CHM 101: General Chemistry I

1st Semester 2024/2025

Course Content
 Atoms, molecules, elements, compounds, and chemical reactions
 Modern electronic theory of atoms
 Electronic configuration and building up of the periodic table
 Periodicity; trends in periodic properties
 Hybridization and shapes of simple molecules
 Chemical bonding and intermolecular forces
 Kinetic theory of matter and properties of gases
 Valence forces and structure of solids
 Chemical equations and stoichiometry
 Elementary thermochemistry
 Rates of reaction
 Chemical equilibrium and thermodynamics
 Acids, bases, and salts
 Radioactivity
 Redox reactions
 Introduction to electrochemistry

Atoms, Molecules, Elements, Compounds and Chemical Reactions

Chemistry provides a systematic understanding of the composition, structure, properties, and
changes matter undergoes. This lectures explores the basic units of matter—atoms, molecules,
elements, compounds—and the processes of their interactions through chemical reactions.
These concepts are foundational for all branches of science.
Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter
Modern scientific advancements have confirmed that matter is discontinuous. For example, when
dividing a piece of iron repeatedly, there comes a point where the smallest unit, retaining the
properties of iron, is reached. This unit is called an atom of iron. Similarly, for any primary material,
the smallest indivisible piece that retains the characteristics of that material is referred to as its
atom.
Key Facts About Atoms
1. Composition: Atoms are made up of three fundamental subatomic particles:
a) Protons
b) Neutrons
c) Electrons
These subatomic particles are identical in all atoms, regardless of the element.

2. Similarity Among Atoms of the Same Material: All atoms of a specific material are identical in
terms of their subatomic structure and properties. For example, every atom of iron has the same
number of protons, neutrons, and electrons arranged in the same pattern.

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3. Differences Between Atoms of Different Materials: Atoms of different materials differ solely in
the number and arrangement of their subatomic particles. This variation in subatomic
composition and structure gives rise to the unique properties of each element or material.
Representation of an Atom

The Nucleus and Orbital Electrons

The simplest atom, hydrogen, consists of a single proton at its center (nucleus) and one
electron orbiting it. In contrast, the helium atom contains a nucleus with two protons and two
neutrons, surrounded by two orbiting electrons.
 Nucleus: The nucleus is a tightly packed cluster of protons and neutrons at the center of
the atom. For instance:
o Hydrogen nucleus: 1 proton
o Helium nucleus: 2 protons and 2 neutrons
 Orbital Electrons: Electrons orbit the nucleus, much like planets orbit the sun. These are
called orbital electrons because they move around the nucleus in specific paths.

The stability of electrons in their orbits is due to electrical attraction between the positively
charged protons in the nucleus and the negatively charged electrons.

How do atoms maintain stability? Atoms remain stable through the principle of electric charge
interaction, where like charges repel, unlike charges attract, and the attraction between the
nucleus and electrons ensures their structural integrity.

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Subatomic Particles and Electron Orbits

 Protons: Positively charged particles; determine the atomic number and element
identity.
 Electrons: Negatively charged particles equal in charge to protons; their arrangement
influences chemical behavior.
 Neutrons: Neutral particles; affect the isotope but not the electrical charge.

The attraction between the positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons keeps
electrons in orbit. In a neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons. For
example, hydrogen has one proton and one electron, while helium has two of each. Atoms
losing electrons become positively charged but regain neutrality by attracting free electrons.

Atomic Number
The atomic number, represented by the letter Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom. It determines the atom's structure, character, and behavior. In a neutral atom, the atomic
number also equals the number of orbital electrons. For example, hydrogen has Z=1, helium
has Z=2, and uranium has Z=92. Neutrons, while uncharged, contribute to the atom's mass but
do not affect its electrical state.

Atomic Mass
Subatomic particles differ in two main ways: electrical charge and mass. While we've already
discussed their charges, their masses vary significantly. To avoid dealing with extremely small
or fractional masses, scientists use atomic mass units (amu) for convenience. The proton and
neutron have nearly equal masses, while the electron's mass is negligible. In fact, the electron's
mass is so small that nearly all of an atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleus, made up of
protons and neutrons. For instance, hydrogen, with one proton, has a mass of 1 amu, and
helium, with two protons and two neutrons, has a mass of 4 amu.

The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus,
represented by A=Z+N, where Z is the atomic number (number of protons) and N is the number
of neutrons.

For example, the mass number of an oxygen atom is 16 and the atomic number is 8. How many
neutrons are there in the nucleus of this oxygen atom?
N = A – Z = 16 – 8 = 8

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Table 1.2 Characteristics of fundamental particles of an atom

Ions
An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive or negative charge

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Page 5 of 20
Examples:

Molecules
Molecules are the smallest units of a compound that retain its chemical properties and are
crucial in understanding chemical reactions, material properties, and biological systems. They
are groups of two or more atoms bonded together, representing the basic unit of chemical
compounds. Molecules can range from simple diatomic species, like oxygen (O₂), to complex
macromolecules, such as proteins. Classifying molecules is essential for systematic study and
practical applications, as it allows us to better understand and manipulate their roles in various
scientific fields.

Methods of Classifying Molecules

Molecules can be classified based on composition, bonding, size and complexity, and
functionality.

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 1. Based on Composition
o Homonuclear Molecules: Composed of atoms of the same element (e.g., O₂, N₂).
o Heteronuclear Molecules: Composed of atoms of different elements (e.g., CO₂,
NH₃).
2. Based on Bonding
o Covalent Molecules: Atoms share electrons (e.g., CH₄, H₂O).
o Ionic Molecules: Consist of cations and anions bonded by ionic forces (e.g.,
NaCl).
3. Based on Size and Complexity
o Small Molecules: Simple and low molecular weight (e.g., C₆H₁₂O₆, HCl).
o Macromolecules: Large and complex structures (e.g., proteins, DNA, polymers
like polyethylene).
4. Based on Functionality
o Alcohols (-OH): Methanol, Ethanol.
o Ketones (C=O): Acetone, Butanone.
o Acids (-COOH): Acetic Acid, Formic Acid.

Elements: Pure Substances

Elements are the building blocks of all matter, from the simplest compounds to the most complex
biological systems. An element is a substance made up of atoms that all have the same number
of protons in their nuclei. Elements are the fundamental building blocks of matter and cannot be
broken down into simpler substances by chemical means. Each element has a unique atomic
number, which corresponds to the number of protons in its atoms.

Atomic Number and Symbol

 The atomic number (denoted as Z) identifies the element and determines its position in
the periodic table.
 Each element is represented by a chemical symbol, typically derived from its Latin or
English name (e.g., H for hydrogen, O for oxygen, Fe for iron).

Classification of Elements
Elements are classified into three main categories based on their properties:

1. Metals: Typically good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable, and shiny. Examples
include iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and gold (Au).
2. Nonmetals: Generally poor conductors of heat and electricity, brittle, and not shiny.
Examples include oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and carbon (C).
3. Metalloids: Elements with properties intermediate between metals and nonmetals.
Examples include silicon (Si) and arsenic (As).

The periodic table arranges elements based on increasing atomic number and recurring
chemical properties. Elements in the same column (group) share similar chemical behaviors.
The table is divided into:

 Groups: Vertical columns (1-18) that contain elements with similar properties.

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  Periods: Horizontal rows (1-7) that represent elements with increasing atomic numbers.
 Blocks: Elements are also grouped into blocks (s, p, d, f) based on electron
configurations.

Compounds:
Compounds are substances formed when atoms of different elements bond chemically in fixed
proportions. Unlike mixtures, compounds have distinct properties that differ from those of their
individual elements. Compounds play a central role in all aspects of chemistry, from the air we
breathe to the materials we use in everyday life. This lecture explores how compounds are
classified and the significance of this categorization in both the study and application of
chemistry.

Methods of Classifying Compounds:

1. Based on Composition:
o Organic Compounds: Contain carbon and are typically associated with living
organisms.
 Examples: Methane (CH₄), Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆).
o Inorganic Compounds: Do not contain carbon or are derived from non-living
matter.
 Examples: Water (H₂O), Sodium Chloride (NaCl).
2. Based on Bonding:
o Ionic Compounds: Formed by the transfer of electrons between metals and
nonmetals.
 Examples: Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Calcium Fluoride (CaF₂).
o Covalent Compounds: Formed by sharing electrons between nonmetals.
 Examples: Water (H₂O), Ammonia (NH₃).
o Metallic Compounds: Contain metallic bonds where electrons are delocalized.
 Examples: Alloys like steel (iron and carbon).
3. Based on Chemical Properties:
o Acids: Release hydrogen ions (H⁺) in solution.
 Examples: Hydrochloric Acid (HCl), Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH).
o Bases: Release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in solution.
 Examples: Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH), Ammonium Hydroxide (NH₄OH).
o Salts: Formed by the neutralization of acids and bases.
 Examples: Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Potassium Nitrate (KNO₃).
4. Based on Physical State:
o Solids: Compounds with fixed shape and volume.
 Examples: Quartz (SiO₂), Sodium Chloride (NaCl).
o Liquids: Compounds with fixed volume but variable shape.
 Examples: Water (H₂O), Ethanol (C₂H₅OH).
o Gases: Compounds with neither fixed shape nor volume.
 Examples: Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), Methane (CH₄).
5. Based on Functionality (in Organic Chemistry):
o Hydrocarbons: Compounds made of hydrogen and carbon.
 Examples: Methane (CH₄), Benzene (C₆H₆).
o Alcohols: Contain the hydroxyl (-OH) functional group.
 Examples: Ethanol (C₂H₅OH), Methanol (CH₃OH).
o Aldehydes and Ketones: Contain carbonyl groups.
 Examples: Formaldehyde (HCHO), Acetone (CH₃COCH₃).

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Chemical Reactions: Transforming Substances

Chemical reactions are fundamental processes in chemistry where one or more substances,
known as reactants, undergo a chemical change to form new substances, called products. These
transformations involve alterations in chemical composition, structure, and energy. Chemical
reactions are the basis of countless processes observed in nature and industry, including
combustion, metabolism, and material synthesis. Given the vast variety of chemical reactions, it
has become essential to classify them systematically to better understand and predict their
behavior.

The classification of chemical reactions helps in organizing and simplifying the study of reactions,
providing insights into their mechanisms and applications. For instance, understanding the type
of reaction can guide the selection of conditions, reagents, and catalysts to achieve specific
outcomes, whether in the laboratory or in large-scale industrial processes. Recognizing the
different categories of chemical reactions allows chemists to anticipate the products formed,
understand energy changes, and optimize reaction conditions for desired results.

What Are Chemical Reactions?

A chemical reaction occurs when one or more substances, called reactants, undergo a chemical
change to form new substances known as products. These transformations involve changes in
the chemical composition, structure, and energy of the substances involved.

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Evolution of Atomic Models

The development of atomic models has been an evolving journey that began in ancient times
and has advanced significantly over the past few centuries. These models have sought to
describe the atom, its structure, and the behavior of subatomic particles. The evolution of atomic
theory reflects an increasing understanding of the atom, from philosophical concepts to
sophisticated quantum mechanics. Below is a detailed examination of the key atomic models
and the experimental discoveries that led to their formulation.

1. Ancient Greek Philosophy – The Concept of the Atom (c. 400 BCE)

The idea of the atom can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophers, particularly Democritus.
He proposed that matter is composed of indivisible particles called "atoms" (from the Greek
word "atomos," meaning "indivisible"). According to Democritus, atoms are eternal,
indestructible, and constantly in motion, combining in various ways to form different substances.
While this was a philosophical idea and not based on experimental evidence, it laid the
foundation for the atomic theory.

2. Dalton’s Model (1803)

The modern scientific study of atoms began with John Dalton, an English chemist who proposed
the first scientifically-based atomic theory in the early 19th century. Dalton's Atomic Theory was
based on the following key principles:

 All matter is composed of indivisible atoms.

 Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties.
 Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form
compounds.
 In chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged, but they are neither created nor
destroyed.

Dalton’s model treated atoms as solid, indivisible spheres. Although this model was successful
in explaining chemical reactions and the law of constant composition, it did not account for the
structure of atoms or the existence of subatomic particles.

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3. Thomson’s Model – The Plum Pudding Model (1897)

The next major development in atomic theory came from J.J. Thomson’s discovery of the
electron in 1897. Thomson proposed that atoms are not indivisible, as Dalton had suggested,
but are composed of smaller particles. In his Plum Pudding Model, Thomson envisioned the
atom as a sphere of positive charge, with electrons embedded within it like “raisins” in a
“pudding.” This model accounted for the existence of electrons, but it did not explain the overall
structure or stability of the atom, especially in relation to the nucleus.

Thomson's work was based on his cathode ray tube experiments, which demonstrated the
existence of negatively charged particles (electrons) inside the atom. However, this model could
not explain experimental observations related to atomic structure and the distribution of charge.

4. Rutherford’s Model – Discovery of the Nucleus (1911)

Ernest Rutherford’s famous gold foil experiment (1911) fundamentally changed our
understanding of atomic structure. Rutherford directed alpha particles at a thin gold foil and
observed the scattering pattern. Most particles passed through, but some were deflected at
large angles, suggesting that the atom was not a uniform “pudding” of positive charge. Instead,
Rutherford proposed a new model in which the atom consists of a tiny, dense, positively
charged nucleus at its center, surrounded by a cloud of electrons. This model, known as the
Nuclear Model, demonstrated that the atom is mostly empty space, with a small nucleus
containing nearly all of its mass.

While Rutherford’s model was a significant advancement, it still could not explain the stability of
the atom or the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus.

5. Bohr’s Model (1913) – Quantization of Electron Orbits

Niels Bohr, building on Rutherford’s work, proposed a more detailed atomic model in 1913.
Bohr’s model incorporated the concept of quantized electron orbits, which explained the stability
of atoms and the emission spectra of hydrogen. According to Bohr:

 Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific, quantized energy levels or shells (n = 1, 2, 3, …).
 Electrons can only occupy these energy levels and must absorb or emit energy to jump
from one level to another.
 The energy of the electron is quantized, meaning it can only take on certain discrete
values, which corresponds to specific orbits.

Bohr's model successfully explained the spectral lines of hydrogen, particularly the Balmer
series, but it failed to explain the spectra of atoms with more than one electron. Additionally, the
model did not account for the fine details of atomic spectra, leading to its limitations.

6. Quantum Mechanical Model (1926) – Wave-Particle Duality of Electrons

The most accurate and comprehensive model of the atom today is the Quantum Mechanical
Model, developed by scientists such as Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, and Max Born
in the 1920s. The Quantum Mechanical Model incorporates the principles of quantum
mechanics, which describe the behavior of subatomic particles.

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The quantum mechanical model of an atom
Early models of the atom had electrons going around the nucleus in a random fashion. But later
discoveries have shown that this representation was not accurate. Today, scientists use the
quantum mechanical model, a highly mathematical model, to represent the structure of the atom.
This model is based on quantum theory, which says that matter also has properties associated
with waves. According to quantum theory, it is impossible to know an electron’s exact position
and momentum (speed and direction, multiplied by mass) at the same time. This is known as the
uncertainty principle. Based on this, scientists developed the concept of orbitals which are
volumes of space in which an electron is likely present.
The quantum mechanical model of the atom uses complex shapes of orbitals and four numbers,
called quantum numbers, to describe the characteristics of electrons and their orbitals.
Accordingly, an electron in an atom can be described by four quantum numbers based on this
model. This are namely:
1. Principal quantum number (n)
2. Angular momentum quantum number (l)
3. Magnetic quantum number (ml)
4. Spin quantum number (ms)

1. Principal quantum number (n)

The principal quantum number n describes the average distance of the orbital from the nucleus
— and the energy of the electron in an atom. n represents the number of the shell (orbit) or main
energy level in which the electron revolves round the nucleus. It can have only positive integer
(whole number) values: 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. which represents 1st(K), 2nd(L), 3rd(M), 4th(N) etc. shells.
The larger the value of n, the higher the energy and the larger the orbital, or electron shell.

2. Angular momentum quantum number (l)

The Angular momentum or Azimuthal quantum number describes the shape of the orbital
occupied by the electron. The possible values which l can have depend on the value of n. l may
have values from 0 to (n-1), i.e. 0, 1, 2, … (n – 1). Each value of l represents a particular sub-
shell within the principal sub-shell. Thus:

Value for l 0 1 2 3 4
Notation for s p d f g
subshell
Orbital Spherical Dumbbell Double six-sided eight-
Shape dumbell shape sided
shape

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 3. Magnetic quantum number (ml)
The magnetic quantum number ml describes how the various orbitals are oriented in space. The
value of ml depends on the value of l. It is given by the formula 2l + 1. The values allowed are
integers from –l to 0 to +l. 2
For example, if the value of l = 1 (p orbital), you can write three values for ml: –1, 0, and +1. This
means that there are three different p subshells for a particular orbital.
For l = 2 (d orbital), you can write five values for ml: -2,1,0,1,2 This means that there are five
different d subshells for a particular orbital. The subshells have the same energy but different
orientations in space. Table below gives the different values of n, l and ml.

4. The spin quantum number (ms)

The fourth and final quantum number is the spin quantum number ms. It describes the direction
the electron is spinning in a magnetic field — either clockwise or counter-clockwise. Only two
values are allowed for ms: +1⁄2 or –1⁄2. For each subshell, there can be only two electrons, one
with a spin of +1⁄2 and another with a spin of –1⁄2.
Electronic Configurations and the Periodic Table
The electronic configuration of the atoms of elements provide a theoretical foundation for the
classification of elements. It is now recognised that the periodic table is essentially the
consequence of the periodic variation in electronic configuration of the atoms of the elements
which determines the physical and chemical properties of the elements and their compounds.
Rules for filling electrons in orbitals
1. Aufbau Rule
According to the rule, “electrons in various sub-orbits of an orbital are filled in the increasing order
of their energies". The assignment of all the electrons in an atom into specific shells and subshells
is known as the element’s electron configuration. This follows what is known as the (n + l) rule.
The main tenets of the rule are as follows:

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 a. Higher the value of (n + l) for a given orbital, greater is its energy. For example, 4s (n + l
= 4 + 0 = 4) is has higher energy than 3s (n + l = 3 + 0 = 3)
b. If (n + l) value for two orbitals are same, then the orbital with higher value of n will have
higher energy. For example, in 4s orbital; (n + l = 4 + 0 = 4) and in 3p orbit; (n + l = 3 + 1
= 4). Both orbitals have same (n + l) values, therefore 4s will have higher energy than 3p
orbital due to higher value of n.
Thus, the order in which the energies of the sub-orbits increase and hence the order in which
the sub-orbits are filled is as follows:

The figure below shows the increasing order of energy

2. Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity

According to the rule, “Pairing of electrons in various orbitals of a sub-orbit takes place only after
each orbital is half-filled/singly occupied."
This is an empirical rule that determines the lowest energy arrangement of electrons in a subshell.
It implies that pairing of electrons in orbitals of p, d and f subshells does not take place till each
orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each.
Since there are three p, five d and seven f orbitals, the pairing of electrons in them would begin
with the 4th, 6th and 8th electron, respectively. This is because half-filled and completely filled
states are associated with extra stability.

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3. Pauli’s exclusion principle
According to the principle, "No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum
numbers." This determines the maximum of 2, 6, 10, 14 electrons
respectively in s,p,d,f sub-orbits. Three quantum numbers n, l and ml are needed to describe an
orbital. Each orbital may hold up to two electrons, provided they have opposite spins. In addition,
an extra quantum number is required to define the spin of an electron in an orbital. Thus, four
quantum numbers are needed to define the energy of an electron in an atom. For example, two
electrons in Is2 (helium) have same values of n, I, m but they differ in spin. Hence, the two
electrons do not have the same set of four quantum numbers.

Building up of the periodic table

Writing Electronic Configuration

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Electronic configuration of atoms is the distribution of electrons into atomic orbitals. When atoms
are in their ground state, the electrons occupy the lowest possible energy levels. This is shown in
the illustrated figures below.

To show the positions of the electrons in an atom, the symbols 1s, 2s, 2p, etc. are used to denote
the main energy level and sublevel. A superscript indicates the number of electrons in each set
of orbitals. Thus for hydrogen, the 1s orbital contains one electron, and this is shown as 1s1. For
helium, the 1s orbital contains two electrons, denoted 1s2. After the 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s and 3p levels
have been filled at argon, the next two electrons go into the 4s level. This gives the elements
potassium and calcium. The electronic structures of the first twenty atoms in the periodic table
may be written as shown.

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An alternative way of showing the electronic structure of an atom is to draw boxes for orbitals,
and arrows for the electrons (Fig. 2.3.). By convention, electron spins are represented by arrows
pointing up (↑) or down (↓). The orbital diagram for electronic configuration is more beneficial as
all the four quantum numbers are represented by it.
Sometimes, the electronic configuration of an element is written in a shorthand form. This is
because we are interested primarily in the electrons of the outer shell, thus, we often write electron
configurations in an abbreviated or shorthand form. To write the shorthand configuration for an
element we indicate what the core is by placing in brackets the symbol of the noble gas whose
electron configuration is the same as the core configuration. This is followed by the configuration
of the outer electrons for the particular element. Thus, for sodium and magnesium we write:

Exercise

1. How does the quantum mechanical model explain the behavior of electrons differently
from the Bohr model?
2. Why is the average atomic mass of an element usually not a whole number?
3. What is the main difference between homonuclear and heteronuclear molecules in terms
of their composition?
4. How would you classify NH₃ and NaCl based on their bonding?
5. Why are technetium (Tc) and promethium (Pm) absent in the list of naturally occurring
elements?
6. What distinguishes ionic compounds like NaCl from covalent compounds like CH₄ in
terms of bonding?
7. Provide an example of a compound that can act as both an acid and a base, and briefly
explain its dual behavior.
8. How is silicon used in its elemental form and as a compound in technological
applications?

9. Determine the four quantum numbers for the following

(a) the last electron in 3d7
(b) all the electrons present in the outermost orbit of neon.
10. An electron is in 6f orbital. What possible values of quantum numbers n, l, ml and
ms can it have?
11. What designation is given to an orbital having:
(a) n = 2, l = 1
(b) n = 3, l = 0
12. Which of the following orbital diagrams is excluded by the Aufbau principle? Which
by the Pauli exclusion principle? Which by Hund’s rule? Which is correct?

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13. Using s, p, d, f notations, describe the orbital with the following quantum numbers:
(a) n = 2, l = 1
(b) n = 4, l = 0
(c) n = 5, l = 3
(d) n = 3, l = 2
14. What is the maximum number of electrons that may be present in all the atomic
orbitals with principle quantum number 3 and azimuthal quantum number 2?

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