Psychology of Individual Differences

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3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 To help students to understand nature and definitions of Psychological Testing.

 To understand purpose, assumptions and origin of tests.
 To discuss the types of tests and classify the characteristics of a good
psychological test.
 To gain an insight into reliability, validity, standardisation and norms.
 To discuss applications and issues of test.

3.2 INTRODUCTION

Testing and other psychological assessment procedures are important for understanding
individual differences or reactions of similar individuals in varied circumstances. The
purpose of psychological tests is, rather to describe or explain a person’s behaviour
based on his or her personal attributes. Psychological tests measure wide variety of
attributes – motivation, vocational choices, intelligence, anxiety and others. But with
limited precision, as they cannot make accurate decisions about individuals. Although
psychological tests aren’t flawless, they are still the most reliable and accurate tool for
determining many important aspects of someone’s personality.

3.3 NATURE AND DEFINITIONS OF

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

Testing or assessing someone’s behaviour is known as psychological assessment.

Various psychological tests can provide insights into different aspects of human
behaviour. By doing so, we are able to interpret why one person is better than another.
Humans are complex in nature and cannot be defined in certain ways.

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Test results are used, for instance, to diagnose mental illnesses, treat mental and NOTES
emotional disorders, choose candidates for employment, choose candidates for
undergraduate and professional programmes (such as law school and medical school),
and assign grades. High-quality decisions are facilitated by good tests, while decisions
of low quality are facilitated by bad tests.
The consequences of bad decisions can be significant. For instance, a bad hiring
choice can have a significant impact on both the candidate and the hiring company.
From the viewpoint of the company, a poor hiring choice can lead to higher absenteeism,
lower staff morale, lost productivity, and decreased income. From the perspective of
the employee, a poor hiring choice could lead to demotivation, increased stress that
can cause unhappiness and worry. In order to effectively assess the effectiveness of a
decision, you must know the foundations of psychological testing.
To be able to perform this, you must understand about psychological testing.
A psychological test measures a person’s different abilities, including their aptitude
in a particular field, their cognitive abilities such as memory and spatial recognition, or
even their traits such as introversion. Tests can be either pencil and paper or computer-
based. There are activities like puzzle solving, drawing, logic problems solving, and
memory games. Also, projective techniques are sometimes used as a means of gaining
access to the unconscious. Psychological interpretation and complex algorithms are
used in these instances to analyse the subjects’ responses.
A person’s personality and emotional functioning can be assessed using the
Rorschach test, commonly known as the ink-blot test. It is possible to conduct
psychological tests by observing how someone interacts and behaves. It will be possible
to make an inference about the ability and potential of an individual based on the
results of the test.
Psychological testing is best defined as “The process of administering, scoring,
and interpreting psychological tests” (Maloney & Ward, 1976, p. 9).
Whereas testing involves sampling behaviour and categorizing or scoring it in a
standardised manner. Most of the test have norms or standard ways by which results
can be assessed and we can predict important behaviours.
By this, it is understood that a psychological test is standardised, objective, and
refers to sampling. Here are some important definitions of psychological tests. Self-Instructional
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NOTES According to Freeman (1965), “Test is a standardised instrument designed to

measure objectively one or more aspects of total personality by means of samples of
verbal or non- verbal responses or by means of other behaviour”.
According to Anastasi (2005), “Psychological test is essentially an objective,
standardised measure of sample of behaviour. Psychological tests are like tests in any
other science in so far as observations are based on a small but carefully chosen
sample of an individual’s behaviour”.
According to Gregory (2014), “Test is a standardised procedure for sampling
behaviour and describing it with categories or scores”.
To better understand what a test is, there needs to be an understanding of the
difference between tests and assessments, tests and experiments.

3.4 FURTHER DISTINCTIONS IN TESTING

Test and Assessment

Assessment is a very broad term and can be defined as an evaluation or estimation of

the magnitude of one or more characteristics of a person. Human trait assessment
includes observation, interviews, checklists, inventories, and other psychological tests.
The test is only a source of information used in an assessment process.

Test and Experiment

Test Experiment
Individual differences are studied through A cause-and-effect relationship is established
testing. between stimulus and response variables through
an experiment.
It is the examinee who is the primary concern. Subjects serve only as a means to an end.
The examinee is given a test and its capacity to Under controlled conditions, the effect of
perform is assessed. independent variables is measured on dependent
variables.
An individual's psychological make-up cannot Hypotheses are expressed through statements,
be understood by formulating a hypothesis. which can either be accepted or rejected.
The purpose of tests is not to produce new New knowledge can be gained through
knowledge, but to assist people and to support experiments.
experimenters.
Specific instructions are to be followed by the The experimenter directly manipulates the
tester and no variables are to be manipulated. variables.
Good tests are reliable, valid, and have well- Experiments that are well controlled are good
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3.5 ORIGIN OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

Psychological testing’s history is very fascinating and relevant to the present day.
Application of psychological test can be traced to 2000 BC in China. Major testing in
China began with primitive forms and progressed to well-developed standardised
testing in the twentieth century.
During the Chinese Emperor Yushan’s time from 2200 BC to 2100 BC, tests
for proficiency were conducted to determine the skills, intelligence, and endurance of
officials, (Bowman, 1989; Chaffee, 1985; Franke, 1963; Teng, 1942-43). The officials
were periodically tested every three years. Archaeological evidence for this claim is
limited.
Early Han Dynasty or Late Qin Dynasty were both periods when royal
examinations were conducted. Written examinations were introduced during this time
period in 165 BC. The Ming Dynasty was a period of formal examinations. Titles and
rankings were determined by exam results. It was in China that the concept of objectivity
and reliability in testing was introduced. Examinees’ identities were kept anonymous in
order to ensure objectivity. Under carefully controlled conditions, a relatively small
sample of an individual’s performance was used to determine whether that person will
perform well under broader conditions for a longer period of time or not. As a result,
the concept of reliability was developed.
It was believed by many scholars, not until the emergence of intelligence testing
in the 20th century that serious research on the usefulness and use of psychological
tests truly began.
Francis Galton developed the first true psychometric test in the 1880s. Instead
of searching for common traits among people, Galton sought to understand their
psychological differences. His method of measuring intelligence included measuring
physical attributes as well as sensory and motor skills. Around 17,000 people were
tested by Galton and objective tests were shown to be a useful tool for gathering
meaningful information.

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NOTES Dr. James Cattell coined the term ‘mental test and measurements’ for the first
time. As a result, he used brass instruments to measure motor acuity, which was inspired
by Galton’s method of testing.
France’s first experimental psychology laboratory was founded by Alfred Binet
in the late 19th century. Binet developed experiments that measured the intelligence
and reasoning abilities of people in his lab. An individual’s reasoning, judgment, and
problem-solving abilities can be used to determine intelligence, he believed. Binet
measured intelligence, and published the first test of mental ability.
Because of the sudden entry of Americans into World War I, there was a need
for tests that could be administered to large groups of recruits according to their mental
abilities. For recruiting Army officials, two sets of tests were created - Army Alpha for
literates and Army Beta for illiterates. Instead of administering clinical tests, these were
replaced with self-reported inventories.
Thus, intelligence testing, in early 1900s saw an immense increase in personality
measurement. The Personal Information Form during World War I, identified soldiers
who would be unable to handle the stress of combat. The questions covered topics
such as excessive anxiety, depression, sleepwalking, nightmares, and memory problems
(Segal & Coolidge, 2004).
During the 1930s, there was also an increase in interest in measuring personality
by exploring the unconscious. As a result of this interest, two important projective
tests were developed: the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the TAT. Hermann Rorschach
developed the Rorschach, a projective personality test. Henry A. Murray and C. D.
Morgan, two American psychologists, created the TAT, which is also a projective
personality test.

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Timeline on the History of Psychological Testing NOTES

200 B.C.E. Modern Testing in the Occupational Realm

Competitive examinations developed in the ancient Chinese empire to select
meritorious individuals for government positions.
13the century Modern Testing in the Field of Education
Earliest use of testing within the realm of education occurred during the Middle
Ages with the rise of the first universities in Europe.
Early 19th Modern Testing in Clinical Psychology
century Several antecedents of psychological tests stem from the field of psychiatry.
Mid-19th Modern Testing in Scientific Psychology
century The rise of the new discipline of experimental psychology, there also arose
much interest in developing apparatus and standardized procedures for
mapping out the range of human capabilities in the realm of sensation and
perception.
Early 1900s The Rise of Modern Psychological Testing
The rise of the first truly modern and successful psychological test was in place.
Binet and Simon create the first useful IQ test.
1911 The Birth of the IQ
Binet himself revised, expanded and refined his fist scale in 1908.
1917 Group Testing
Developing a group test of intelligence that could be efficiently administered
to all recruits into the U.S. Army.
1st half of the Other Developments in Psychological Testing
20th century The rise of the new forms and types of modern psychological tests.
Early part of Standardized Testing in Educational Setting
the 20th Two major developments in standardized educational testing in the early part
century of the 20th century are highlighted.
1910 Standardized Achievement Tests
Pioneered by E.L. Thorndike, standardized tests are designed to evaluate
arithmetic, reading and spelling skills would follow, until measures of these
and other subjects became a staple of elementary and secondary education.
1926 Scholastic Aptitude Tests
The arrival of many more instruments that are used to select.

Here are some insights into how psychological testing evolved in India.
Calcutta University was the first to introduce psychology lock-stock and barrel
in 1916 after importing it from the West. The head of the Department at Mysore, M.V.
Gopalswami, was trained at London University under Spearman in the mental testing
tradition. Adapting Western intelligence tests for Indians and applying psychological
principles to education are some of his accomplishments. A laboratory for the study of
animals was established for the first time in India by Gopalswami.

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NOTES In the directory compiled by Pareek and T.V. Rao (1974a), of the 503 tests,
218 were in the section of personality. In addition to tests, a number of surveys were
undertaken to investigate the prevalence of mental health problems by Sethi and his
associates in Lucknow, by Dube (1970) in Agra, by Elnager, Mitra, and Rao (1971)
in rural Bengal, and by Verghese (1973) in Vellore.
It is important to understand why psychological tests were needed, along with
the important norms for them, in order to better understand the origins of psychological
tests.

3.6 PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE

Tests serve two purposes in psychology and education.

Firstly, it attempts to compare traits on more than one aspect of an individual.
Secondly, two or more people can be compared on a common trait. It is possible
to measure such factors either quantitatively or qualitatively.
A variety of mental abilities and attributes can be assessed by psychological
tests, including achievement and ability, personality, and neurological conditions.

3.7 ASSUMPTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

 The purpose of psychological tests is to measure or predict what they’re

intended to measure. A test score must also be considered when drawing
conclusions or inferences about test takers. This is also called test validity. The
ability to measure mechanical ability is assumed to be measured by a test that is
designed to measure that ability.
 Test scores and behaviour of individuals tend to remain constant, called
test-retest reliability. The results of a test that is administered at one time and
then administered at another time (for instance, two weeks later) are likely to be
similar, depending on what is being measured.
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 Individuals understand test items similarly (Wiggins, 1973). If a test item NOTES
assess, “I am almost always happy”, we will assume that all test takers interpret
this statement similarly.
 Individuals will describe truly about themselves (for example, about their
personalities, about their likes and dislikes; (Wiggins, 1973). In asking people
about their memories or their feelings, we must assume that they will recall
correctly as well as assess and report on their emotions and thoughts accurately.
 Individuals will convey their thoughts and feelings openly (Wiggins, 1973).It
is possible that people may choose not to disclose accurate information about
themselves even if they are able to do so. Thus, a test has to be constructed to
ensure that people are honest about their thoughts and feelings when reporting
about themselves.
 A person’s test score is equal to their true ability also related to the test,
the test-taker, or the setting. In this way, a test taker’s takes into account
factors other than the attribute being tested, such as difficult question wording,
mistakes made during test administration, test taker tiredness, and the temperature
of the testing environment. We must consider that an individual’s score will
contain some mistake while analysing it.
Tests can be classified into the following types when it comes to assessing
individuals:

3.8 TYPES OF TESTS

 Individual test: A test that is administered to only one person at a time.

Psychologists prefer to conduct individual intelligence tests in clinics, hospitals,
and other settings. This process is very time-consuming. Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SB), Bhatia battery
are some individual tests.

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NOTES

Fig. 3.1 Bhatia battery

Fig. 3.2 WAIS

 Group test: Such tests can be administered to a group of individuals at the

same time. Tiredness, anxiety, and illness of the candidates cannot be detected
easily in group test. For example, NEO PI and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory Speed test.

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Other psychological tests are: NOTES

 Intelligence tests: Intelligence can be expressed as the ability to adapt to and
deal with the environment. According to Binet and Simon (1960), intelligence is
the ability to make adequate judgments, to reason, and to understand. Wechsler
(1944, page 3) defined intelligence as “the aggregate or global capacity of the
individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his
environment”. These tests are commonly used in educational and clinical settings.
Intelligence tests are the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SB), and the Bhatia Battery and 104
Quantitative and Qualitative research.

Types of intelligence test

 Verbal test: Any test that involves paper and pencil is called a verbal test in
which the respondent is asked to respond verbally. E.g. Army Alpha Test,
Wechsler’s Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Verbal tests are useful to measure
higher mental abilities.
 Non-verbal test: In this test, specific figures and symbols are used to assess
the performance of an individual like Raven’s Progressive Matrices. Language
is the medium to give instructions only.

Performance test

In this, the individual who will take the test has to perform certain tasks. Like Koh’s
block design test and also Alexander’s pass-along test.
 Power test: In this test, the emphasis is on assessing the candidate’s knowledge,
understanding, and ability rather than the speed of answering to items. Most of
the intelligence tests belong to the category of power tests.
 Speed Test: In speed test, the candidates must answer all the questions of the
test within a time limit or in the shortest possible time. The speed test is considered
a time-constraint test.

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Fig. 3.3 Types of Intelligence Test

Personality tests

It used in measure personality of individuals. Larsen and Buss (2018) defined personality
as “a collection of psychological traits and mechanisms that are stable and organised
and that have an influence an individual’s interaction and also has an impact on how he/
she modifies his/ her physical, social and psychological environment”. The results of a
personality test are used to assess our thoughts, feelings, behaviour and environment,
attitudes, and to detect clinical disturbances in us. Examples are Eysenck’s Personality
Inventory, Somatic Inkblot Series (SIS) and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
Types of personality test:
 Objective tests: The individual will choose from a list of predetermined
answers. As a result, there is no subjectivity on the part of the scorer. The
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responses are given in form of true/false or multiple choices and also Likert NOTES
scale may be used, NEO PI for example.
 Projective Tests: These tests are subjective in nature. Respondent is asked
to respond to certain semi-structured or unstructured stimuli. The responses
are then interpreted by the administrator, where subjectivity may creep in.
Projective tests are Rorschach Inkblot test, Somatic Inkblot Series, Sentence
Completion Test, Thematic Apperception Test and Children’s Apperception
Test.

Fig. 3.4 Types of Personality Test

If a test is to be considered as a good measuring instrument, it must possess

some essential characteristics.

3.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD

PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST

 Psychological tests should be objective: According to the definition of

objectivity, a test is objective if all competent users get the same scoring results.
The degree of consistency in scoring may be considered an indicator of objectivity.
The objective nature of a psychological test is essential, not its subjective nature.
A bias-free environment is essential. Test shows that it is valid and reliable. In
order to score a test objectively, all test scorers must obtain similar results on
the test.
 Validity is the ability of the test to measure what it is supposed to measure. It is
a valid tool for measuring weight and not length. Boring defined “The degree to
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NOTES which the test actually succeeds in measuring what it sets out to measure is
called its validity.”
 Reliability: Psychological test must be reliable and consistent. For example, if
you measure the length of a table with a measuring tape, and after seven months
you measure the length of the same table with the same ruler, the length obtained
in centimetres will remain the same and indicate that ruler is reliable.
 Standardized procedure- It is the key component of any psychological test. If
the procedures for administering a test are uniform across examiners and settings,
it is considered standardised. As an example, consider the different approaches
a test developer might use to assess digit span, or the maximum number of
orally presented digits a subject can recall from memory. A number such as “1-
700-825-4345” would be much easier to remember than any random numbers
which might be “9-7-4-8-6-2-9-5-7-1”. It is also crucial for the uniformity of a
digit span test that each examiner present each series at a constant rate, for
example one digit per second, in order to achieve standardisation. Thus,
standardised tests are those administered uniformly across examiners and settings.
 A good psychological test will have a distinctive feature: It is imperative
for the test to be able to identify some differences between two individuals and
another in relation to a specific aspect or variable.
In order for a test to be considered comprehensive, it must measure all the
dimensions or aspects of the construct that it measures.

In-Text Questions
1. The role of the test taker is not clear in which one of the following?
a) Objective tests b) Projective tests
c) Standardized tests d) Self-report tests
2. Who published the Stanford–Binet?
a) Henry Murray b) Robert Woodworth
c) Lewis Terman d) Alfred Binet
3. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is an example of a(n) _____ test
a) individual-administered b) group-administered
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4. Psychological tests are used to NOTES

a) help make decisions about people
b) promote self-understanding
c) measure psychological constructs
d) all of the above
5. This is a term we use to describe whether a test measures what it is supposed
to measure
a) validity b) norms
c) development d) reliability
6. What type of test is most likely to be administered by a classroom teacher?
a) Achievement test b) Aptitude test
c) Intelligence test d) Interest inventory

3.10 VALIDITY

Validity refers to whether a psychological test measures what it intends to measure or

aims to measure. Therefore, a self-esteem test must measure self-esteem, and an
adjustment test must measure adjustment. Rulers measuring length are not valid
instruments for measuring weight, and weighing machines may not be valid tool for
measuring length. Thus, a good valid test will measure what it is supposed to measure.
Different methods of validity are:
I. Construct validity: Validity comes from formulating hypotheses based
on the theories of the construct, then testing them using the data collected.
For example, Medications may have an effect because of placebo
effects rather than because of their putative active ingredients.
a) Face validity: In this type of validity, face value of the test is essential.
Face validity is when the test appears to measure the things it is
supposed to measure. For example, a math test consisting of tasks
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NOTES b) Content validity: The validity of this psychological test is based on

its content. When it comes to content validity, what is measured by a
test and whether it really measures it is what is focused on. Whether
the questions, tasks, or items represent universal behaviour is what
determines validity. Example: in exams, written exam examines
whether the theoretical knowledge is sufficient to obtain a driver’s
license. The content of the exam would be very meaningful if the
questions asked covered all possible traffic law topics of the course.
II. Criterion related validity: The test has proven effective in estimating an
examiner’s performance on a specific outcome, which is a criterion. For
example - A researcher wants to know whether a college entrance exam
is able to predict future academic performance.
Criterion validity constitutes the following categories:
a) In discriminative validity, a test does not measure the same construct
as another test. Constructs are behaviours, attitudes, or concepts
that are not directly observable. Consequently, discriminant validity
indicates how different constructs are from each other. Based on
theoretical reasoning, no correlation can be found between the scores
of two tests measuring loneliness and security. Those who score
high in security should not score high in loneliness. There would be
high discriminant validity if that is the case for these two tests.
b) Concurrent validity: When a test has concurrent validity, its scores
are compared with the scores of a valid test measuring a dissimilar
or similar entity. The two tests can be administered simultaneously to
the same group of individuals. For example, a recruitment test can
be administered to a group of employees and then the test results
can be correlated with the evaluations of employee supervisors
conducted on the same day or week.
c) Convergent validity: A test’s validity is measured by how similar
two tests measure and further to understand how identical constructs
overlap. For example, a test designed to measure work-related stress
shows a significant positive correlation with another valid test that
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d) Predictive validity: Testing or other measuring methods that NOTES

can predict future outcomes are considered predictive validity.
Future outcomes can include things like behaviour, performance,
and even diseases.

Fig. 3.5 Types of Criterion Validity

3.11 RELIABILITY

In psychology, reliability refers to the consistency of a test over time. The length of a
table will be the same if it is measured with a ruler once and again after six months, for
instance. This makes the ruler a consistent tool for measuring length. Thus, reliability of
a psychological test is determined by whether findings or results remain the same or
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NOTES There are several methods to test the reliability, as follows:

 Test–Retest Method: It involves administering the same test twice to the
same group of individuals and comparing the results. A test retest method
computes a correlation between a test’s original score and its retest score.
In order to establish consistency, a group of individuals is administered at
the test at a particular time and later re-administered after a gap. However,
there are several factors that can affect test-retest reliability, including practice,
maturation, learning, and participant memory.
 Alternate form method: In order to establish consistency or reliability, the
two forms are administered one after the other to the same group of individuals.
Alternate form methods can be used to overcome some of the issues faced
by test-retest reliability. To create two equivalent test forms is one of the
main challenges.
 Split- half method: The split half reliability method involves taking the test
once, dividing it in half, and correlating the two scores. Internal consistency
is the main focus of this method. As only one test is developed and
administered, this approach can counter the disadvantages of alternate forms.
As an example, the test can be divided in half, with items above 50% and
below 50%. In power tests with increasing difficulty, however, this will not
work. Splitting on alternate items would be better, i.e. having odd numbered
items in one lot and even in another.
 Interrater Reliability: In tests containing performance tasks or other items
requiring human evaluation, the reliability of the raters must be evaluated.
Using this reliability method, the question is whether an examinee would
receive the same score if multiple raters scored their performance. An
interrater reliability measure indicates the consistency or dependability of
scores among different raters. Let us understand by an example, a video
recording of university students interacting with another student for the first
time could serve as an indicator of their social skills, for instance. After
watching the videos, two or more observers can rate the social skills of each
student. A highly correlated pattern of ratings should be observed for different

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observers, assuming that each participant has some level of interpersonal NOTES
skills. In Bandura’s Bobo doll study, inter-rater reliability was also measured.
There should have been a strong positive correlation between observers’
ratings of the number of aggressions committed by each child when they
played with Bobo.
The reliability coefficient should exceed at least +0.70 regardless of the method
used.

Fig. 3.6 Methods of Reliability

3.12 STANDARISATION AND NORMS

Psychological tests also require standardisation and norms, which are outlined in the
manual that comes with the test. Various psychological entities are measured by
psychological tests in order to determine how individuals differ from one another. An
individual’s presence and level of such entities needs to be adequately measured through
a test that is uniform in its administration, scoring, and procedure. This is referred to as
standardisation.
In addition, it is important to have a norm in order to interpret the results scored
by individuals. An individual’s raw score is calculated after the test is administered and
scored. This raw score does not hold any meaning if it cannot be compared to any
standard or norm.
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NOTES While creating norms for different psychological tests, different aspects such as
gender, culture, geographical location, etc., different types of people require different
norms, so it is important to consider these differences.
Hence the details must be clearly reflected in the test manual.

Types of norms

 Percentile Norms: In standardisation samples, percentile norms are used to

determine what percentage of courses score below a given raw score. On a
test, 94% of the samples fall below the raw score of 25, so the raw score is
equal to the 94 percentile and is represented as P24. The higher the percentile,
the better the score. A percentile norm does not refer to the percentage of
correct answers.
 In standard scores, the standard deviation is expressed as the distance
between the raw score and the mean. The standard score of +1.00 is equivalent
to a raw score of exactly one standard deviation above the mean.
 T-scores and other standardised scores: Standard scores have the disadvantage
of being expressed as decimals and always having a positive or negative sign.
As a result of these concerns, test specialists have designed a variety of variations
of standard scores referred to as standardised scores.
One popular kind of standardised scores is T-scores which has a mean of 50
and standard deviation is 10. T-scores are especially common with personality tests.
Example: MMDI
T= 10Z + 50
Age norms and Grade norms: Based on a normative sample of test
performance, age norms indicate how each age group performs. The purpose of age
norms is to facilitate peer relationships.
According to grade norms, each grade in the normative sample performs
consistently on tests at the same level. Grade norms are rarely used in an ability test.
However, they are particularly useful in the school environment when it comes to
reporting the performance of school children.

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Testing

NOTES
3.13 APPLICATIONS AND ISSUES

Psychological tests are used in various settings:

 In the academic and educational setting, psychological tests are used to assess
a student’s ability, aptitude, or interest in a particular profession or field of study.
 Psychological tests are used in counseling settings to improve the quality of life,
productivity, and adjustment of the assesses.
 The purpose of psychological testing in clinical settings is to assist with the
screening and diagnosis of behavioural problems. In order to determine the
effectiveness of a specific type of psychotherapy, psychotherapists use a variety
of assessment procedures and psychological tests.
 For hiring, promotions, transfers, training, performance, and eligibility, businesses
assess employees for achievement, aptitude, personality, interest, and motivation.
 Consumer behaviour is also tracked through psychological testing. A consumer
psychologist assesses the receptivity of the public to a new brand, a new product,
and a new advertising campaign using a variety of attitude and value tests.
 Psychological tests are also used for the systematic evaluation of social programs
and educational research. Specifically, tests are used to evaluate social programs.
The purpose of social programs is to improve the living conditions of the
community and to improve living conditions.
 Forensic medicine has recently become increasingly interested in psychometrics.
In order to keep psychological testing valid and efficient, it is important to follow
social and ethical considerations.
 Only qualified professionals should administer tests. In order to administer
effectively, a person must be qualified and competent in the field.
 Publishers are responsible for verifying relevant details, such as the reliability
and validity of tests. In addition, the test can only be sold to legitimate institutions
and individuals.

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 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES  Protection of privacy: It involves two factors- informed consent and relevance.
Test results should be explained thoroughly to the client, including the purpose
for which they will be used. In addition, the client must be asked questions
relevant to the purpose of the test.
 Information obtained from clients must be kept confidential by the test
administrator. It is ethically permissible to release the results of the test to others
only after the client has consented.
 It is critical for the client to understand what the examiner is evaluating and why.
People should debrief before entering a test situation so that they can enter it
with the same frame of mind.
 It is important to keep test materials secure and prevent their misuse. A test
administrator must ensure that test items are not revealed in order to maintain
the integrity of a test.
 It is critical for the test administrator to make sure that any test does not
disadvantage certain groups or individuals. It should be suitable for all diverse
groups and individuals.

3.14 SUMMARY

Human behaviour or traits can be measured by psychological tests. In short, it involves

measuring a person’s behaviour quantitatively. The purpose of tests is to measure
something. In order for psychological measurements to be accurate, the tests must be
able to measure efficiently. One person is examined at a time during individual tests. In
contrast, group tests are designed for mass testing. A good test must have four essential
qualities: validity, reliability, objectivity, and normativity. The characteristic of validity
refers to the ability of a test to serve the purpose for which it was designed. A test’s
reliability is its consistency in measuring whatever it measures with the same results
every time. An individual’s presence and level of such entities needs to be adequately
measured through a test that is uniform in its administration, scoring, and procedure.
This is referred to as standardisation. Psychological tests are used in counseling settings
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84 Material obtained from clients must be kept confidential by the test administrator.

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi