure or confidence in executive tasks. On the
other hand, physical behaviors that impinge on school or lesson attendance and average grades or
mean scores entailed perceptible effects of poor handwriting. Data on average grades was
imperative in testing the hypothesis on the objective to determine their statistical significance. Class
means ranging from 2015 to 2017 were compared using ANOVA test to determine how the mean
performance of learners experiencing learning difficulties differed from their counterparts without
learning difficulties but also beset with handwriting difficulties. The presentation of data on the
effects of poor handwriting is preceded by Shield (2013) caution that how we perceive learners to
be is what they become in long run, or how learners perceive themselves to be is what they become
eventually as described in the subsection below.

Teachers’ Perception of Learners with Poor Handwriting

As already mentioned in the preamble, attitudes or perception is a formidable tool in the learning
process. It frames the subsequent steps or measures adopted to redress the anomaly (Graham, 2000
& Reid et. al., 2007). Responses on perception were largely negative presenting stakeholders in
education a daunting task as only 2% of the respondents perceived handwriting problems positively.
Nevertheless, respondents employed pejorative terms when describing learners with poor
handwriting. Uncooperative and lazy lots were mentioned on an average basis in each case.
Similarly, low achievers, undisciplined, and uncommitted were mentioned on an average. Other
demeaning terms used included unfocused, incapable, and disorganized. The only positive words
7
 ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com

used to describe learners with handwriting difficulties were ordinary with 11%, needy at 9%, and
measly 6% as neglected learners as presented in Figure. More pejorative terms were used to
describe learners with handwriting difficulties translating into a negative stance on the phenomena.
If learners are perceived negatively, then the problem is more likely to morph into a bigger problem.
Poor handwriting should be construed as an opportunity for engagement that accentuates the
learning process. It should not stifle learning opportunities and prospects for positive engagement.

Experience of Learners with Poor Handwriting

Ordinarily, the handwriting writing process puts the involved learners under intense pressure. The
situation is much more complex for learners grappling with learning difficulty. This cadre of
learners is challenged in balancing the demands of cognitive functions and motor functions.
Presciently, the data in Figure 4.5 attest to the argument that balancing cognitive and motor
functions present an extraordinary challenge to learners with handwriting difficulties. These
learners endure lots of frustrations when taking notes according to a majority of the respondents.
Some learners feel pressurized, neglected, demoralized and disturbed, stressed, anxious and fatigued
according to an average number of the respondents. This experience does not bode well for the
learning process. For learners to effectively learn, they must be calm and assert control over their
body and cognitive functions. When they become and cede to negative body functions, it means
they lack control over their body schema by easily succumbing to external stimuli.

8
 International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 8 No. 10 October 2020

Figure 4.5 Experiences of Learners with Handwriting Difficulties.

Response to a Written Assignment

Learners spent over 60% of their time while in school doing pencil and paperwork (Feder, 2007),
and even if pencil and paper were to be replaced by writing devices still learners will be obliged to
write when answering questions in an examination or filling mandatory forms or documents. In
short, free handwriting is inevitable or inescapable. In this vein, respondents were challenged to
give their independent thought about how pupils with handwriting difficulties respondent to a
written assignment. Responding to this question, an average number of the respondents talked about
panicking, nervousness and helplessness. Other responses were terrified, shaken, sweating and high
pulse rate as summed up with statistics in Figure 4.6

9
 ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com

Challenges Encountered by Learners with Handwriting Difficulties

Learners with poor handwriting face a plethora of problems. These problems ranged from lagging
during notes taking exercise, un-presentable work, and more time to write notes or complete
assignment, to submitting assignments late as singled out by a majority of the respondents. They
also decried the inability to write in the provided space or properly utilize the provided space to be a
problem as well as neatness of their work according to an average number of the respondents. Lack
of support from the teachers, uncooperative classmates, negative comments from teachers,
instructional strategies that were not accommodative were also listed. On the list of problems, there
were fatigues, limited instructional materials and lastly limited time to complete tasks as captured in
Figure 4.7. The resulting responses suggest that problems learners with poor handwriting largely
originate from the inadequate instructional materials and the teacher’s practices. In nutshell,
instructional strategies and teacher’s practices are major protagonists in handwriting development
problems.

10
 International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 8 No. 10 October 2020

Association between Handwriting Difficulties and Learning Behaviors

Respondents were put to task to echo their perspectives on how handwriting difficulties impacted
on a selected aspect of schooling. Among the identified aspects of schooling, we had assignment
completion that emerged the most affected. The respondents’ perspectives were captured using a
Likert scale that illustrates the strongest and most ingrained sentiments on a given study problem.
Therefore, averagely, some of the respondents strongly agreed whereas the least somehow agreed
that assignment completion was at receiving end of poor handwriting. Apart from assignment
completion, the quality of written texts and the quantity of produced texts were rated above 75%
each in terms of either strongly agreeing or somehow agreeing. Least popular on Likert scale was
class attendance at 25% and sitting position that scored 9% and a summary of this information is
found in Table 4.5

11
 ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com

Table 4.5 Problems Encountered by Learners with Poor Handwriting

Ranking of factors affected Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Can’t tell
Disagree

Assignment completion 55% 35% 11% 3% 1%

Number of written letters 52% 36% 10% 2% -

Number of written numbers 44% 37% 12% 5% 2%

Quality of written texts 42% 41% 11% 3% 3%

Class attendance 37% 23% 29% 10% 1%

Sitting position 12% 11% 72% 5% -

Association with peers 5% 2% 83% 8% 2%

Writing speed 45% 23% 28% 3% 1%

Source; Fieldwork, 2018

Results of a Poor Handwriting

This item gathered data on how a poor handwriting impact on the physical behavior of the learner
while in school and overall impact on classroom learning activities. This is so because if
handwriting problems are not properly identified and framed, the situation may culminate into a
more intricate problem (Worthington, 2011). Low grades and low participation in learning activities
were each ranked first by over 69% of the study problem. The two responses were followed closely
by absenteeism and frustration whose response was average. Hardly does poor handwriting result in
school dropout as observed by over ninety percent of the respondents who ranked it least. Neither
does it lead to indiscipline, fatigue and isolation.

Table 4.6 Average Score of Learners with Learning disabilities with/without handwriting
difficulties
Mean Score Performance
1st Term 2nd Term 3rd Term
Learners with H/Writing Difficulties 228 243 253
Learners without hand H/W Difficulties 256 321 297
Source; Fieldwork, 2018

12
 International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 8 No. 10 October 2020

Conclusion
The study concluded pertinent factors affecting learners with LD who have handwriting difficulties
such as quality of handwriting tools which contribute to handwriting development and writing speed
which affect handwriting performance. Adequate and poor acquisition handwriting skills involve
the spacing of letters and words. Letter/number shape was also found to be a difficulty affecting
learners with learning disabilities who have handwriting difficulties. First, the agreement between
the joint examination performance and the teacher’s categorization of LD learners with handwriting
difficulties correlated highly. In addition, the learners with LD without handwriting difficulties
performed significantly higher on all the terms of performance component. It was discovered that
handwriting difficulty has become a serious problem that hinders learners with LD to express
themselves accurately and legibly in a written form. Thus, proper correction is necessary in order to
assist learners with LD who have handwriting difficulties.

Recommendations to Teachers
Teachers are major players in the learning process and helping learners acquire good transcriptional
skills has a profound impact on their academic achievement. For teachers to productively engage
learners with handwriting problems the following recommendations are made.
1. There is a need to acknowledge that handwriting difficulties are part and parcel of the
learning process. Acknowledging this will increase acceptance level and demystify fears
learners have about the problem leading to constructive and fruitful engagement in finding
lasting solutions.
2. Learners with handwriting problems should be construed positively and their situation
should accentuate learning rather than stifling it.
3. There is a need for teachers to examine how their own practices and beliefs may be
exacerbating handwriting problems and respond by embracing instructional methods that
reflect the capabilities and the uniqueness of the learners.

Recommendations to Researchers
Researchers have a crucial and substantive role to play in finding sustainable and acceptable
solutions to the problems of handwriting. They have a role to play by;
i. Accelerating researches on good practices and pedagogies on handwriting development and
strengthen information sharing and dissemination mechanisms.
ii. Develop standard local tools and evaluative procedures to accentuate profiling and helping
learners experiencing handwriting problems.
iii. Expanding research field and document how cultural factors, differences in abilities,
individual background, languages and level of technological mastery and resources
endowment impact on handwriting process.

13
 ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com

Recommendations to Policy Makers

Policy framework reflects the official stance on the problem and communicates acceptable norms,
practices and offer normative grounds on which the official discussion is conducted. The followings
recommendations are therefore made;
i. There is a need to institutionalize handwriting lessons in the national curriculum and
part and parcel of the official learning program.
ii. Increase incentives to handwriting programs through the official writing competition,
designing instructional materials and staff’s capacity development programs.
iii. Find alternative mechanisms of assessing and evaluating learners with handwriting
problems to tap the inert potential they could be harboring.

14
 International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 8 No. 10 October 2020

Reference
Bara, F., and Gentaz, E. (2011). Haptics in Teaching Handwriting. The Role of Perceptual and
Visuo-Motor Skills. Human Movement Science, Vol. 30 pp.745-759.

Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches
(4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Feder, K. (2007). Handwriting Development, Competency and Intervention. Developmental

Medicine and Child Neurology, Vol. 49, No. 4 pp. 312-317.

Graham, S. (2000). Is Handwriting Casually Related to Learning? Treatment of Handwriting

Problems in Beginning Writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol.8 pp.620-633.

Kushki (2011) Handwriting difficulties in children with autism spectrum disorders: a scoping
review A&Cauthor id-21350917

Mercer, C.D., Mercer, A. R., and Pullen, P.C. (2011). Teaching Students with Learning Problems.
Virginia; Pearson Education.

Mugenda, O., and Mugenda, A. (1999). Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches. Nairobi. African Center for Technology Studies.

Nzau, M. (2017). Learning Strategies and Students’ Academic Performance in Secondary Schools
in Makadara Sub County, Kenya. Journal of Research Innovation and Implications in
Education, Vol.1 No. 3, pp.55-81. Punch, K. (2005). Introduction to Social Research:
Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (2nd Edition). London. Sage.
Ogano, A. Josephine (2012) Teaching Learners with Reading and Writing Problems in the
Classroom.

15
 ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com

Rasugu, G. (2010). Nature and Prevalence of Learning Disabilities among Standard Three Primary
School Pupils in Starehe Division of Nairobi Province, Kenya. MA Thesis, Kenyatta
University.
Reid, G. (2007). Dyslexia. London. Continuum International Publishing.

Shields, C. (2014). Transformative Leadership in Education; Equitable Change in an Uncertain and

Complex World. USA,

Silverman, D. (2010). Doing Qualitative Research (3rd Edition). Los Angeles. Sage

Trochim, W.M (2005). Research Methods: The Concise Knowledge base. Atomic Dog Publishing,
Atlanta

Worthington, M. (2011) From astronaut to problem solving tracing children symbolic meanings. In
Moyles., J Georgeson and Payler, (Eds) Beginning Teaching learning in Early Years and
primary Education. (4th Ed) Maidenhead: Open University Press.

16